Nuffield Advanced Mathematics

Mechanics 1

LONGMAN
Science Learning Centres

N12616
 Acknowledgements
The production of this series of advanced mathematics books was made possible by the
following grants and support.
1 Generous grants from The Nuffield Foundation and from Sir John Cass's Foundation.
2 Valuable support from
Northumberland County Council, for seconding Bob Summers to work with the project,
and the unstinting help and encouragement of Chris Boothroyd, Director of their
Supported Self Study Unit
David Johnson, Licentiate Professor, Centre for Educational Studies, King's College,
London
the Local Education Authorities of Camden, Essex, Islington, Northumberland, Oxford,
Tower Hamlets and Westminster for releasing teachers to work with the project
Afzal Ahmed, Warwick Evans, Adrian Oldknow and Honor Williams from the
Mathematics Centre, West Sussex Institute of Higher Education
Geoff Wake from the Mechanics in Action Project, University of Manchester.
This course has been written with the help of many people in addition to the team, which
consists of: Hugh Neill, Director; Sue Burns, Deputy Director; Sue Ahrens and
Bob Summers, Development Officers; and Nina Towndrow, Project Administrator.
Other contributing authors are: Mary Barnes, Jill Bruce, Paul Garcia, Adrian Oldknow,
Tony Ralston, Mary Rouncefield, Geoff Wake and Peter Wilder.
Teachers who have also helped in the production of materials include: Paul Aljabar,
Jane Annets, Dinny Barker, Richard Choat, Joel and Trudy Cunningham, Jan Dangerfield,
John Deakin, Phil Donovan, Jenny Douglas, John Eyles, Jan Galloway, Peter Horril,
Paul Jenkins, Sue Maunder and Mike Warne.
The general editor was Hugh Neill.

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© Nuffield Foundation 1994
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Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, W1P 9HE.
First published 1994
ISBN 0582 09979 X
Set in 10/12 Times by Stephen I Pargeter
Illustrated by Oxford Illustrators Limited
Produced by Longman Singapore Publishers Pte Ltd
Printed in Singapore
The publisher's policy is to use paper manufactured from sustainable forests.
Contents
Introduction 1

Unit 7 Modelling motion

1 Motion in one dimension 6
2 Projectiles 21
3 Circular motion 36

Unit 2 Modelling forces

4 Properties of forces 46
5 Modelling some common forces 68

Unit 3 Newtonian modelling

6 Newton's Laws 90
1 Dynamics of circular motion 101

8 Summaries and exercises 108

9 Extended problems 126
10 Real problems 139
11 Hints 143
12 Answers 163
Index 182

III
 Using Nuffield Advanced Mathematics
The book consists mainly of activities through which you can develop your
understanding of mathematical ideas and results, or apply your knowledge and
understanding to problems of various kinds.
The activities are designed so that you can use your graphics calculator fully,
gaining all the advantages that this can bring to your learning of mathematics.
For most of the activities you can work either individually or in a small group of
two to four students, but there are some activities for which individual or group
work is specifically recommended.
You will be working on the activities outside the classroom as well as in class,
sometimes with and sometimes without help from your teacher.
Do not assume that you should work through every activity in a unit. The
Nuffield course is suitable for a variety of students with a variety of
mathematical backgrounds and interests.
Planning your work on each unit is essential, as you will need to decide
together with your teacher, which activities to work on, and whether to work on
them in class or as part of your independent study time.
The information in unit and chapter introductions will help with your planning.
The chapter summaries and practice exercises at the end of the book will also
be useful for this purpose. For example, you might already know all of the
results that are developed in some particular chapter, in which case it might be
appropriate to skip that chapter.
On several occasions during your study of a unit, you will take part in a review.
Reviews can take a number of forms: their main purpose is for you to take
stock, through discussion with your teacher and other students, of what you
have learned so far.
To assist with the review process, the end of every chapter contains some
specific suggestions which might form the basis for discussion; there is also a
list headed What you should know. This list is a reminder of the main ideas of
the chapter and of any new mathematics terms that it has introduced. New
mathematical terms are written in bold type the first time they are explained in
the unit. Most chapters end with some check questions for you to tackle to make
sure you have grasped the main ideas of the chapter. There are no answers
provided for these questions, but answers are provided for nearly all the other
questions on which you will work.
You will find messages at various stages in the materials suggesting for example
that you consult your teacher, or should retain the results of a particular activity
for later use. These will be printed in a different typeface so that you can
recognise them. In addition, there will be general mathematical comments
which appear in shaded boxes. These are usually to give you extra background
information.
Towards the back of the book there is a chapter of hints for various activities if
you need help in getting started. You will find the hint symbol ^^ in the margin
next to the particular question for which there is a hint. You should only look up
the hint if you find you are unable to solve the question without it.

IV
Introduction

The purpose of studying mechanics is to be able to model the physical world so that
you can solve problems involving motion and forces.
Your investigations will involve you in
defining the problem that you are going to investigate
setting up a mathematical model of the situation
analysing the situation mathematically
translating your solution into everyday language
using your solution to make predictions
validating your solution and model.
This book has three types of material: activity-based text, practice exercises and
extended problems.
Chapters 1 to 7 present the subject matter of mechanics. This material is organised
into three units.
Unit 1, Modelling motion, uses your understanding of calculus and vectors to
help you to model motion in both one dimension and in two dimensions to solve
problems involving projectiles and bodies travelling in circles.
Unit 2, Modelling forces, involves learning about the general properties of forces
and in particular tension and friction. This unit introduces the ideas of mass and
weight, together with Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation.
Unit 3, Newtonian modelling, brings together the study of motion and forces and
introduces you to Newton's Laws of Motion. Using these ideas will greatly
extend the ways in which you can model the physical world.
Practice exercises
and Many of the ideas will be new to you so you should work through the activities
extended problems carefully. The practice exercises will allow you to check that you have mastered the
key concepts and techniques of a chapter.
On occasions you will be familiar already with some of the material covered in an
activity or chapter. If you think that you can apply the ideas and techniques
confidently, the best way to spend your time will be to use the relevant practice
exercises and tackle a related extended problem. Where appropriate, the start of a
chapter will highlight such extended problems. This will give you an idea of the
type of problem that you are aiming to be able to answer when you are familiar with
the content of the chapter.

You can study Units 1 and 2 in either order, but complete both of them before you
start work on Unit 3.
Mechanics 1

You should work through the chapters of each unit in order.

Before starting each chapter, look at what it is about: decide whether you need to
work through all the activities or whether you would be better just working
through the practice exercises and an appropriate extended problem. Discuss
your decision with your teacher.
Allow 24 hours for each of Units 1 and 2, and 12 hours for Unit 3. About half of this
time should be spent outside the classroom. You should tackle two of the
problems from Chapter 9, on which you should spend about five hours each, and a
problem from Chapter 10, on which you should spend about ten hours. This should
leave you some time for revision.

Practice exercises
Chapter 8 consists of practice exercises which you will use throughout your study,
and possibly at the end, for revision purposes.

Extended problems
Chapters 9 and 10 present extended problems. You will use two or more of those
from Chapter 9 as you work through this book. The earlier problems, 1 to 7, require
you to use the ideas of Unit 1 and Unit 2. Later problems expect you to apply your
knowledge of Newton's Laws.
Chapter 10 suggests a number of starting points for extended investigations. With
the knowledge you will have gained about how an applied mathematician models
the world when tackling mechanics problems, you will be able to solve real
problems. Some of these problems may inspire you to learn other important topics
from the world of mechanics, many of which are covered in the Mechanics 2 option.

While working on Chapters 1 to 7 you should try at least two of the extended
problems of Chapter 9. You should spend about five hours on each of these. Each
has some guidance in the Hints section. (Problem 1 has the most detailed
guidance and may give you some ideas of how to attempt later problems.)
Your eventual aim should be to tackle one of the real problems presented in
Chapter 10, or a similar one of your own.

Practical work
You will need to use practical equipment throughout your study of mechanics.
Where an activity requires this, it will be highlighted at the start of the chapter. Take
careful note of this so that you can plan your work in such a way that you will have
the equipment available when you need it. When working through the extended
problems of Chapters 9 and 10 you may need to do practical work, but in these
cases you will have to decide for yourself exactly how to set about it.
You can use practical work at two distinct places in the modelling process: to collect
data which you can analyse, or to validate the solution that you have reached to a
problem.
 Introduction

Mathematical knowledge assumed

• the use of distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration to describe
motion
• understanding of rate of change and differentiation, in particular when applied to
quantities used to describe motion
• how to use area and integration to find changes in quantities describing motion
• how to use vectors to model quantities such as position and velocity when
describing motion
• how to use vector arithmetic including the scalar product
• how to use the Euler step-by-step method within a calculator program to solve
differential equations
• parametric graphing techniques
• the use of the sine and cosine rules.
 Modelling motion
Kinematics' is the study of
motion. In this unit, you will
not be concerned about the
pause of the motion, which
its covered in Unit 3.
In this unit, you will study motion and simulate it, using your graphics calculator.
Often you will find it is necessary to simplify the motion by neglecting influences
such as air resistance. You will also perform a number of practical experiments,
collect and analyse data, and attempt to develop some theories concerning motion.
You will be following in the footsteps of many of the key names in the development
of understanding of mechanics: Aristotle, Galileo and Newton. As you work
through this unit you may begin to wonder about what is causing the motion that
you are studying, as indeed these mathematicians and scientists did.
You should work through the chapters of this unit in order.
This unit is designed to take about 24 hours of your learning time. About half of
this time will be spent outside the classroom. This includes some time
allowance for using some of the practice exercises for each chapter. If you
tackle one of the problems from Chapter 9 associated with this unit, you should
allow about five more hours.
 Motion in one dimension

This chapter looks at how you can use displacement, velocity and acceleration to
describe the motion of objects in one dimension. You already know some of this
type of work from your study of calculus.
As you work through the chapter, you will develop your ability to model motion.
When you have studied this chapter you will be able to tackle problems such as this:
To restrict the speed of vehicles travelling through the grounds of a large hospital, it
You will find full details of
is decided to install road humps. How far apart should these be placed?
this problem in Chapter 9,

In Activity 1.1 you will carry out practical work to investigate the motion of a
1.1
A falling falling ball. This will give you an opportunity to re-use some of the ideas of calculus
1 ball which are relevant to the study of motion.
In Activity 1.2 you will develop some equations which can be used when solving
1.2 problems that involve the motion of a body whose acceleration is constant.
Equations for uniformly
accelerated motion In Activity 1.3 you will use your graphics calculator and the Euler step-by-step
program for solving differential equations, to simulate motion in one dimension.
1.3 Activity 1.4 gives you an opportunity to carry out further practical work to
Graphs of investigate the motion of a train.
motion

Activities 1.1 and 1.4 are practical activities. Organise your work so that the
1.4 equipment is available when you need it.
The runaway
train You should do Activities 1.1 and 1.2 first, and in order. You can then work on
Activities 1.3 and 1.4 in either order.
There are chapter summaries and practice exercises in Chapter 8.
 7 Motion in one dimension

Describing motion
Displacement-time graph for a sprinter The average velocity is given by the following.
The graphs shown here
are based on a model of displacement
the motion of a sprinter x,.

Average velocity

——>• / The velocity, v, at an instant is given by the

time gradient of the displacement-time graph of the
motion.

Velocity at an instant,
v= dx
d?

The average acceleration is given by the

following.
Velocity-time graph
velocity
v,

Average acceleration

-*• t The acceleration, a, at an instant is given by the

time gradient of the velocity-time graph of the motion.

Acceleration at an instant,
dv

The area under a velocity-time graph gives the

change of displacement.
velocity
v,

/ —V— Change in
/ \ displacement

time
 / Modelling motion

Acceleration-time graph
acceleration

time

Figure 11
You may need a reminder about the meanings of displacement and velocity.
• Displacement means the net distance from some fixed base point or origin. A
negative displacement means that the net distance is in the direction opposite to
that chosen as positive.
• The rate of change of displacement is called velocity. If an object has a negative
velocity, then its displacement is decreasing.
If you measure displacement in metres and time in seconds, velocity is measured in
ms~', and acceleration in ms~2 .

Falling bodies
Before the work of the Italian scientist Galileo (1564-1642), ideas about motion
were dominated by Aristotle (384-322 BC) who thought that a ball would fall with
constant speed. Do you agree with this? Galileo certainly didn't, and, in the best
tradition of applied mathematicians, he adopted a modelling approach to answer the
question, "How does a falling body move?" First, he observed the motion of such a
body. His method was more than merely descriptive: he collected data which he
could analyse. Collecting data about falling bodies presented Galileo with a major
difficulty because there were no accurate timing devices available to him; he used
either his pulse or a simple water clock.
One experiment carried out by Galileo was to time a ball rolling down a slope.
Galileo's findings had a revolutionary impact on the development of science. You
may have met the key ideas before; the acceleration of a body falling freely near the
Earth's surface can be considered to be constant if the effects of air resistance are
neglected. Accurate measurement of this acceleration gives 9.8ms~2 . It is often
denoted by the symbol g, and known as the acceleration due to gravity. Gravity is
discussed in much greater detail in Chapter 6.

Activity 1.1 A falling ball

This is a practical activity. You will need: a ball, tapemeasure and stopwatch.
In this practical activity you will attempt to validate Galileo's findings. You may

8
 / Motion in one dimension
have carried out a similar activity when studying the Using position vectors unit in
Book 4. Use this activity to revise those ideas, while thinking carefully about how
you are applying the modelling process.
Does a ball fall with constant acceleration, g = 9. 8 ms
-2r

Galileo claimed that all objects near the Earth's surface fall with the same
acceleration. From this claim you can make predictions about how their
displacements vary with time. By using a ball, tape measure and stopwatch you can
measure how long a ball takes to fall through known distances. You can then
compare these measurements with your predictions, thus checking Galileo's claim.
In this activity, some decisions about these assumptions and quantities have been
made for you. Think carefully about whether you need to add to them; in particular,
are there additional assumptions which you are making?
Assumptions there is no air resistance
the ball will always be released from rest
the acceleration, a ms~ , of the ball is constant, with a = 9.8.
Constants the same ball will be used throughout.
Variables the time t seconds
the displacement, x metres, of the ball. This is the same as the
Throughout this bookyou" distance fallen by the ball
will be modelling real the velocity, v ms"1 , of the ball at time, t.
situations. When setting
• Draw a diagram this is a concise way of describing features of your model and
up a model you will need
to think carefully about should show clearly the variables and constants that you are
the assumptions that you using.
are making, the quantities
that you will keep
constant, and the
quantities that you will
vary. A clear diagram will
always help you. an

It is common practice to v ms~' Ja i

use a double-headed
arrow to denote
acceleration.

Figure 12
1 a Suppose that the ball is allowed to fall from rest. Use integration to find, as
functions of time, the velocity v ms , and the distance fallen x m.
b Draw graphs to show how you would expect the acceleration, a ms~ , the
velocity, v ms" , and the distance fallen, x m, to vary with time, t s.
 7 Modelling motion
2 Write a sentence or two describing how, if Galileo's model is true, both the
velocity and the displacement of a falling ball vary with time.

You will now need to collect some data practically. Some advice about
show you might do this is given below.
•fit

3 a You now have a theoretical model of what you would expect a falling ball to
do. Validate this model by timing the path of a real falling ball, as shown in Figure
1.3. It is difficult to measure directly the acceleration or velocity of a falling ball:
collect data so that you can draw a graph plotting distance fallen, x m, against time,
tm.
release point

distance fallen,
xm

Figure 1.3
Here is some practical advice.
• Instead of always releasing the ball from the same point and timing how long it
takes to fall a measured distance from the release point, it is easier to release the
ball from different heights above the floor and measure the time taken to reach
the floor, as illustrated in Figure 1.4. You then need to assume, for example, that
in the first second of the ball's motion it will fall through the same distance no
matter from where it is released.

O
x3 metres r3 seconds

x, metres
o t, seconds
*, metres t-, seconds

Figure 1.4
• You may find a 'timer ball' useful in carrying out this practical work. This is a
ball with a built-in stopwatch, which starts timing when the ball is released and
stops when the ball first hits the ground. If you use an ordinary ball and a
stopwatch, you may find it best to time the ball over longer distances perhaps
dropping it down a stair-well, for example.

10

Think carefully about the
assumptions which you
made, and about the
accuracy of your working
when considering
whether or not the model
is valid.
Activity 1.2 Equations for uniformly accelerated motion
/ Motion in one dimension
• Whichever method you use, it is important to be consistent, and accurate. You
need to ensure that the ball is always released from rest. If one person is
releasing the ball and someone else is timing its fall, the person releasing the ball
needs to count down to the release, perhaps saying, "Three, two, one, GO" or
something similar.
• Time the ball a number of times over the same distance, and take an average
value: will it be better to use the mean or median value?
b Draw your readings of the distance fallen against time on the same
displacement-time graph that you drew using your theoretical analysis.
c Do your readings agree with Galileo's model?
4 a Find a function which fits your measured readings. How does the function
compare with the one that you obtained from theoretical analysis?
b Differentiate your function to find an expression for the velocity as a function of
time.
c Differentiate again to find an expression for acceleration. How does this
compare with the value of a = g = 9.8 ms ?
If the value you have found for the acceleration varies significantly from
9.8 ms"2 you will need to think about how accurately you carried out your
practical work, or whether the value a = g = 9.8ms~2 is valid.
You have seen that a falling ball has constant acceleration; in fact, motion with
constant acceleration is quite common. Even if the acceleration is not constant for
the whole motion, it may be possible, when modelling motion, to assume that a
body has constant acceleration for at least part of its journey.
In Activity 1.2, you will develop some useful equations for motion with constant
acceleration.
It is conventional to use the symbols a for acceleration, v for velocity, x for
displacement, and / for time. If you need to use the starting or initial velocity in
calculations, call it«.
The equations that you will develop in this activity have no units. However, if you
measure x in metres and t in seconds, v will be in ms , and a in ms
Consider the body illustrated in Figure 1.5a, moving with constant acceleration, a,
so that at time t, it has displacement .v, and velocity v. Initially, that is when t = 0,
the body has displacement x = 0, and velocity v = u, as shown in Figure 1.5b.
77
 / Modelling motion

At time, t, the Initial conditions

displacement is x f=0

O O
the origin
velocity, v v=u

acceleration, a acceleration, a
Figure I5a Figure 7.56
Figure 1.6 shows the velocity-time graph for this general case of a moving body,
with constant acceleration, a. The gradient of this graph gives the body's
acceleration.
velocity
v,
Initial Gradient gives
conditions acceleration, a
when

V = «, A — Vj^

At time t,
S^
the velocity
is v
'—————*• t
O t time
Figure 16
1 Write down the equation of the straight line shown in Figure 1.6. This equation
links v, u, a and t. Call it equation A.
The area under a velocity-time graph gives the change of displacement
velocity velocity velocity
v4 Vi VA

time O time O time

Figure 7.7a Figure 1.7b Figure 1.7c

Remember that the area 2 a By considering the area of the trapezium in the velocity-time graph in Figure
tunder a velocity-time 1.7a, write down an expression for the change in displacement, x, in terms of «, v
graph gives the change of and t. Call this equation B.
displacement of a body b By considering the area of the rectangle added to that of the triangle in the
after time t. See the velocity-time graph in Figure 1.7b, write down an expression for the change in
Using integration unit in displacement, x, in terms of u, a and t. Call this equation C.
BookS. c By considering the area of the triangle subtracted from that of the rectangle in
the velocity-time graph in Figure 1,7c, write down an expression for the change in
displacement, x, in terms of v, a and t. Call this equation D.

12

Remember to use the
initial conditions: that is,
when t = 0, v = «, and
x-0,to find the
constants of integration.
When modelling motioifjl
as having constant =|||
acceleration, you can
either use equations A to
E or you can use
differentiation or
integration to find what
you want to know. You
may also be able to use a
graph of the motion to
find numerical values,
either directly or by
/ Motion in one dimension
3 By substituting for t from equation A into equation B, form an equation linking
x, u, v and a. Call this equation E.
Another method of developing these equations is to start with the differential
. dv
equation — = a.
dt
Remember that:
Differentiate Differentiate
displacement = x velocity = v = —- acceleration = a = — = —£
dr At2
Integrate Integrate
Figure 18
dv
4 a From — = a, use integration to write down an equation linking v, u, a and t.
dt
Check that this is the same equation as A.
dx
b Write your expression for v as —, and use integration to find an equation
dt
linking x, u, a and t. Check that this is the same equation as C.
c Substitute for a from equation A into equation C to give an equation linking x, u,
v and t. Check that this is the same equation as B.
d Substitute for u from equation A into equation C to give an equation linking x, v,
a and t. Check that this is the same equation as D.
e Substitute for t from equation A into equation C to give an equation linking x, u,
v and a. Check that this is the same equation as E.
Summary of the equations of motion in one
dimension where the acceleration is constant.
" at
bnstant acceleration, a.
litial velocity, u. -\ u+ v \t,
jc-|———
dtial displacement, 0.
.fter time t, the x x=
docity is v and the
x x = vt-j
isplacement is x.
v2 = « 2
The next part of this activity gives you some practice at dealing with motion which
you can model as having constant acceleration.
5 Assume that an aircraft accelerating down a runway during take-off has constant
acceleration. For a 'jumbo-jet' during this period, take the acceleration as
2.15 ms .It needs to reach a speed of 290 kmh = 80.6 ms before take-off. See
Figure 1.9.
13
 / Modelling motion
lifou will need to assume
pthatthe time that the
sound of the splash takes
go reach you is negligible.
iThis is reasonable, as, in
jSiiormal conditions, sound
liraveIs at about 340 ms~'
In question 7 you will 1
meet acceleration which ;
is negative. A reminder of
some of the issues
involved is given in ;:;S;
Figure 1.1, :i!MsSigjJS§f: \-
constant time, t seconds,
acceleration, a displacement, x m
velocity, v
Figure 1.9
a Find the time that the 'jumbo' takes to accelerate from rest, to lift-off.
b Calculate the length of runway necessary for a 'jumbo' to take-off.
6 From ground level, you drop a stone down a well in order to discover how far
the surface of the water is below the ground. Assume that the stone has constant
acceleration of a = g = 9.8 ms
a If the stone takes 1.5 seconds to hit the water,, estimate the distance of the
water's surface below ground level.
b Find the speed of the stone as it hits the water.
7 Figure 1.10 is the velocity-time graph of a car approaching a set of traffic lights
which turn from red to green at t = 0.
-18 -704
Figure 1.10
a Find the acceleration of the car as it slows down to approach the traffic lights.
b Find the distance travelled by the car when at constant velocity near the traffic
lights.
c Find the acceleration of the car as it increases its velocity after the traffic lights
turn to green.
8 A girl is canoeing against the flow of the stream of a river. Assume that she is
moving in a straight line. At time t = 0 seconds she passes a jetty where her velocity
is 0.5 ms . After 100 seconds she tires and the current causes her to slow down.
She then has a constant deceleration of 0.002 ms .
 / Motion in one dimension
a Find how far from the jetty the girl canoes before she tires.
b Find the value of t when her velocity is zero.
c Find her velocity 8 minutes after she first passes the jetty.
d Interpret your result from part c.
e When will the girl pass the jetty again?
f Sketch a velocity-time graph for the girl's journey between the two times when
she passes the jetty.

v = 0.5

Figure 1.11
Graphs of motion
Recall the information repeated here in Figure 1.12.
Differentiate Differentiate
——————>•

, ., dx , . = « = dv
acceleration d2x
-— = —-T
displacement = x velocity = v = —-
dt dt2

Integrate Integrate
Figure 1.12
It may not always be possible to model motion as having constant acceleration.
However, you may know the acceleration of a body as a function of time, a(t), or as
a function of displacement, a(x), together with the initial values of acceleration
a(0), velocity, v(0), and displacement, ;t(0). You can then analyse the motion by
• using integration, or by
• using the Euler step-by-step method to calculate successive values of t, a, v
and*.
You can use either technique to draw graphs of the motion.

Activity 1.3 Graphs of motion

1 Use an Euler step-by-step program to simulate the velocity-time and
displacement-time graphs for the falling ball in Activity 1.1. Use the value of a that
you found experimentally.

acceleration (use your experimental value) x (measured positive downwards)

Initial conditions
t = 0, x = 0, v = 0
Figure 1.13

15
 7 Modelling motion
When you use Euler's method, you are using an iterative process to solve
numerically the following equations.
dv
— = a (a = constant)
df
dx = v
—
At
An algorithm and some You may find it best to develop your program in stages, firstly plotting velocity
programming hints are against time, and then taking your program a step further to plot displacement
.given in the Hints section.. against time.
it
life; • iri-!-.S;sio:«S

Compare your velocity-time and displacement-time graphs with those that you have
from your data analysis.
If the acceleration is constant then you can use formulae A to E to find v(f)and
x(t). However, you can use the Euler step-by-step method when the acceleration is
neither constant, nor a simple function. Such instances may occur when you model
t = 0 acceleration At time /, motion and include the influence of air resistance.
u = 15 = -kv2 the velocity
2 A motor boat is travelling at 15 ms~ when its engine suddenly dies. You can
model the acceleration of the boat by using the equation a = -kv 2 , where k = 0.01.
Find the time, T s, taken for the boat to slow down to 2 ms~' and the distance X m,
that the boat travels in this time.
Displacement x
Do this using:
Figure 1. 14 a integration techniques, and
b an Euler step-by-step program. Your existing program will need modifying to
take account of the acceleration being a function of velocity (this needs updating at
each run through the program).
c Draw displacement-time, velocity-time and acceleration-time graphs for this
motion.

Modelling in kinematics: the runaway train

The following activity gives you an opportunity to collect some data to analyse the
features of the motion of a train rolling down a track. This will be rather like the
work that Galileo must have done when investigating the motion of falling objects.
The problem is introduced in a real world context.

16
 7 Motion in one dimension
The following article is taken from The Independent on Sunday of 6th October, 1991.

Runaway train hits

station crash barrier
An inquiry was launched yesterday after a
train, with brakes known to be faulty, crashed
into a platform at Liverpool's Lime Street
station.
Four people were taken to hospital after
the incident.
A runaway diesel engine pulling two empty
passenger carriages smashed through the crash
barrier, reared 12ft into the air, and hit a British
Rail office. The driver and guard, a pregnant
woman and a BR employee who was standing
near to the platform were taken to the Royal
Liverpool hospital suffering from shock.
The driver and guard escaped injury by
running through the coaches to the back of the
train just before impact. Before leaving the
engine they sounded the horn to warn people
on the platform.
The driver reported problems with the
brakes shortly after leaving Liverpool on the
12.37 service to Blackpool.
Passengers were told to get out at the
station in Huyton, about five miles from Lime
Street.
After reporting to BR headquarters, the
driver headed back to Lime Street. About a
mile from the main line station, the brakes
failed. Unable to stop the train, the driver was
forced to continue to Lime Street.
The inquiry will want to establish why
the train was allowed to make the return
journey when a brake fault had already
been reported.
A British Transport Police spokesman
said: "It is extremely fortunate that no one was
seriously injured. The station is usually very
busy on a Saturday afternoon and only four
people were taken to hospital."
After the crash all main line services in
and out of the station were suspended for
about two hours.
The crash brought down overhead
electrification cables and diesel fuel was
leaking from the train.
The police said little damage was caused
to the station building, but the front of the train
was badly damaged.
A BR spokesman said the train must have
been travelling "at a fairly quick pace" by the
time it hit the crash barrier. The engine, still
stuck there last night, is due to be examined by
BR investigators today.

There are other problems
that this incident could
suggest; for example:
would it be better to be
sitting facing or with your
back to the direction of
travel? Or should
passengers jump in the
air just before impact? Or
is there another
suggestion that you might
make? You may wish to
come back to think about
these questions towards
the end of your course.
Observe
Identify
the
problem
Validate
Accident investigators may be asked the question, 'How fast was the train going
when it hit the crash barriers?'
To answer this question, investigators set up a model using their experience and
observations of similar motion. Like them, you will need to know something about
the features of the motion of a runaway train.
You can investigate the key features of such motion by carrying out a simple
practical simulation in Activity 1.4. It is important at this stage that you keep things
as simple as possible.

77
 7 Modelling motion
Activity 1.4
•Here is an example of
; moving between parts of
the modelling process:
• before you 'observe' the
motion, set up your
; model, thinking about
what data you are going
; to collect.
Measure the values of mass,
M kg, and angle of slope, 9 ,
so that you can carry out
further analysis at a later
stage.
18
The runaway train
You will need: a trolley, tape measure, stopwatch, track.
Carry out the whole of this activity at one time.
How does the time taken by a trolley to roll down a slope vary with the distance that
it rolls?
For example, if it takes t s to travel x m, does it take 2?s to travel 2x m? Other
questions that you might want to answer are, 'How far does the trolley travel in t
seconds?', or 'How long does it take the trolley to travel x metres?'
What data do you need to collect to answer these questions?
• Assumptions: the slope has constant gradient
the trolley is released consistently
at release, the distance travelled and velocity are zero.
Constants: the mass of the trolley, M kg
the angle, 9° of the slope.
• Variables: the distance travelled, x m
the time taken, t s.
• Draw a diagram: the values of the constants are not given: insert on your
diagram the actual
values that you measured.
Figure 1.15
Here is some practical advice.
• You may find it useful to have the trolley running down a track secured to a
table. You can raise one end of the table using wooden blocks.
• Time how long the trolley takes to travel set distances. Put a block on the track
at the distance you require so that you can hear when the trolley hits the block.
 7 Motion in one dimension
For each distance repeat the experiment several times (or have a number of
people timing) and use an average value.
• To achieve consistency at release, practise a few times and count down to
release, '3,2, 1,GO'.
• Always measure to the front of the trolley.
• You need to have the trolley moving reasonably slowly so that measurements are
easy to make. It is important, therefore, that you choose values of the mass and
the angle of slope to give a total time of more than 2 seconds for the trolley to
roll down the full length of the slope.
Use the data that you collect to draw a distance-time graph.
Find a function x = f (?) whose graph passes through the plotted points.
Use your function x = f (?) to find how the velocity and acceleration vary with time.
What have you discovered about the time taken for the trolley to travel given
distances down the slope? Predict how long it will take to travel a distance that you
didn't measure, and check by using the apparatus.
What is the speed of the trolley at any given time?
What is its acceleration at any given time?
Think carefully about what your graphs and functions are telling you. For example,
what do they suggest as the speed of the trolley at t = 0 ? Why?

Reflecting on Chapter 1
What you should know
• the type of function that relates the distance fallen by an object, near the Earth's
surface, to time
• the acceleration of all free-falling objects near the Earth's surface
• how to develop the equations of motion for bodies with uniform (constant)
acceleration
• the equations of motion for bodies with uniform (constant) acceleration
• how to use the equations of motion for bodies with uniform (constant)
acceleration in appropriate problems
• how to use the Euler step-by-step method to simulate the motion of a body
moving in one dimension
• how you can use practical work to validate a model of motion
• how you can use practical work to find a model for the motion of an object.

Preparing for your next review

• Write a few sentences about why you may need to use practical work when you
are modelling in mechanics.

19
 / Modelling motion
• Answer the following check questions.
1 Someone throws a ball vertically into the air. On a sketch of its path, mark an
arrow showing the direction of the acceleration of the ball when it is:
a at point A, on its way up,
b at point B, the top of its path,
c at point C, on its way down.
2 A body is moving in such a way that its velocity-time graph, / seconds after
passing an origin, is as shown in Figure 1.16.

Figure 7. 16
Sketch graphs showing as much detail as you can for:
a the displacement of the body against time
b the acceleration of the body against time.

You could now tackle

• Practice exercises on page 108
• Activity 9.1 on page 127.

20
2 Projectiles

In Chapter 1 you learned about the key quantities, displacement, velocity and
acceleration, which are used to describe motion. In this chapter you will investigate
the most commonly occurring form of motion in two dimensions, that of thrown or
projected objects moving freely under the influence of gravity. Objects in these
circumstances are referred to as projectiles.
The chapter is split into two main parts: 'Galileo's projectile model', and
'Simulating projectile motion'. In the first part you follow the thinking of Galileo to
build vector equations to describe the path of an object thrown through the air near
the surface of the Earth. And in the second part, you will use Galileo's model to
solve problems.
When you have studied this chapter you will be able to tackle problems such as
these.
A shot putter is practising on sloping ground at his local sports club. How should he
Full details of these
correct his measured distances so that he can find how far he would have thrown in
problems are in
Chapters, the horizontal arena of an international athletics stadium?
What is a safe speed to recommend for cars travelling over road surfaces that have
been newly dressed with stone chippings, so that damage to cars travelling behind is
avoided?

?MPH

21
 / Modelling motion

2.1 '-« | Activity 2.1 is short and introductory, asking you to sketch graphs for a ball thrown
Observing a across a room. In Activity 2.2 you will develop vector equations to describe the
thrown ball acceleration, velocity and displacement of such a ball. You will then investigate the
validity of the equations through practical work in Activity 2.3.
2.2 In the second part of the chapter you will develop techniques for simulating the
Vector equations describing
projectile motion
motion of a projectile. In Activity 2.4 you will look at the methods available; you
'
have an opportunity to use them in Activities 2.5 and 2.6.

2.3
Activity 2.6 is optional: it enables you to examine projectile motion when you take
Validating Galileo's air resistance into account.
projectile model ;SI1
You should work the activities in sequence.
2.4 Activity 2.3 is a practical activity. You should plan your work so that the
The basketball equipment is available when you need it.
player
Activity 2.6 is optional.
2.5 Practice exercises are available in Chapter 8. You can use this at any time after
Maximum range and you have worked through Activity 2.2.
other investigations

2.6
Throwing a ball with
air resistance Galileo's projectile model

Activity 2.1 Observing a thrown ball

1 Take a ball and throw it across a room. Use your observations of the motion to
sketch graphs showing:
a the height, y metres, against the horizontal distance travelled, x metres
b the height, y metres, against the time, t seconds
c the horizontal distance travelled, x metres, against time, t seconds.

It is difficult to collect data which will allow you to plot these graphs with a
reasonable degree of accuracy, especially using only simple apparatus. The
photograph shows a spanner being thrown across a room. Its position is shown
every -^th of a second, using a stroboscope. Notice that, although the spanner is
rotating, the point mid-way along its axis follows the same kind of path as the ball
you threw. This point is called the centre of gravity of the spanner. When you model
the motion of the spanner, you can consider its mass to be concentrated at its centre
of gravity. In general, this is called modelling a body as a particle. In this course,
you will usually be able to model a body as a particle.

22
 2 Projectiles

When Galileo investigated the motion of a projectile, he deflected the motion of a

ball down a slope (see Figure 2.1). In his description of the motion, Galileo did not
have access to the algebra that you use today. He had to resort to writing about a
diagram such as that in Figure 2.2. He attempted to make clear that in the horizontal
direction the motion has constant speed. However, in the vertical direction, the
projectile accelerates at a rate of 9.8 ms . The vertical distance fallen is therefore
proportional to t 2 . It is this important idea that you will meet throughout the
chapter.

Figure 2. / Figure 2.2

In Activity 2.2 you will build up vector equations that summarise Galileo's
projectile model.

23
 / Modelling motion

Activity 2.2 Vector equations describing projectile motion

What vector equations can be developed to describe the motion of a projectile?

Observe
Identify
the
problem
Validate

Assumptions the projected body is a particle

air resistance is negligible
the path of the projectile lies in a plane, see Figure 2.3
Galileo's model of projectile motion holds.

Here the process of

setting up the model is
done for you. Read
Figure 2.3a Figure 2.3b
through this carefully.
Constants take the point from which the projectile is launched as the
origin, O
align x- and y-axes horizontally and vertically through O
align unit vectors i and j horizontally and vertically respectively
the initial velocity vector u has magnitude u ms~ , and makes an
angle, 6°, with the i direction as in Figure 2.4.

the initial velocity is „ _ /"cos 9

u - I Msin 6
usually called u.

Remember how to split a wsin 6

vector into components
at right angles, in the
direction of the unit
vectors i and j
wcos 9
Figure 2.4 Figure 2.5
throughout the motion the acceleration of the projectile is
0 -2
a= ms

24
 2 Projectiles

0
The equation a = expresses, in vector form, Galileo's experimental findings
that a projectile accelerates towards the ground with a constant value. This value is
the same as that for an object falling vertically. If length is measured in metres, and
time is measured in seconds, then the value of this constant downward acceleration
is about 9.8 ms~ .
• Variables the time, t s, is measured from the instant of launch
at time t s, the projectile has position vector r m, and
velocity v ms .
Draw a diagram see Figure 2.6.

and integrate to find an expression for the velocity v. Use the

fact that, at time t — 0, the velocity u =
fucose}
{usinO J
2 Integrate the expression that you have for velocity v to find an expression for
the position vector r. Find the constants of integration, using the fact that the
projectile is at the origin at time t = 0.
3 You now have vector expressions for the acceleration, velocity and displacement
of a projectile. Sketch graphs to show how the vertical and horizontal components
of each of these vary with time.

fYou can refer to the x- and y- components of acceleration using ax and

! (a,\
ay respectively, so that a = .In the case of a projectile ax - 0 and
\ay 1
ay = -g. Similarly, you can refer to the components of velocity and
fv*"l
displacement using v= and r =

4 Write down in words the key features of the graphs of the horizontal and vertical
components of acceleration, velocity and position.
There are some significant points of the path of the projectile, shown in Figure 2.7,
such as the highest point reached A, and the point, B, furthest in the horizontal
direction from the point of projection. These two points are often important when
analysing problems involving projectile motion.

25
 / Modelling motion

B m
Figure 2,7
5 On each graph that you sketched in question 3 above, mark points corresponding
to the highest point A of the path, and to the point B where the projectile lands.
6 Write down what you know about the x- and y- components of acceleration,
velocity and displacement, at each of points A and B. Do this by filling in two
copies of the table (shown asTable 2.1), one for A and one for B.

jt-direction y-direction
Displacement (from the
point of projection)
Velocity
Acceleration

Table 2.1
The next part of the modelling process should be to validate your model for the
motion of a projectile, but it is difficult to measure the displacement, velocity or
acceleration of projectiles in motion. One way is to look at a projectile when it is at
a special point of its path, such as when it is at its highest point or when it lands.
Activity 2.3 allows you to validate your model by carrying out a practical
experiment. You will measure the range of a number of projectiles, launched with
varying speeds, and see how closely the ranges fit the predictions from your vector
equations.

Activity 2.3 Validating Galileo's projectile model

This is a practical activity. You will need: track, blocks, ball, ruler, stopwatch
(talcum powder: optional).
To attempt to project a ball into the air with some degree of consistency, and so that
it has a speed and angle of launch that you know, use apparatus in the way that is
suggested in Figure 2.8.

26
 2 Projectiles

Collect data (speed of projection, range)

How can you vary the How can you find the
speed of projection of speed of the ball at the
the ball? instant of launch (point Q?

What is
height of the angle
table h m of launch?

range R metres

Figure 2.8

• Assumptions the projected body is a particle

air resistance is negligible
the path of the projectile lies in a plane.
Constants the point C from which the projectile is launched is the origin
the x- and >>-axes pass through the origin
take unit vectors i and j horizontally and vertically
throughout the motion the acceleration of the projectile is given
0
by a =
The setting-up of the
model is done for you, so • Variables the time, / seconds, is measured from the instant of launch
that you can concentrate at time / seconds, the projectile has position vector r and
on analysis and velocity v
validation. the height of the table is h metres
the ball lands a distance R metres from the foot of the table: that
, R'
is, at the point r =
-h

Draw a diagram

At launch v = u =

R
The ball hits the ground when r =
Figure 2.9

27
 / Modelling motion
Use the vector equations that describe the motion of a projectile to calculate the
range R metres, of the projectile (ball) along the floor from the edge of the table.
Use the measured value for the height of the table h metres, and some realistic
values for the speed of projection u ms , from the edge of the table.
Here is some practical advice.
• Use plastic track along which the ball can roll.
• You can estimate the velocity of the ball at the launch point, O, by considering
that the ball has constant velocity along the horizontal section of track, BO.
Time how long the ball takes to roll a measured distance along BO. Calculate its
average velocity using
. . = —————————.
average velocity distance travelled
time taken
• Vary the release point, A, of the ball to vary its launch velocity.
• To find where the ball lands, you may find it useful to use talcum powder or salt
sprinkled on a large sheet of paper or in a baking tray.
Investigate how theoretical predictions compare with experimental results
range m range m

velocity of projection ms velocity of projection ms

Figure 2. Wa Figure 2. Wb
Graph based on analysis (using the fixed Graph based on experimental results.
value of the height of the table from your
experiment).
Explain why there may be discrepancies between your two graphs.

It is important that you recognise the relationship between the practical experiment
and the theoretical model. The practical experiment validates a theoretical model.
Activity 2.3 is an example which shows this relationship.

Simulating projectile motion

In Chapter 1 you used a calculator program to simulate and plot graphs of the
motion of a body moving in one dimension. You started from a knowledge of the
acceleration, and calculated the velocity and the displacement of the body.

28
 2 Projectiles
When you know the acceleration of a body in vector component form, you can
extend your program to simulate motion in two dimensions. For projectile motion,
0
a=
~g

Activity 2 A The basketball player

A basketball player has a free shot, having been fouled. At what angle should the
player aim to release the ball so that it falls cleanly into the net?

3.0m

2.2m

• ' -origm 4.6 ra­

Figure 2.11
• Assumptions the ball is a particle
air resistance is negligible
the basket is a single point through which the ball must pass.
• Constants speed of release is 10 ms~
the height of release is 2.2 m
the ball is released at time t = 0 s
unit vectors i and j are aligned horizontally and vertically
respectively
the origin is at the feet of the basketball player /^ ,•
the ball must pass through the point with position vector
0
the acceleration of the ball a =
• Variables the angle of launch is 6°
the time ? s is measured from the time of the launch

the position vector of the ball is r =

29
 / Modelling motion
could also find the ||
jangle by direct 1 all of them. This will help you to decide which to use when you investigate other
^calculation. You may wisfig
fto try this. :J|S8i
lit is important to have
some idea of what you
expect, if possible, so
that you can check that
iyour program is working
properly. Vi«->
30
and velocity v =
Draw a diagram:
m At time t = 0 At time t
O O
Figure 2.12a Figure 2.12b
To determine whether a ball will pass through a particular point you can plot the
path of its flight using one of three methods
• the Euler step-by-step method
• the parametric equations of the path of the flight
• the Cartesian equation of the path of the flight.
When you have a graph of the path of the ball, you can see whether it passes
through the necessary point. If not, you will have to change 9.
Each method has its own particular set of advantages and disadvantages. It is
important that you work through each method so that you can become familiar with
situations.
Using the Euler step-by-step method
To get your program running, assume that the angle of launch is 60°
1 Sketch how you would expect graphs of horizontal and vertical components of
the displacement and velocity of the basketball to vary with time.
m m
XL y\
-*• t
s
Figure 2. 13
2 To plot the graphs that you sketched above, for each component of the motion,
use the program which you developed in Activity 1 .3.
a For the ^-component of the motion: the acceleration is constant, ax = 0 ; the
initial velocity is ur = 10 cos 60° ; and the initial displacement is zero.
b For the y-component of the motion: the acceleration is constant, a Y = -g ; the
initial velocity is u = 10 sin 60° ; and the initial displacement is 2.2 m.
 2 Projectiles
Make sure that the graphs are the same shapes as your predicted graphs.
3 Modify your program so that it calculates both x- and ^-components at the same
time. Use it to plot graphs showing both:
a x and y against /, and
b vx and vy against t.
4 Use your modified program to plot a graph showing y against x. This graph,
which illustrates the flight path of the projectile, is often called the trajectory.
5 Use the cursor keys of your graphics calculator to investigate whether the
trajectory passes through the point (4. 6, 3. 6) . Alter the angle at which the basketball
is thrown, until it does.
The Euler step-by-step method for solving differential equations numerically is a
powerful general method. The algorithm is easy to modify to take into account the
two components of the motion. You can also modify it to deal with cases where the
acceleration of the object is not constant; for example, when you take account of air
resistance. You will have the opportunity to do this in Activity 2.6, which is
optional.

Using parametric equations

6 Using integration, find expressions for velocity v, and displacement r of the
basketball.
When finding the constants of integration, remember that at t - 0 , u =

r= .Start with 0 = 60°.

7 Plot a graph of y against x. This should be the same as the graph which you
obtained using the Euler step-by-step method.

Using the Cartesian equation

For the example, with the angle of launch as 60°,
T = (*
(y
so x = 5t and y = 2.2 + 8. 66f-4.9f2
The first equation gives t-^x. Substituting this value into the second equation,

youfindthat y = 2.2 + 8. 66f|-l-4.9f|-l = 2. 2 + 1.732* -0.196* 2

8 Use the Cartesian equation of the basketball to plot its path, using your graphics
calculator in Cartesian mode. Check that it gives the same trajectory as the other
methods which you have used.
Notice that, when you use the Cartesian equation, if you alter the angle of launch,
you have to find a new Cartesian equation for the trajectory.

31
 / Modelling motion
You can use the methods of Activity 2.4 to investigate problems involving
projectiles.

Activity 2.5 Maximum range and other investigations

The problem is to find the best angle for a shot-putter to release the shot in order to
achieve maximum range.
Observe
Identify
the
problem
Validate

• Assumptions the shot is released from ground level

the ground is horizontal
air resistance is negligible, so you can use Galileo's projectile
model
the shot-putter can consistently release the shot at the same
speed.
• Constants the speed of release is 10 ms~
• Variables the angle of release, 0°.

For the chosen speed of release, investigate the effect of angle on the range of the
Think carefully about shot. You can do this by using any of the methods of simulation from Activity 2.4.
which method will be
most useful. 1 a You will need to use a value for the angle of release, 9°. Try using
0 = 10,20,30, ....
b Find two values of d between which the maximum range lies. Investigate
Refine your model further between these two values by looking at what happens to the range as you
increase 9 successively by one degree.
c Find whether your result for part b is true for any speed of release.
Observe 2 You can also use an algebraic method to find the angle which gives maximum
Identify
the range. Write the range as a function of 9. Then find the value of 9 which makes the
problem range a maximum.
Validate
3 Refine your model to take into account the height of the shot-putter, by assuming
that the shot is released at a height of 2 m above the ground.

32

Activity 2.6 Throwing a ball with air resistance
This activity is optional.
2 Projectiles
4 If you have an opportunity, try some of the following extension problems.
a Is it better for a shot-putter to concentrate on increasing speed of release or on
adjusting angle of release?
b Use the model in which the point of release of the shot is at ground level, and the
path is symmetrical. Suppose now that the shot is released from a height of 2
metres. What is the maximum height of the shot in this case?
c Suppose that the shot-putter is aiming to land the shot at a certain distance from
the point of release. What should be the angle of release? Is there another angle that
will work? Investigate these questions for the case when the shot is released at
ground level, and for the case when it is released at the height of 2 metres.
In this activity you will investigate the inclusion of air resistance in your model of
the motion of a basket ball.
If you drive along in a car with your hand out of the window and with your palm
facing the direction of travel, you will realise that, as you speed up, your hand
experiences an increasing resistance to motion. It would seem reasonable, therefore,
to assume that air resistance is proportional to velocity.
Assume that the air resistance adds a deceleration vector to the original acceleration
vector. Assume also that the deceleration vector is proportional to the velocity of the
ball, but acts in the opposite direction.
Deceleration due j^-j
to air resistance /
-k\'*\ ^ v
Acceleration
due to gravity
Direction of
motion of ball
Figure 2.14a Figure 2. Hb
The net effect is that at time t, the acceleration of the ball is
= ( ° }-k( Vx } = ( ~kVx }
a ~l-9.sj ^vj~ ^-9.8-fcvj'
Assume that the constant, k, is small and take k = 0.005.
1 Investigate the effect of air resistance on the solution you arrived at in Activity
2.4. Do this by using the components of acceleration a in your Euler step-by-step
program. Does the ball still pass through the net?
dv
2 You can also use calculus to solve the differential equations —- = -kvx ,
dt
dvv
—— = -9.8 - kv,,, but the integration is not straightforward. Try it if you feel
dt
confident.
33
 / Modelling motion
3 Use your solutions to plot graphs showing the components of acceleration,
velocity and displacement against time. Investigate the effect on the graphs of
changing the magnitude of the constant k.

Reflecting on Chapter 2
What you should know
• that a projectile can be modelled using the ideas of Galileo, as having no
horizontal acceleration, and having an acceleration of g = 9.8 ms in the
downward vertical direction
• the form of graphs showing the components of a projectile's displacement,
velocity and acceleration plotted against time
• the assumptions that you are making when developing or using the vector
equations of Galileo's model for projectile motion
• how to develop and use the vector equations of acceleration, velocity and
displacement for Galileo's projectile model
• the special features of a particle's acceleration, velocity and displacement, both
at its highest point and also at the point at which the horizontal displacement is a
maximum
• how to simulate projectile motion by using Euler's step-by-step method within a
graphics calculator program, by using parametric equations, and by using
Cartesian equations.

Preparing for your next review

• Write a few sentences describing Galileo's model for projectile motion. In
particular, list the assumptions which you make whenever you use this model.

34
 2 Projectiles
• Answer the following check question.
1 Someone throws a ball through the air so that its path is as shown in Figure 2.15.
On a sketch of its path mark arrows showing the direction of the velocity and
acceleration of the ball when it is:
a at point A, on its way up
b at point B, the top of its path
c at point C, on its way down.

Figure 2.15

You could now tackle

* Practice exercises on page 111
• Activity 9.2 on page 128, or 9.3 on page

35
 Circular motion

One frequently occurring form of motion is that of an object travelling in a circle. In

this chapter you will examine the kinematics of this type of motion. You will learn
about the dynamics of circular motion in Chapter 7, where you analyse the forces
acting upon the object and its subsequent motion.
When you have studied this chapter, you will be able to tackle problems such as
these.
What path does a passenger follow on a rotating fairground ride such as 'the spider'
or 'the octopus'?
A supermarket has a constantly revolving door at the main entrance through which
all customers pass, with or without loaded or unloaded trolleys. At what speed
should the door revolve?

Full details of these problems are in Chapter 9.

In Activity 3.1 you have a first opportunity to look at the speed and velocity of an
object travelling in a circle. You will develop vector equations for the position,
velocity and acceleration of such a body in Activity 3.2.
Activity 3.3 gives you an opportunity to practise using the equations of circular
motion, and in Activity 3.4 you will learn how to graph the motion.

Work Activities 3.1 and 3.2 in order.

Then work Activities 3.3 and 3.4 in either order.

Observing and analysing circular motion

3.4
Graphing
Circular motion means that a body is moving in a circular path. In many real
circular motion problems, the body moving in a circle does so with a constant angular speed. This
means that, if you choose any time interval T seconds, the body always carries out
the same number of revolutions.
Alternatively, you can think of a radial line joining the body to the centre of the
circle sweeping out the same angle in each interval T of time.

36
 3 Circular motion
For example, a record turntable may be rotating at 45 revolutions per minute
(r.p.m.). This means that a radial line will turn through 45 x In radians per minute,
45x2;r
or • = j n radians per second (rads ).
60

r= 1

Figure 3.1
It is usual to use the Greek letter omega, &>, to represent angular speed. So, in the
case of the record deck (o = 4 n rads .

Activity 3.1 Circular motion: speed and velocity

In this activity you are asked to think about the features of the motion of children
riding on a merry-go-round. You may be able to simulate this by using a rotating
turntable with coins to represent the children. Do this if the equipment is available.
1~ revolutions per minute Plan view

Figure 3.2a Figure 3.2b

Notice that 7 -j revolutions per minute means that the roundabout turns through
7y x In radians in one minute. Therefore the angular speed, <o = —^—_— radians
60
per second, that is co = \n rads .
lemember:
distance travelled 1 Find the average speed in m/s for each child, over
jrverage speed =
time interval a one complete revolution
k

37
 / Modelling motion
Remenffiier:
average velocity =
change in displacement
time interval
Activity 3.2
It is possible to work
through the activity using
the general terms rfor
radius, and co for angular
speed. However, if you
prefer, use initially the
values for the child at
position A on the merry-
go-round, that is r = 2m,
(o = \n rads"1 . You could
modify your working later
so that it applies in the
general case.
38
b ten complete revolutions
c one-fifth of a revolution.
2 Find the average velocity of each child over one complete revolution of the
merry-go-round.
3 At an instant
a what is each child's speed?
b in which direction is each child travelling?
4 How does the speed of a child depend on how far the child is sitting from the
centre of the merry-go-round?
5 Describe the velocity of a child sitting on a merry-go-round at distance r m from
the centre while it rotates at a constant angular speed, ft) rads .
Vector equations of circular motion
Whatever the motion, if you know the displacement vector r, so that you are able to
give the x- and y-components as functions of time, - that is, x = x(t), andy - y(t) -
then by using differentiation, you can find expressions for each component of
velocity and acceleration.
differentiate differentiate
r = x(t)
yG)
What vector equations can you develop to describe the motion of a body rotating in
a circle with constant angular speed?
• Assumptions the body is a particle
the body is rotating in a circle at a constant angular speed.
• Constants the radius of the circle is r metres
the angular speed is 0) rads"
align x- and v-axes at right angles to each other;
align unit vectors, i and j in the x- and y-directions
respectively / \
at time t = 0 , the body is at a point P() , r() = as in
Figure 3.3a. ^GJ
Variables At time t seconds, the body is at point P with position vector
r=
velocity v =
acceleration a =
«v
• Draw diagrams
 3 Circular motion

At time t
Initially >'

(O rads~

Figure 3.3a Figure 3.3b

If the body is rotating with constant angular speed (0 rads , then after ? seconds it
will have rotated through an angle 9 = cot rad, as in Figure 3.4.
1 a Write down the position vector r of the particle when it is at P.
b Find the magnitude of r.
2 a By differentiating the vector r with respect to time, find the velocity vector v.
b Investigate whether the magnitude and direction of v are what you expected
from your findings in Activity 3.1.
3 Show that, at an instant, the direction of the velocity is always perpendicular to
the position vector of the particle.
You can do this in two different ways. Either you can consider the angle that OP
makes with the velocity vector using diagrams such as those in Figures 3.5a and
3.5b, or you can show that the scalar product v. r = 0.
Using both methods, convince yourself that the velocity is always tangential to the
position vector.
-rcosin cot

Figure 3.4
nwcos cor

Figure 3.5a Figure 3.5b

39
 / Modelling motion
Activity 3.3
Figure 3.6
You will need to know the
radius of the Earth. This can
be found in the planetary data
sheet at the end of Chapter 5
on page 88.
"ff you consider the Earth
as fixed and the stars as
spinning about it, then
one sidereal day is the
time taken for any one
star or planet to make
one complete revolution
about the Earth.
40
4 a By differentiating the vector v with respect to time, find the acceleration
vector a.
b Investigate the magnitude and direction of the acceleration a.
5 a By considering your expressions for r and a, show that a = -a>2 r.
b What does this expression tell you about the magnitude and direction of the
acceleration?
6 Write in words a description of how the position, velocity and acceleration of a
body moving in a circle at constant angular speed, vary with time. Pay particular
attention to describing how the magnitude and direction of these quantities vary.
Using the equations of circular motion
1 A large town hall clock has an hour hand of length 0.65 m, and a minute hand of
0.95 m.
a Find the angular speed of an ant sitting at the tip of the hour hand.
b Find the angular speed of his sister sitting on the tip of the minute hand.
c If they first become split up at 12 noon, when the hands are together, find when
they can first rejoin each other, assuming that they can do so only when the hands
directly coincide.
d Find the acceleration of each ant.
2 A boy is cycling round and round a circular track which he has made on rough
ground. You can model him and his cycle as a particle whose position vector is
flOcos0.7A
given by r = . m.
a Write down the boy's angular speed in rads , and the radius of his path.
b Find the boy's speed in ms~ .
c Find the boy's acceleration in ms
d Find vectors that describe the boy's velocity and acceleration.
3 a Compare the speeds of two riders on a chair-o-plane ride. One sits on an outer
seat which has a circular path of radius 5.5 metres, while the other sits on an inner
seat having a path of radius 4 metres. The ride makes 14 revolutions in one minute.
b Find the acceleration of each rider.
4 Consider the Earth spinning on its axis; the time taken for the Earth to make one
complete revolution is 23 hours 56 minutes 4.1 seconds.
a Calculate the angular speed o>E rads* of the Earth.
b In miles per hour, calculate the speed due to this rotation of a person standing on
the Earth's surface at the equator.
You might like to calculate your own speed due to this rotation, by taking
into account your reduced radius of spin (you will need to know the
latitude of where you are for the calculation). Can you feel yourself
spinning at this speed?
5 a The Moon completes one orbit about the Earth in 27.3 sidereal days.
Calculate the angular speed WM rads of the Moon.
b Find the speed and acceleration of the Moon due to this rotation about the Earth.
 3 Circular motion

Earth

rads"
to the stars

Moon

Figure 3.7
• • •• ••••••••••• -«i
If you find the rate of rotation of the Moon relative to the Earth, ]|
(COM -CDE ) rads'1 , you can find the difference in time between the Moon 1
being directly overhead at a point on the Earth's surface from one day to J
the next. This difference explains the delay between high tides on |
successive days, as the Moon is a major influence in causing tides. There"!
are two high tides each day. 1

Activity 3.4 Graphing circular motion

Here you will use parametric techniques to graph the motion of a body moving in a
circle at constant angular speed.
Observe
How can you, using parametric techniques, simulate the motion of a point P on the
Identify
the vane of a water wheel, shown in Figure 3.8?
problem
Validate

3m

Figure 3.8

• Assumptions the water wheel has constant angular speed due to the steady
flow of the stream.
• Constants the radius r of the path of P is 1.5 m
the speed v of P is 0.5 ms
unit vectors i and j are aligned horizontally and vertically
respectively
the origin is the centre of rotation of the wheel
P is a point on a radius aligned with the i direction so that, at
'1-5"! ( 0 "I
and v =
oJ to.sj
the angular speed of the wheel is a> rads .

41
 / Modelling motion

Variables At time t the point P has position r = |, velocity v, and

\yi
acceleration a.
Draw a diagram

figure 3.9

The angular velocity is given by co = — = -^— = 4 rads" .

r 1.5
(r cos cot}
1 Write the position vector r of the point P in the form r = . Plot the
{rsmcot j
path of P by using your graphics calculator in parametric mode, and the x- and y-
components of r.

Make sure that your calculator is in radian mode. Choose the range for
your calculator display carefully so that you can see the circle. You need
to have the units in the x- and j-directions the same lengths on the
display screen to ensure that the path looks like a circle; consult your
calculator handbook to find how to do this.

2 Investigate how you can use your calculator to plot various numbers of points
around the circle. This can speed up the process of plotting the circle, but may lead
to inaccuracies.
3 Investigate how you can start plotting the path of P at different positions, for
( 0
example at
F 1.5

42
 3 Circular motion

Observe
Identify
the
problem
Validate

4 a Use your graph to find the position vector of P when t = 1.

Here you are working in
the area of interpreting, b Find the time when P is first 0.5 m above O. When does this next occur?
predicting, and validating
your model.

Reflecting on Chapter 3
What you should know
For a body moving in a circle with constant angular speed:
• how to find its average speed
• how to find vector equations giving its position, velocity and acceleration
• an expression for the magnitude of the velocity in terms of its angular speed and
the radius of its path
• expressions for the magnitude of the acceleration of the body in terms of the
radius of its path and either its speed or its angular speed
• the direction of travel at any point
• the direction of the acceleration at any point on its path
• how to use your calculator in parametric mode to simulate motion.

Preparing for your next review

• Reflect on the 'What you should know' list for this chapter. Be ready for a
discussion on any of the points.
• Answer the following check questions.
1 A car travels round the roundabout shown in Figure 3.10 so that its path can be
modelled as parts of a circle. It travels at constant speed throughout the period.

Figure 3.10
a On a sketch of the car's path, mark arrows showing the direction of its velocity
and acceleration at points A and B.
b Is the car's acceleration zero, constant, or variable? Give some justification for
your answer.

43
 7 Modelling motion
2 Two ice skaters, shown in Figure 3.11, skate on two circular paths about the
same central point on an ice rink. Both skaters have the same angular speed.

0) rads

Figure 3.11
a Which of the two skaters has the greater speed?
b Which skater has the greater magnitude of acceleration?

You could now tackle

* Practice exercises on page 113
• Activity 9.4 on page 129, or 9.5 on page 130.

44
Modelling forces

In Unit 1 you investigated how to describe and model motion. In this unit you will
learn how to model forces. Forces act everywhere. They cause changes in motion
and they also act in situations where no motion takes place.
Dictionaries give many definitions of the word force.

Strength Intense effort p ,, Constrain

Power Causes acceleration
Causes motion rush
Compel Impose

Which of these words do you think describes most accurately describes force in the
context of mechanics?
In Chapter 4 you will develop an arithmetic of forces, so that you can find the result
of combining a number of forces.
Chapter 5 is about modelling some common forces, including tensions in strings
which don't stretch, forces between two bodies that are in contact and forces of •
attraction. The most important force is weight.

You should work through the two chapters of this unit in sequence.
This unit should take about 24 hours of your learning time. About half of this time
will be spent outside the classroom. This includes some time allowance for
using some of the practice exercises for each chapter. If you tackle one of the
problems from Chapter 9 associated with this unit, you should allow about five
more hours.

45
 Properties of forces

In this chapter you will investigate the properties of forces and develop some of the
commonly used methods for analysing systems of forces.
In Activity 4.1 you will make a simple force meter called an 'elastoscale'. In
Activity 4.2 you will use this elastoscale and two others, to investigate the
properties of forces.
Activity 4.3 is optional. It gives you an opportunity to practise using some of the
ideas that you developed in Activity 4.2.
Activity 4.4 presents several techniques which you can use to find unknown forces
in force systems that are in equilibrium. You can practise using these techniques in
some of the problems.

If possible, you will find it useful to work in a group for Activity 4.1. You will need
the assistance of others if this is not possible.
Activities 4.1 and 4.2 involve practical work. Plan your work so that you have the
necessary equipment available to complete each activity in a single session.
Activities 4.1 and 4.2 should be worked in sequence; Activity 4.3 is optional and
should be tackled after 4.2.

In Chapters 1 and 2 you studied the motion of objects which were accelerating
uniformly. Galileo investigated two special cases near the Earth's surface: a ball
falling vertically and a ball projected and travelling in two dimensions. In each case
he modelled the vertical component of the motion by using the same constant
acceleration. You have seen that the value of this acceleration is about 9.8 ms .
When an apple falls from a tree it accelerates towards the ground. Why?
In response to this question most people reply 'gravity . The idea of an apple falling
Galileo did not
explain the cause of to the ground is often associated with Newton. Newton's genius was to find a single
acceleration of falling model which explained not only the motion of an apple falling from a tree to the
objects, although ground, but also that of the Moon about the Earth, and of planets about the Sun. He
historians believe that he conjectured that to keep the Moon rotating about the Earth, for example, there must
had a clear be some form of attraction (force) between the two bodies, otherwise the Moon
understanding of the would travel off into space. Similarly, the apple falls to the ground because there is
cause. a force of attraction between it and the Earth. Newton's Universal Law of
Gravitation (1684) explains this type of force. You will study Newton's Universal
Law of Gravitation more closely in Chapter 5.

46

The mass of an object is
a measure of the quantity
of matter in an object. For
example, if you have two
bars made of the same
uniform substance, one of
which is double the
volume of the other, the
larger body will have
twice the mass. The unit
of mass that has been
commonly adopted
throughout the scientific
world is the kilogram, kg.
The standard kilogram
mass is made of a mixture
of platinum and iridium
and kept at Sevres near
Paris.
The abbreviation for
newton is N.
4 Properties of forces
Weight
The force of attraction, gravity, exerted by the Earth at its surface on an object is
called the weight of the object. The weight of an object is found experimentally to
be proportional to its mass. Thus, the Earth exerts a larger force on an adult than on
a baby, as shown in Figure 4.1.
mass M
9.8 ms~
weight w weight W
Figure 4.1
The weight, W, of an object is proportional to its mass. Therefore W m , or
W = k x m where k is the constant of proportionality.
At this stage in this course, no unit of force has been defined. For the moment, take
the definition of the unit of force, the newton, to be such that a body of mass 1
kilogram weighs 9.8 newtons.
This means that the constant of proportionality, k, is 9.8 newtons per kilogram. The
constant k has the same numerical value as g, the acceleration due to gravity. The
important link between acceleration and force of attraction is explained fully in
Chapter 6: Newton's Laws.
If you know the mass, m, of an object in kilograms, then its weight, W, measured in
newtons, is given by W = mg .
You can use weighing devices such as kitchen scales and spring balances to
measure the weight of an object. These kitchen scales and spring balances compare
forces against a scale which has been calibrated using the weights of standard
masses. For this reason they usually give readings in kilograms rather than in
newtons. You can also compare masses of objects using a balance device with scale
pans.
 2 Modelling forces

Figure 4.2

You can use your knowledge about weight to make a force meter called an
elastoscale. You can then measure different kinds of forces, and investigate some of
their general properties.

Activity 4.1 Measuring force

When making your elastoscales, use the approximation that 100 g weighs
1 newton.
Throughout the rest of this chapter, all forces are measured in newtons.
Here is some practical advice.

48
 4 Properties of forces

Making an elastoscale
You will need stiff card
approximately
15 cm by 5 cm

a paperclip a mass
hanger and
some masses a stapler and sticky tape

i Stretch the elastic a few times to remove any initial stiffness

i Double the elastic and tie a knot in the end

• Staple the elastic to the card just below the knot and use some sticky
tape to secure it firmly

• Calibrate - use different masses

- zero point Measure to bottom of elastic

(unstretched)
loop of string

paperclip hook

49
 2 Modelling forces

1 Use your elastoscale to find the force in newtons that is needed to:
a lift up a book
b pull open a door
c drag a book along a table
d lift up an apple.
2 Take a set of bathroom scales and examine the calibrations. What force is your
set of bathroom scales measuring? Using your scales, find in newtons:
a someone's weight
b the weight of a chair
c the weight of a child
d the force with which you can push against the wall.

Although bathroom scales are measuring forces they are calibrated in

kilograms - a measure of mass. If you stand on the scales and obtain a
reading of 60 kilograms it means that the scales are measuring a force of
60xg newtons.

Before working through any further activities, you need to understand some of the
general properties of forces.
Consider two tugs pulling a large tanker into harbour. Model the tanker as a particle,
This is not done in
so that the point of attachment of the lines from the tugs is a single point.
practice, of course, as
attaching the tugs to Think about these questions.
each side of the bows, for
example, allows the Why have two tugs pulling the tanker?
tanker to be rotated. In
this book you will not
study the rotation of solid
bodies, but should bear in
mind that this is an
important property that
could affect your
solutions to problems. ,

Can two tugs pulling in different directions To keep the tanker moving forward,
pull the tanker in a straight line? which tug has to pull harder?

You should conclude that when considering forces the following factors are
important:
• the magnitude of the force
• the direction of action of the force
• the point at which the force is applied.

50

Activity 4.2
It will be best to hook
your elastoscales to a
small ring with the paper
clips. Fix a sheet of paper
on a desk. Mark a point
clearly on the paper and
in each investigation try
to keep the centre of the
ring above the point.
This is not a precise
definition of equilibrium.
However, the meaning of
equilibrium will be
developed later in this
chapter, and in Chapter 6,
Newton's Laws.
4 Properties of forces
In Activity 4.2 you will investigate systems offerees.
Investigating forces
This is a practical activity. You will need: 3 elastoscales, a small ring, a ruler, a
protractor, a pencil, some large sheets of paper.
Aim to make conclusions about specific systems while developing methods of
analysing systems offerees in general.
Use three elastoscales to investigate the systems of forces suggested, and some
similar force systems of your own.
You may already be familiar with some of the techniques developed here. Read
the aim of each part of the activity and decide whether you need to work through
that particular part briefly, in depth, or not at all.
Use three elastoscales to investigate
When you are investigating the systems suggested in this activity, examine the
forces when you have managed to settle the system so that the ring is stationary
above the point that you have marked on the paper. Think of this as the system
being in equilibrium. You may need to change the direction of action of the forces
to achieve this equilibrium.
57
 2 Modelling forces

Measure forces and angles

A Three forces with

the same magnitude

B Two forces with

the same magnitude

1.5 1.5

C Three forces
different ?

Figure 4.3
1 Investigate the systems of forces shown in Figure 4.3. For each system record
each force by using a line segment whose length represents the magnitude of the
force, and whose direction is the same as the force.
Figure 4.4 will help you do this.

52
 4 Properties of forces

Scale:
1 newton
A represented
by ?cm

Figure 4.4
The magnitude and direction of a force are the most important factors in describing
a force. Vectors have the same property: you can describe them by giving their
magnitude and direction. In the next part of the activity you will examine whether
you can combine forces in the same way that you combine vectors. If so, you can
model forces by using vectors.
2 In this part of the activity you should aim to:
• determine whether or not you can model forces by vectors
• develop an understanding of what is meant by the term 'resultant'.
For one or more of the systems that you recorded you should:
a use scale drawings to represent each force as a line segment, as shown in Figure
4.5
b use a scale drawing to combine the forces, as shown in Figure 4.6.

53
 2 Modelling forces

A system of forces recorded Each force can be represented

using a scale drawing by a line segment

AF,

The length and direction of each

line segment are important

Figure 4.5

Combining forces, using scale drawings, in a way that reflects vector addition

A system of forces recorded

using a scale drawing
2 :

Direction of
action of F,

F,

a
Direction of
action of F3
Figure 4.6

When you combine the line segments representing the three forces in this way, they
should form a closed triangle. You may find from your practical results that your
triangle is not closed. This will be due to the inaccuracies inevitably involved with
practical work; however, your triangle should be almost closed.
Your practical work should lead you to conclude that a force can be represented by
a vector drawn in the direction of the force and to scale, so that its length is
proportional to the magnitude of the force. When you do this for each force in a

54

Figure 4,7
Because you are
modelling the forces
using vectors these are
written as vector
statements.
4 Properties offerees
system offerees in equilibrium, the sum of these vectors is zero. The combined
force acting on the ring is zero; it is as though the ring had no forces acting on it.
The evidence suggests that you can model forces by using vectors. You can apply
the arithmetic of vectors to forces.
Figure 4.7 shows the way that you should draw the vector sum of a system of forces.
When three forces are involved the resulting diagram is called a 'triangle of
forces'
c For one of your systems of forces, investigate whether the order in which you
add the forces matters. Do this by drawing scale diagrams representing Fx + F2 + F3
andF!+F3 +F2 .
The systems of forces that you have investigated are in equilibrium. The diagram
showing their vector sum is closed. This means that Fj + F2 + F3 = 0 .
Consider a system of forces which is in equilibrium such as those shown in Figure
4.8. If you replace the two forces that are the same by one single force, R N, what
will be its magnitude and direction?
The replacement force, R, is called the resultant.
1.5.

In this case the resultant is equal in

magnitude to the force that it balances,
and acts in the opposite direction

1.5 V 1.5
Figure 4.9a Figure 4.9b
You can find the resultant by adding the two forces vectorially (Figure 4.10):
When a number of forces F,, F2 , F3 , ... , Fn act, their resultant is given by
R = F,+F2 +F3 + ... +F,,.
F| + F2 = R Figure 4.11 illustrates how to find R when there are four forces.
Figure 4.10

resultant R

Figure 4.11

When four or more forces are in equilibrium, the vectors which represent them form
a closed polygon. This is called a 'polygon of forces'

55
 2 Modelling forces

To achieve the same effect you can replace the system by a single force equal to the
resultant, R.
A system of forces is in equilibrium if their resultant is zero.
Extending the definition
of the term 'equilibrium'. 3 In this part of the activity you should:
Further discussion of • learn to split forces into two components at right angles
equilibrium can be • learn to use column vectors to find the vector sum of force systems.
followed in Chapter 6,
Newton's Laws. Figure 4.12 shows an example of where two forces at right angles to each other are
replaced by their resultant.

Two forces can be replaced by their resultant

F, A 3

resultant

F,
F, + F7 = R
Figure 4.12a Figure 4.12b

You can reverse the process of combining forces, by splitting a single force into two
component forces. This is especially useful when the two component forces are at
right angles. This enables you to write down the original force as a column vector.
An example of this reverse process is shown in Figure 4.13. In this example, a unit
vector i is aligned in a chosen direction (in this case so that the 5 N force makes an
angle of 60° with it). The unit vector j is at right angles to i, and the force
components are found in these two directions.
Replacing a single force by components at right angles
F ^r F

5 sin 60° = 4.33

5 cos 60' 2.5

•5 cos 60° = 2.5
5 sin 60°/ ~ \4.33

Figure 4.13

This process is referred to as resolving forces into components.

,'2.5"\ ( 0 "\ (2.5} (2.5} ( 0
Note: the resultant of and is L or +
0 4.33 4.33 0 4.33 4.33,

56
 4 Properties offerees
For one or more of your recorded force systems:
a represent each force as a column vector
b find the vector sum of the system using column vectors.
4 Write down any conclusions that you have come to about systems of three forces
in equilibrium:
a where all forces have the same magnitude
b where only two of the forces have the same magnitude
c where all of the forces have different magnitudes.

Activity 4.3 Using drawings and vectors

This activity is optional. It gives you practice with some of the ideas that you have
just met in Activity 4.2.
1 For each system of forces shown in Figure 4.14, use a scale drawing to find the
Remember that in your
resultant.
answers you will need to
show clearly both the b A7N 7N,
magnitude and direction
of the resultant force.
6N

8N 8N 12N

6N

4N
2N

9NV
Figure 4. H
2 Express each force shown in Figure 4.15 as a column vector by taking unit
vectors i and j aligned as indicated.

b 5

57
 2 Modelling forces

f AF

F2 10

11

Figure 4.15
3 In Figure 4.16, for the given orientation of i and j, write the force F newtons as a
column vector. In part c, i makes an angle of 45° with the horizontal.

Figure 4.16
\
4 An apple has weight W newtons. It is suspended by two strings. Write the
weight as a column vector if unit vectors i and j are aligned:
a in the direction of the horizontal string and vertically respectively, as shown in
Figure 4.17a.

58
 4 Properties of forces
b in the direction of the other string and at right angles to it respectively, as shown
in Figure 4.17b.

Figure 4.17a Figure 4.17b

5 For the force system shown in Figure 4.18:

Finding the vector sum
a express each force as a column vector, aligning the unit vectors i and j as shown
means that you should
add the column vectors of b find the vector sum of the system of forces using column vectors.
all the forces in the F,A2N
system.

-J>2.5

2.5 N

Figure 4.18a Figure 4.18b

Activity 4.4 Analysing force systems

Three methods of analysing force systems in equilibrium are possible:
• using scale drawings
• using trigonometric calculations
• using column vectors.
You should be able to use all three methods to analyse systems of forces. In this
activity there is an opportunity to practise using each of these methods. Before you
try working on your own, read through the worked examples which show how each
method is used. Then, by working through some examples, you will find the
advantages and disadvantages of each of the three methods.

59
 2 Modelling forces

Example 1
The system of forces shown in Figure 4.19 is in equilibrium. Find the unknown
3 angles.
A B

1.5

Figure 4.19
Figure 4.20
Draw an accurate scale diagram of the triangle of forces. Measure the angles A, B and C
Notice that the angles you can measure on your drawings are not those between the
forces. It is possible to find the angles between the forces, as shown in Figure 4.21.

3 N force

.5 56° V

direction of
1.5 N force

3
A
This allows you to
write down the
angle between the
3Nand 1.5 N forces

Figure 4.21
60
 4 Properties of forces
A method which relies on scale drawing will not usually be very accurate.
1 Use a scale drawing to find all unknown forces and angles in each of the
examples shown in Figure 4.22.
a 6 b 4
A

2<t

Figure 4.22

Example 2
Use trigonometric calculations to find the unknown angles when the force system
shown in Figure 4.23 is in equilibrium.
3
A

A
Figure 4.23 Figure 4.24
Sketch a vector diagram ('triangle of forces'), and use the sine and cosine rules to calculate
unknown angles

61
 2 Modelling forces

STOU could equally findlfl} Having labelled the vertices of the triangle A, B, C as shown, find angle A using the
one of the other angles!! cosine rule:
...first.

Figure 4.25

Then
When using the sine and
cosine rules, remember 2.5 2 = ! 2 +32 -2xlx3xcosA,
that side a is opposite so that
angle A, side b is
opposite angle B, and ! 2 +3 2 -2.5 2 3.75
cos A =
side c is opposite angle 2x1x3 6
C, as shown in Figure and A = 51.32°
JL25,..,.,,.,,....... .„„„„, ....
Using the sine rule to find C, you obtain:
2.5 = 3
sin 51.32 sinC
which leads to C = 69.52° or 110.48°

Don't forget that two angles between 0" and 180° have the same positive
value of sine, i.e. sin(180° - 0) = sind.

Inspection of the vector triangle shows that 69.52° cannot be the angle; in this case,
therefore, C = 110.48°.
Since 51.32° + ! 10.48°+B = 180°, then B = 18.2°
Notice that, as in Example 1, you do not know the angles between the forces.
However, you can find the angles in the same way as in Example 1.
Finding the other two angles will allow you to give a full solution, shown in Figure
4.26.

62
 4 Properties of forces

Figure 4.27
Use trigonometric calculations to find all unknown forces and angles in each of the
examples shown in Figure 4.27.

63
 2 Modelling forces

Example 3
This example shows you how to use column vectors to find unknown forces. This is
not a good method for solving the example used in the earlier part of this activity.
Find the magnitudes fj N and F2 N of the forces ¥l and F2 shown in Figure 4.28.
Using column vectors
align the unit vector j with
direction of F,

Figure 4.28

° It is best to arrage i and f!

so that one of the
unknown forces is •;!
.aligned with i or j. ;
Impressing that force as •
l a column vector is then
easy. Figure 4.29
Express each force as a column vector, and use the condition for equilibrium

fthis single vector As column vectors:

equation gives you two 3 newton force:
equations if you now ;
consider the i and j f3cos30°l ( 2.598^ f 0}
; force F, = ; force F2 =
^directions separately. ^-3sin30°J t-1.500j' l (pj' 2 -F2 sinlO/
phese two equations '•"
lenable you to find the two f3cos300 "| (0} (-F2 cos 10
Ifunknowns F, and F2 . ,,:-:,c-s Equilibrium gives that: = 0.

In the i direction: 3 cos 30 - F2 cos 10 = 0

SWhen you consider the
equilibrium of forces in
iitwo directions at right
|angles to each other, you
IB re resolving the forces.
lYou can write down these
two equations
immediately by saying
that the forces are in ..,
equilibrium in the i and jj
y;the j directions. fl
In the j direction: -3 sin 30 + Fj - F2 sin 10 = 0
3 cos 30
From the first equation F2 = ———— = 2.638
cos 10
Substituting into the second equation, you find that
-3sin30 + F,-2.638sinlO = 0
so that
F, =2.638 sin 10+ 3 sin 30 = 1.958.
From which Fl = 1.96 N and F2 = 2.46 N.

64
 4 Properties of forces

20

Figure 4.30

In each of the examples in Figure 4.30, find all the unknown forces and angles,
using column vector methods.

2
A

Figure 4.31

65
 2 Modelling forces

Use any method to find all unknown forces or angles in each of the situations in
Figure 4.31.

Reflecting on Chapter 4
What you should know
how to measure forces using a simple device: the elastoscale
the magnitude of some common forces such as the weight of everyday objects
how to record forces using scale drawings
how to use vector diagrams drawn to scale to represent the addition of forces
what is meant by the terms 'triangle' and 'polygon' offerees
what is meant by the term 'equilibrium'
how to split forces into two components at right angles
how to represent forces as column vectors
how to find the resultant of a system of forces using both scale drawing and
column vector methods
how to find unknown forces and angles in equilibrium systems of forces using
scale drawings, trigonometric calculations, and column vectors.

Preparing for your next review

• Write a few sentences describing what you understand by the term 'equilibrium'.
• Answer the following check questions.
1 Three forces F\, F2 and F3 act on a particle, which remains in equilibrium, as in
Figure 4.32. Draw a sketch of the triangle of forces for the system.
F3 N

F,N

Figure 4.32
2 Three forces /*], F2 and F3 act on a particle which remains in equilibrium. A
force diagram for the system is shown in Figure 4.33. This is not drawn to scale.
However, a°<b°< c°
a Which force has the greatest magnitude?
b Which force has the smallest magnitude?

66
 4 Properties of forces

F3 N

Figure 4.33
3 Write down as a column vector, the force, F, shown in Figure 4.34.

JA
>

Figure 4.34

You could now tackle =^1111111111:

Practice exercises on page 115.

67
 Modelling some common forces

5.1 In this chapter you will explore the commonly used models for a number of types of
Thinking force. These include the forces between two bodies that are in contact with one
about tension, another, and forces of attraction, including weight.
in light strings
When you have studied this chapter you will be able to tackle problems such as
these.
A High Street Traders' Association is erecting its annual display of illuminated
Christmas decorations. At one point in the High Street a low building requires one
of the supporting cables to be horizontal so that the central decoration is at the
correct height above the High Street. The building opposite allows the other cable to
make a range of angles with the horizontal.
How will the tensions in the cables vary with the point of attachment chosen for the
sloping cable?
5.5
Problem:
What a drag!

A builder wants to use a pulley system to drag a heavy load up a ramp to the flat
roof of a building. He cannot pull the rope continuously so will need to take rests. Is
it always possible for the builders to take rests without the load sliding down the
ramp? Can the builder let go of the rope?
In Activity 5.1 you will model the tension in a light string and then, in Activity 5.2,
you will validate the model.
You will investigate frictional forces in a similar way in Activities 5.3 and 5.4.
Activity 5.5 is optional. It gives you an opportunity to use the models for tension
and friction in an extended problem. You could use practical work to validate your
solution to the problem.

68

elastic
string
inelastic!
string j
Figure 5. /
(n many problems it is
possible to make the
assumption that the
weight of the ropes
involved is negligible
compared to the other
forces involved. It is then
said that the string or
rope is light.
5 Modelling some common forces
In Activities 5.6 and 5.1 you will study Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation.
The activities of this chapter follow in sequence.
Remember to plan your work for this chapter carefully so that you have practical
equipment available for Activities 5.2 and 5.3.
Activity 5.5 is optional.
Modelling tension
Engineers need to know something about the forces in the ropes. This type of force
is called a tension. The purpose of this section is to investigate how to model
tension.
When you made your elastoscales, shown in Figure 5.1, you used two different
types of string:
• string which did not stretch significantly, called inelastic or inextensible string
• string which did stretch significantly, called elastic string.
This section is about the tension in light inextensible strings.
Think about two teams taking part in a tug-of-war. They hold the rope off the
ground. Before they start to pull the weight in the rope causes it to hang in a curve
between the teams.
Figure 5.2a
Figure 5.2b
As both teams start to pull, the rope comes under tension, and appears straight. The
tension in the rope is an internal force which acts in such a way as to keep the rope
together. The weight of the rope can now be considered as negligible compared to
the pulling force applied by the teams. You can now assume that the rope is light.
If the teams remain stationary in their starting places, then the tension in the rope
must be constant throughout; with the pulling forces of the two teams being
balanced. This is shown in Figure 5.3.
69
 2 Modelling forces

Figure 5.3
If each team pulls in the horizontal direction with force P, the resultant force is
given by P-P = 0.
It is usual to represent the tension force in the rope by the symbol T. You can
represent the forces acting at the point, A, as shown in Figure 5.4a.

For equilibrium at A:
T-P = 0, so T = P.
Although Figure 5.4a Figure 5.4a
shows point A as having
a significant length this is
not the case. It is best to
think of it as a particle
(without weight) of rope.

Figure 5.4b
Similarly, the forces at point B are shown in Figure 5.5b.

For equilibrium at B:
T-P = 0, so T = P.

Figure 5.5a

T<±
Figure 5.5b
The horizontal equilibrium of every point of the rope can be explained by each point
having a tension T acting on it in opposite directions (Figure 5.6).
TT TT- TT- TT-

Figure 5.6
For a point of rope, the resultant horizontal force is given by 7-7 = 0.

Activity 5.1 Thinking about tension in light strings

When calibrating the scale of an elastoscale, you used both elastic and inelastic
strings.
1 Consider an elastoscale supporting a mass M kg, as shown in Figure 5.7.

70
 5 Modelling some common forces
a What forces act on the mass when it is in equilibrium?
b Draw a diagram to show the forces acting on the mass.
c If the system is in equilibrium, what can you deduce about these forces?

firm support

A simplified model • elastic

of an ekstoscale
supporting a mass M

inelastic

mass M kg

A---

Figure 5.7
C- - 2 What can you say about the tension at points A, B, C and D shown in Figure 5.8,
spaced along the elastic and inelastic strings of an elastoscale?
In systems involving strings, pulleys are often used to change the line of action of a
force. If the pulley has 'smooth' bearings and has a small mass so that it can be
considered to be 'light', you can assume that the tension in a light string is the same
on both sides of the pulley. In Figures 5.9a, 5.9b and 5.9c, the tensions on both sides
of the pulley are equal, so Tj = T2 .

P\
Figure 5.9a Figure 5.9b Figure 5.9c
3 Consider a smooth light pulley supporting two masses connected by a light
inelastic string, as shown in Figure 5.10.
a Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on each of the masses.
b If the system is in equilibrium, what can you deduce about the tension in the
M
string?
Figure 5.10

71
 2 Modelling forces
c If the masses are supported in the positions shown in Figures 5.1 la and 5. lib
and then released what would you expect to happen? Give reasons for your answer
by sketching diagrams to show the forces acting on each mass, and considering
whether or not the system is in equilibrium.
You may wish to try the experiment in question 3 practically. Check to see if what
M you expect actually occurs in practice. If it does not, find a reason.
M

Figure 5.11a Figure 5.11b Notice that question 2 in the last activity should have led you to the important
conclusion that you can model the tension in a light inelastic string as being constant
throughout its length.

Activity 5.2 Tension in real strings

This is a practical activity. You will need: string, masses and mass hangers, pulleys
and clamps (or elastoscales), protractor and ruler.
The purpose of this activity is to use practical equipment to validate the model that
you have for tension in light inelastic strings, and in light, smooth pulleys if you use
them. You will use the theory which you developed in Chapter 4 to predict how a
system of strings, pulleys and masses will settle in equilibrium, and then see
whether your predictions are valid for a real system.

20 grams 30 grams 20 grams

40 grams 40 grams

Figure 5.12a Figure 5.12b

In the system of pulleys and masses shown in Figure 5.12a, what angles will the
inclined strings make with the horizontal?
To allow you to refer to parts of the system, it may be necessary to draw a diagram
with certain points labelled clearly, as in Figure 5.12b.
• Assumptions the strings are light and inextensible
the pulleys are light and smooth.
• Draw a diagram Figure 5.13 is a force diagram showing the forces acting at
point D.

72

A force diagram does not
show forces to scale. It is
a sketch of the situation
indicating the magnitudes
of the forces and their
directions of action.
5 Modelling some common forces
Figure 5.13
• Define constants
1 a What is the tension, 7j N, in sections AB and CD of string ABCD?
b What is the tension, T2 N, in sections GF and ED of string DEFG?
c What is the tension, T3 N, in HD?
• Define variables the angles made with the horizontal by the sections CD and
ED of the string are a and ft respectively, as shown in
Figure 5.13.
2 Show the information that you now have about tensions on a force diagram of
the system of forces in equilibrium at D.
3 Use one of the methods which you developed in Chapter 4 to find the angles a
and ft.
'Observe
Identify
the .
problem
Validate
4 Use elastoscales, or pulleys, strings and masses, to simulate the situation in this
activity. Measure the angles a and /?. Do your results suggest that your model for
tension in inelastic strings is valid? Suggest reasons why the results of your practical
experiment may differ from your analysis.
73
 2 Modelling forces

Contact forces
Imagine that you are standing on a plank of wood on horizontal ground. Someone
raises one end. You remain on the plank, so there is a force from the plank keeping
you in contact with it. This contact force exerted by the plank is called a reaction.
This section is about reactions.
It is often convenient to consider reaction forces as consisting of two components:
llSlotice the use of the
one acting along the tangent to the two surfaces in contact, called the friction force;
' word 'normal', in the
and the other at right angles to this, called the normal contact force.
same sense as normal to
,,,a curve. .^,: ..,,.....,,,,s,,,:r, ,ra .,. As a starting point for considering reactions, think about and answer the questions in
Figures 5.14. Use your experience of forces to assist you.

mass m mass M

Are you in equilibrium?

Figure 5.14a
What forces act on you when you
Figure 5.14b
are in the air diving into a
swimming pool? What forces act on these two people standing on tables?
In all cases the person's weight must be acting. If the person standing on the table is
in equilibrium, then that person's weight must be balanced by an equal force acting
in the opposite direction. It is usual to represent this force by the symbol N. This
stands for normal contact force. This force acts at right angles, that is, along the
normal to the two surfaces in contact. The forces acting on the people in Figure 5.14
can be shown on force diagrams contained in Figure 5.15.

74
 5 Modelling some common forces

Note that in these force Standing on a table

N2
diagrams the people have
been modelled as A
particles.
Diving

V V
mg Mg

Not in equilibrium N\=mg Equilibrium implies N2 =

The contact force is different in each case

Figure 5.15a Figure 5.15b
Consider a book resting on a horizontal table. A force diagram for this situation is
shown in Figure 5.16a.
Now consider the table tilted so that the book remains stationary. As the book is in
equilibrium the weight, mg, acting vertically downward must be balanced by a force
of the same magnitude acting vertically upward. These forces are shown in the force
diagram, Figure 5.16b.
Notice that the force, R, is not normal to the two surfaces in contact, so it is not
given the symbol N.
N R
A A

V
mg
Figure 5.16a

Think of the reaction as the resultant of two components: a component, N, normal to

the surfaces in contact; and a friction component, F, tangential to the surfaces in
contact as shown in Figure 5.17.
N
Notice that the friction
force Facts in such a
way as to oppose any
potential sliding of the
book down the slope.

The reaction force R is split into two components, the friction force F and the
normal reaction N.

75
 2 Modelling forces
You need to develop a model for frictional forces, using a method similar to the one
for tension in inelastic strings. You will do this in Activity 5.3. The problem of
Activity 5.5 is posed in Figure 5.18; in Figure 5.19 there are some questions about
the forces involved.
Look at Figures 5.18 and 5.19 before working on Activity 5.3.
When dragging a heavy load along level ground, using a rope, at what angle is it
best to incline the rope so that you minimise its tension?

Observe
Identify
the
problem
Validate

Figure 5.18

What forces act

on the load?
What can you say about the
resultant force in the
horizontal direction?
... in the vertical direction?

Is the system of
forces in
equilibrium?
^•V_/-

Figure 5.19

Activity 5.3 Investigating friction

This is a practical activity. You will need: wooden block(s), masses, mass
hanger, pulley and clamp.
1 Make a list of the factors which you think will influence a friction force.

76
 5 Modelling some common forces
Investigate your ideas - you may wish to try using a number of books to do this.

Figure 5.20

2 a Sketch a graph showing how you think the friction force, F, varies with an
increasing pulling force, P, as shown in Figure 5.21.
Pull horizontally
P

Figure 5.21

maximum friction
force FMAX that can be*
reached between two
surfaces in contact is
jknown as limiting friction.
b How does the general shape of your graph alter as the mass of the block is
increased?
3 Investigate how the maximum friction force, FMAX , varies with the normal
contact force, N.
This type of practical Plot a graph showing
apparatus may help how limiting friction,
your investigation FMAX, varies with
normal contact force N

-+N
... or you could use Vary N by using
As friction is a contact 1 an elastoscale ... different masses M
force it is useful to ;!
investigate how FMAX -1
varies with the normal j Investigate whether
contact force N. If the ; FMAX = constant x N
suggestion in the graph | is a good model for
of Figure 5.22 is valid, i friction
then, if you wish to |
increase the friction !
force, for example, \
between a car's tyres and
the road, you need first to "
increase the normal •
contact force between ?
the tyres and the road<;3S2|
Figure 5.22

77
 2 Modelling forces

Be consistent.
Some practical advice.
• Make sure that the block is in the same position each time so that it experiences
the same roughness of surface.
• Gently tap the surface to see if the block will just start to move.

Add small masses

until the block just
starts to move

Figure 5.23

Modelling friction forces: summary

Your investigations into frictional contact forces, using your understanding of the
behaviour of forces in equilibrium, may have led you to come to some conclusions.
Your practical work will probably have highlighted some difficulties when you try
to find a simple model for friction forces.
Mathematicians use the model, F < [iN, where F is the friction force acting between
two surfaces in contact, n is a constant due to the nature of the two surfaces, and N
is the normal contact force. The constant fj. is called the coefficient of friction.
Consider a block at rest on a horizontal table. A force P is applied horizontally to
the block in such a way as to attempt to slide the block along the table; see Figure
5.24a. The force P is gradually increased until sliding just occurs. A full-force
diagram relating to this situation is shown in Figure 5.24b.

Figure 5.24a Figure 5.24b

Force diagram

The frictional force, F, acts tangentially along two surfaces in contact.

When a force acts to move two surfaces in contact the frictional force acts in a
direction to oppose the motion.
There is a maximum friction force FMAX that can be achieved between two
surfaces in contact.

78

Some typical values for
the coefficient of friction
H are: for wood on wood
H = 0.3, for steel on steel
H = 0.6, for rubber on
concrete n = 1.0.If two
surfaces in contact are
perfectly smooth there
will be no possibility of a
frictional force arising, so
Activity 5.4
Throughout this activity
assume that the F</iN
is valid.
5 Modelling some common forces
• Before sliding takes place, the friction force increases and is equal in magnitude
to the resultant force P, which is trying to cause sliding between the surfaces.
This maintains the body in equilibrium.
• Just as sliding takes place, the friction force reaches its maximum value, FMAX ,
so P =F
• When sliding is taking place P > FMAX .
A graph of F against P is shown in Figure 5.25.
no sliding - sliding -
static dynamic
= ]JN
-* P
Figure 5.25
The coefficient of friction n is constant for a given pair of surfaces in contact. In
any situation in which friction is an important feature you will need to find
experimentally a value for \i for the pair of surfaces in contact.
When the bodies in contact are not moving the friction force F satisfies F < FMAX ;
in this case F < nN.
Using the model for friction
1 A number of blocks made of various materials, all of mass 1 kg, are available,
together with a number of different horizontal surfaces. For possible combinations
of surfaces in contact, use values of fi, the coefficient of friction, as given above.
Find the force, P,/,^, necessary just to move the following blocks in contact with
the given surfaces:
a wooden block on wooden floor
b steel block on steel bench
c rubber block on concrete road.
2 Consider a wooden block at rest in equilibrium on a flat wooden surface. Draw a
force diagram showing the weight, W, and reaction force, R, acting in the following
circumstances.
a When the wooden surface is horizontal.
b When the wooden surface is at a shallow angle to the horizontal.
c When the wooden surface is at a steep angle to the horizontal.
d On each of your diagrams, replace the reaction force, R, by normal contact, N,
and friction, F, components.
e Use your diagrams to explain why sliding is likely to occur as the angle of slope
of the wooden surface increases.
3 A toboggan has mass 15 kg. A horizontal force of 25 N will just move it when it
is on a horizontal surface of compacted snow.
79
 2 Modelling forces
a Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on the toboggan, modelled as a
particle, when it is just on the point of sliding on this horizontal surface.
b Find a value for fj., the coefficient of friction between the surfaces.
c The toboggan is resting unsupported on a slope of angle 9 °, as shown in Figure
5.26. Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on it.
d By considering the equilibrium of forces parallel to and perpendicular to the
slope write down two equations connecting the forces acting on the toboggan.
e If the slope is just steep enough for the toboggan to start sliding, the model for
Figure 5.26 friction states that FMAX = [iN. This being so, using the value of [I that you have
found, determine the angle of slope on which the toboggan will just start to slide.
4 A gardener who is moving some concrete paving slabs in the garden decides to
raise them to a patio area by sliding them up a ramp made of wooden planks. What
is the steepest angle at which the gardener can slope the planks so that, when the
slabs are left at rest, they will not slide down the planks?
Consider the slabs as particles with total mass M kg.
Take ^ for the surfaces in contact to be 0.5.
Let the greatest angle to the horizontal at which the planks can be set, without
sliding taking place, be 6 °
a Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on the slabs.
b Find the greatest angle, 9 °, at which the planks can be set so that, when left, the
slabs are just about to slide.
c What do you predict will happen if the gardener stacks two or more similar slabs
on top of each other? What might happen if the coefficient of friction for concrete in
contact with concrete is 0.4?
5 a A block of mass m lies at rest on a horizontal surface, as shown in Figure
5.27a. Draw a force diagram showing the forces acting.

at rest at rest

Figure 5.27a Figure 5.27b

b The block is now pushed with a force P, shown in Figure 5.27b, so that it just
does not move. By considering the contact force as consisting of the two
components, the normal contact N, and friction F, draw a force diagram showing the
forces acting on the block.
c Re-draw your force diagram to show a single reaction force, R.
d By drawing a triangle of forces, show the relation between the reaction, R, and
its components F and N.
e If the overall reaction R makes an angle 0 with the vertical, write down an
expression for tan 9 in terms of F and N.
f When sliding is just about to occur, FMAX - \iN. Show that tan 9 = jj..
The fixed angle 9 given by the equation tan 9 = ^ is called the angle of friction
and is denoted by K . Therefore tan A = fJ.. The angle A is the greatest angle that the

80
 5 Modelling some common forces
reaction, R, can make with the direction of the normal to the surfaces in contact; see
Figure 5.28.
When sliding is just about to occur, the reaction, R, makes an angle, A, with the
normal. The angle A, given by tan A = fi is called the angle of friction.

N FMAX

shdmg

v
mg
Figure 5.28

The angle of friction is linked to the greatest angle of slope on which a body can rest
unsupported. This is highlighted in the next part of this activity.
6 What is the steepest slope on which an unsupported block can rest so that it is
just on the point of sliding, as in Figure 5.29?

.... .... ............................... ..... Figure 5.29

This may allow you to find
H experimentally for two Notice that this is similar to the problem for the gardener in question 3. Investigate
bodies in contact. As how the analysis that you carried out will be affected by using a coefficient of
n0 = jU, to find /j. you friction n, rather than the value 0.6 used in question 3.
an find the angle of the Show that, at the point of sliding, tan 9 = fJi, where 6 is the angle that the slope
slope on which a body makes with the horizontal when the block is just on the point of sliding.
Will just remain at rest
unsupported. You have now shown that tan 6 = tan A, so that 9 = X. The angle of greatest slope
on which a particle can rest unsupported is therefore equal to the angle of friction.

Activity 5.5 What a drag!

This activity combines further practice at using the model for friction with an
opportunity to investigate a problem using a modelling approach.
This activity is optional.
When you use a rope to drag a heavy load along level ground, at what angle should
you incline the rope to minimise its tension?

81
 2 Modelling forces

Figure 5.30
• Assumptions the heavy load is a particle
the ground is horizontal and of uniform texture
the friction force obeys the model F < /J.N.
Constants the mass, M kg, of the load
the coefficient of friction, fi
align the unit vectors i and j horizontally and vertically.
Variables the tension Tin the rope when the load starts to slide
the angle 6° of inclination of rope with the horizontal when
sliding starts
Draw a diagram draw the force diagram shown in Figure 5.31.

Figure 5.31
For the load to move, the tension in the rope must be sufficient to overcome limiting
friction. Consider the equilibrium of the system when it has just reached the point of
sliding.
1 Represent each force as a column vector. Write down the conditions for
equilibrium.
2 Use the model for friction, FMAX = /uN, together with your answer to question 1,
to find T as a function of 9
3 Sketch the general shape of the graph of T against 9.
4 Investigate how the tension, TN, in the rope varies as the angle of inclination,
9°, increases from 0 to 90 for different values of \i and m. In particular, what does
your analysis predict for the value of
..... a T when 0 = 0?
Is this what you would
.gxpect? b T when 0 = 90?
c 9 when T is a minimum?
5 You can validate your analysis of this problem practically, using the methods
illustrated in Figure 5.32. If you do, you will find, as you did in Activity 5.3, that the
nature of this friction force is such that it is difficult to achieve results that closely
match your analysis.

82

This is an inverse square
law. For objects at the
surface of the Earth you
can assume that
r = 6.378 x!06 m.
Throughout the rest of
this book the symbol r£
will be used for the
distance of the Earth's
surface from its centre,
so rr = 6.378x!06 m.
Activity 5.6 An inverse square law
5 Modelling some common forces
Use an elastoscale... ... or pulley system f
Vary position '
of pulley
Figure 5,32
Universal gravitation
By studying the results of earlier experiments, and in particular the data gathered by
Kepler, Newton put forward his theory about the force of attraction acting on
objects which are close to the Earth.
Newton said that this attractive force caused by being near the Earth, called W
newtons, acting on a mass, m kilograms, is inversely proportional to the square of its
distance, r metres, from the centre of the Earth.
m
That is, W x— newtons.
m
This can be written in equation form W = k x -=- newtons, where k is a constant.
1 Use the equation W = k x —=- to help you sketch a graph of how the weight of a 1
r
kilogram mass varies with its distance, r metres from the centre of the Earth.
Remember that a 1 kilogram mass weighs 9.8 newtons at the Earth's surface.
2 How far from the centre of the Earth would a 1 kilogram mass need to be for its
weight to be half its weight at the Earth's surface?
3 The lightest recorded adult had a mass of just 5.9 kg, whereas the heaviest is
thought to have had a mass of 635 kg. How far from the Earth's surface should the
heaviest adult be placed in orbit so that he appears to weigh the same as the lightest?
Newton extended his theory about forces of attraction by stating that any two bodies
have a force of attraction between them. If the bodies have masses m} and m2
83
 2 Modelling forces
This Law of Universal
Gravitation was first
published in 1684 in a
short paper 'de motu
corpurum in gyrum' (On
the motion of bodies in an
orbit).
3 assing tnougnt: The
Universal Law implies
that the Earth
experiences an equal
force acting in the
opposite direction to the
weight of an object, such
as a book. What effect
does this have on the
Earth?
Activity 5.7 The Universal Law of Gravitation
This force of attraction
per kilogram is given the
symbol g. You will have
met this constant in
Chapters 1 and 2 when
considering motion near
the Earth's surface. The
important link between
force and motion is
discussed fully in
Chapter 6.
84
kilograms, and are a distance r metres apart, each attracts the other with a force of
magnitude F = ——\-^- newtons, where G is a constant called the Universal
r
Gravitation Constant.
"assume that the mass of a body is concentrated at a single pom
called its centre of mass. For a symmetrical body this coincides with the
; centre of symmetry. This assumption about a object is equivalent to
:; considering it to be a particle. You first met this idea in Chapter 1.
The Universal Gravitation Constant is given by G = 6.67 x 10 Nm kg .
m, F F m2
F=
Figure 5.33
Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation
Newton was able to validate his Universal Law of Gravitation by applying it to
explain the motion of the Moon about the Earth. In Chapter 6 you will see how this
law, and later laws put forward by Newton, can be used to predict motion. When
Newton first applied his law to the orbit of the Moon, his calculations produced
discrepancies which were only resolved when a more accurate measurement of the
size of the Earth was achieved some six years later.
The simplified formula that you used in Activity 5.6, W = k x —^ newtons is
r
replaced by the Universal Law of Gravitation, to give the weight W newtons, of an
object of mass m kilograms, near the Earth's surface as W = —~- m newtons,
rE
where G is the universal gravitation constant, ME kilograms is the mass of the
CM,
Earth, and rE metres is the radius of the Earth. Notice that is a constant.
While working through this activity, you will need to use the information contained
on the Planetary Data Sheet on page 88 at the end of this chapter.
GMf
1 Calculate the value of the constant This gives the force of attraction per
kilogram of mass at the Earth's surface.
At the Earth's surface, the weight, W newtons, of an object is given by
w= GME m_
• = mg newtons.
 5 Modelling some common forces

A distant view At the Earth's surface

r
newtons per kg
Constant force of
attraction per kg of mass

... GMEm
W = ——§— = mg newtons

Figure 5.34
2 Find the weight, at the Earth's surface, of these objects
a a person of mass 65 kg
b a car of mass 1500 kg
c an ocean liner of mass 7.6 x 10 7 kg
'Notice that the weight of
an apple is about 1 d an apple of mass 100 g.
newton. You may find it 3 Calculate the force of attraction of the Earth, newtons per kilogram, at the
jyseful to remember this following points above the Earth's surface:
ps it will give you some
Idea about the size of a
force of one newton.

force of
attraction

Figure 5.35
a at the top of Mount Everest which is 8.849 km above the Earth's surface
b at the limit of the atmosphere which is 928 km above the Earth's surface
c at the Moon
d at the Sun.
4 As you join the tail end of a traffic jam, you hit the rear end of the car in front of
you. Could you argue in your defence that the attractive forces between the two cars
meant that you could not stop?
In modelling the situation you make the following assumptions
• there is commonly a gap of 1 m between cars
• the length of each car is 3 m
• the mass of each car is 1500 kg
• the mass of each car can be considered to act at the same height above the
ground for each car, and at a point midway along the length of the car.
Calculate the force F newtons acting on your car due to the influence of the car in
front.
What conclusions can you draw about whether Newton's Universal Law of
Gravitation would be useful in your defence?

85
 2 Modelling forces
5 An astronaut has a mass of 72 kg.
a Find, using the Universal Law of Gravitation, the weight of the astronaut when
It is often said that the he stands on the Earth's surface.
gravity of the Moon is b The weight of something on the surface of the Moon is the force of attraction
about £th of that of the acting on it due to the Moon. Find the weight of the astronaut on the surface of the
Earth. Do your
calculations confirm this? Moon.
c What fraction of his Earth weight is the astronaut's weight on the Moon?
6 Find the distance from the centre of the Earth at which the force acting on a 1 kg
mass is
a 1 newton
b 0.5 newton
c 0.25 newton.

Reflecting on Chapter 5
What you should know
• how to model the tension as a constant force throughout a light string or rope
• how a light, smooth pulley deflects the line of action of a tension
• how a contact force can be modelled by splitting it into two components: a
normal contact force and a friction force
• what factors influence a friction force
• how a friction force behaves when opposing the motion of an object subject to
external forces
• the simple model relating the maximum friction force between two surfaces
• some of the limitations of modelling the real world with the simple model of
friction forces
• how to use the simple model of friction, together with methods of force analysis,
to solve problems involving friction
• the difference between the commonly used terms 'mass' and 'weight'
• that the gravitational force of attraction, weight, obeys an inverse square law
• how to find the weight, W newtons, of an object near the surface of the Earth
using both the Universal Law of Gravitation and the relation W = m x g
• how to use the Universal Law of Gravitation to find the force of attraction
between any two bodies.

Preparing for your next review

• Write a few sentences describing how you model
a tension in inelastic strings
b the reaction between two bodies in contact
c forces of attraction between bodies.
Make sure that you highlight any assumptions which you make in your models.

86
 5 Modelling some common forces
• Answer the following check questions.
1 Two masses of 1 kg each are connected by a string which passes over three
pulleys as shown in Figure 5.36. When modelling the system, you assume that the
masses remain at rest. What assumptions have you made about the pulleys and the
string?

1kg
Figure 5.36
2 When pushing a large crate of mass 50 kg along a horizontal floor, a man finds
that he needs to use a force of 300 N to start moving the crate.
a Assuming that the simple model F < /i/V for friction holds, find /a, the
coefficient of friction between the crate and the floor.
b If the man pushes with a force of 200 N, what friction force acts?
c What, in this case, is the magnitude of the total reaction force between the crate
and the floor?
3 The force of attraction between two bodies has magnitude F newtons. If the
distance between the bodies is doubled, what then is the magnitude of the force of
attraction between them? Give your answer in terms of F.

You could now tackle

* Practice exercises on page 118
• Activity 9.6 on page 131, or 9.7 on page 132.

87
 2 Modelling forces

Planetary data sheet

Universal Gravitation Constant: G - 6.67 x 10"" Nm 2 kg~

Planet Mass kg Radius m Period of Mean distance Period of

rotation days from Sun m revolution years

Mercury 3.3xl023 2.439xl06 58.6 5.79 xlO 10 0.241

Venus 4.87xl0 24 6.052xl06 243 1.082x10" 0.615
Earth 5.98xl0 24 6.378 xlO6 0.997 1.496x10" 1.00
Mars 6.4xl0 23 3.397X106 1.026 2.279x10" 1.88
Jupiter 1.9xl0 27 7.190xl0 7 0.41 7.783x10" 11.86
Saturn 5.67xl0 26 6.000xl0 7 0.43 1.427 xlO 12 29.46
Uranus 8.70xl025 2.6145 xlO7 0.65 2.870 xlO 12 84.01
Neptune 1.03xl0 26 2.4750 xlO 7 0.77 4.497 xlO 12 164.8
Pluto 1.3xl0 22 2. 000 xlO6 6.39 5. 900 xlO 12 247.7

Earth
Mass 5. 98 xlO24 kg
Radius 6.378 xlO6 m
Period of rotation 23 hours 56 minutes 4 seconds
Mean distance from Sun 1.50x10" m
Period of orbit around Sun 1 year = 365 days 6 hours

Moon
Mass 7. 35 xlO22 kg
Radius 1.74X106 m
Period of rotation 27.3 days
Mean distance from Earth 3.84xl08 m
Period of orbit around Earth 27.3 days

Sun
Mass 1.99xlO Ju kg
Newtonian modelling

In Unit 1 you learned how to describe motion using displacement, velocity and
acceleration. In Unit 2, you investigated the properties of forces and learned how to
model commonly occurring forces such as friction and tension. You are now in a
position to learn how to link motion and forces using Newton's Laws.
In 1687 Newton published the Principia (Philosophiae naturalis principia
mathematica) in which he brought together his understanding of mathematics and
the science that we now know as physics. In this unit you will be concerned only
with his work on dynamics, that is, how forces are related to motion.
Newton recognised that, when forces act, they change the motion of objects. Prior to
this, dating as far back as Aristotle (384-322 BC), it was thought that forces caused
motion.
If Aristotle and Newton were to slide stones across ice, Aristotle would suggest that
they need a force to keep them going. Newton would argue that, if a force acts on
the stones, they will accelerate. The stones actually decelerate, slowing down so that
they eventually stop.
In Chapter 6 you will be introduced to Newton's Laws. You will see how they are
used to model the real world so that you can predict features of the motion of
objects, or make predictions about unknown forces.
Chapter 7 applies Newton's Laws in the particular case of problems involving
circular motion. A number of modelling problems featuring circular motion are
given in this chapter.

Work through the chapters consecutively.

You should spend approximately 12 hours of your learning time on this unit. About
half of this time will be spent outside the classroom. This includes some time
allowance for using some of the practice exercises for each chapter. If you
tackle one of the problems from Chapter 9, you should allow an additional five
hours of your time.

89
 3 Newtonian modelling

Newton's Laws

6.1 When you have studied this chapter you will be able to tackle problems such as
Thinking about these.
Newton's Laws
What is the speed and acceleration of a person at any point on an aerial runway?

6.2
Using
Newton's Laws

Full details of these

problems are in
Chapters.

How does the time taken by a trolley rolling down a slope vary as the distance it
rolls increases?

90
 6 Newton's Laws
Can a plumb line and bob be used to make a meter to measure acceleration?

Activity 6.1 Thinking about Newton's Laws

Read the statement of each law and think about how it applies in each of the
situations presented. Write down your thoughts in answer to the questions asked.
Draw diagrams to help explain your thinking.

7 Newton's First Law

A particle will remain at rest or
Uniform motion is motion continue to move uniformly in a
^with constant velocity. straight line unless acted upon by a
non-zero resultant force.
You know that a body
with no resultant force
acting upon it is in
equilibrium. It is in static
equilibrium if it is not
moving; it is in dynamic
equilibrium if it is moving
(with constant velocity.

In Newton's words Modelling the apple as a particle, the

forces acting on it are the tension in
'Every body perseveres in its state of
its stalk and its weight. There is no
rest, or of uniform motion in a right
resultant force so the apple remains at
line, unless it is compelled to change
rest.
that state by forces impressed
thereon.'

91
 3 Newtonian modelling

1 a Figure 6.1 shows a book lying on a table.

What forces act on the book?

What is the resultant force
acting on the book?

Figure 6.1
Explain how Newton's First Law applies in this situation. Draw a diagram to show
the forces acting on the book.
b Figure 6.2 shows a ball thrown through the air. Neglect air resistance.

What forces act on the ball?

What is the resultant force
acting on the ball?

Figure 6.2
When you have decided about the forces acting on the ball, apply Newton's First
Law to the ball. What does the law state will happen?
Consider the components of the resultant force in the horizontal and vertical
directions, and apply Newton's First Law in each direction.
c Figure 6.3 shows a space probe travelling freely, without using its rockets, in
deep space.
Figure 6.3 What does Newton's First Law predict will happen to the space probe?
d Figure 6.4 shows the Moon travelling in a nearly circular orbit about the Earth.

"It was by thinking about

such motion that Newton
: arrived at his three laws.
; He was able to explain
the motion of the Moon
; rotating about the Earth,
and the motion of an
apple falling to the
ground, using the same Figure 6.4
underlying principles. What does Newton's First Law predict will happen to the Moon?

92
 6 Newton's Laws

2 Newton's Second Law

If a non-zero resultant force acts on a
particle, then the particle will not be
in equilibrium.
A resultant force, F newtons, acting
on a particle of mass m kilograms,
will give rise to acceleration,
a ms~2 , of the particle. This will be in
the direction of the resultant force.
The magnitude of the acceleration is a = g = 9.8 ms
given by the relationship F = ma.
In terms of vectors, this law is
written as F = ma
One newton is defined as the force
required to give a mass of 1 kg an
acceleration of 1 ms~ .
In Newton's words Modelling the apple as a particle, the
resultant force acting on it is its
'The alteration of motion is ever
weight, mg newtons. It accelerates
proportional to the motive force
vertically downwards;
impressed; and is made in the
a = g = 9.8 ms~ when air resistance
direction of the right line in which
can be considered negligible.
that force is impressed.'

Notice that you have previously met g in two places. In Chapter 1, g is the
acceleration of objects near the Earth's surface, while in Chapter 4 it is the force of
attraction per unit mass.
Newton's Second Law allows you to bring these two ideas together. The force of
attraction due to the Earth acting on an object - that is, its weight - causes it to
accelerate.
A mass of 1 kg near the Earth's surface has weight W. If the mass is allowed to fall,
its weight, W, gives it an acceleration of g = 9.8 ms , as shown in Figure 6.5a.
1 kg mass, at the Earth's surface:

weight acceleration:
WN
V

Figure 6.5a
If you apply Newton's Second Law you find that the force W acts on the mass of
1 unit and causes an acceleration of g = 9.8 ms~2 . The equation F = ma becomes
W = lxg.

93
 3 Newtonian modelling

Similarly, if you apply Newton's Second Law to a mass of m kilograms near the
Earth's surface, you find that it has a weight of mg newtons. See Figure 6.5b.

An m kg mass, at the Earth's surface:

weight
WN
Ti acceleration:
a = g = 9.8 ms~

Figure 6.5b
2 a Figure 6.6 shows a ball thrown through the air. Neglect air resistance.

What is the resultant force

acting on the ball?

Figure 6.6
Apply Newton's Second Law in both the horizontal and vertical directions to
explain the motion.
b Refer back to the runaway train in Activity 1.4.

Figure 6.7a

You can model the train as a

particle sliding a smooth slope

What is the resultant force

acting on the train?
What is the direction of mg
this resultant force?

Figure 6.7b

94
 6 Newton's Laws

What does Newton's Second Law predict for the motion of the train?
Sketch the shapes of the graphs of x against t, of v against t and a against t.

X A a A
How do these graphs
compare to those that
you drew when you first
carried out the runaway
train activity? ->
t
Figure 6.8

Consider the motion of the train in the direction at right angles to the slope. How
What is the component
of the resultant force in does Newton's Second Law explain the motion in this direction?
this direction? c Figure 6.9 shows a rider on a 'chair-o-plane' ride.
Model the chair and rider
together as a particle with
tension and weight acting

What is the resultant force

acting on the chair and rider?
What is the direction of this
resultant force?

Figure 6.9

Describe how Newton's Second Law can be applied to the motion of a chair and
rider.

95
 3 Newtonian modelling

3 Newton's Third Law

Every force arises as the action of
one body on another.
Both forces are equal in magnitude.
They act in opposite directions.

In Newton's words
When the apple is hanging on the
To every action there is always
tree, the branch supporting it
opposed an equal reaction: or the
experiences a tension force, T. The
mutual actions of two bodies upon stalk of the apple experiences a force
each other are always equal, and
equal in magnitude and acting in the
directed to contrary parts.'
opposite direction.

3 a Study Figure 6.10 about a book lying on a table:

What is the magnitude of What is the

the normal contact force magnitude of this
acting on the book? force?

Forces acting on the book Forces acting on the table

N, due to the book resting on it

What happens to the

magnitude of the forces if the
mass of the book is increased? .

Figure 6,10
Explain how Newton's Third Law applies in Figure 6.10.
b Think again about a falling ball, neglecting air resistance:

96
 6 Newton's Laws

What is the resultant force

acting on the ball ? What
causes this?

Figure 6.11

Explain how Newton's Third Law applies in this case.

A main aim of studying mechanics is to apply Newton's Laws in modelling real

situations. Before you tackle an extended problem where applying Newton's Laws
is necessary, you may wish to practise techniques by working through the structured
questions of Activity 6.2, and the practice exercises for Chapter 6. For the questions
in Activity 6.2, any modelling assumptions have already been made for you.

Activity 6.2 Using Newton's Laws

Full solutions to these questions are given in the 'Answers', Chapter 12.
Throughout this activity, take the acceleration due to gravity as 9.8 m/s.
( 6 \
1 A resultant force newtons acts on a particle which has a mass of

\
3 kilograms shown in Figure 6.12a.

N 2kg

/tt»
3kg

Figure 6.12a Figure 6.12b

97
 3 Newtonian modelling
Find
a the acceleration of the particle in vector form
b the magnitude and direction of the acceleration.
2 A particle is acted upon by forces Fj = newtons, and F2 = newtons,
shown in Figure 6. 12b.
a Find the resultant force, F newtons
b The mass of the particle is 2 kilograms. Find its acceleration in vector form.
c Give the magnitude of the acceleration and its direction of action.
d What additional force F3 newtons should be applied to the particle to keep it in
equilibrium?
3 Figure 6.13a shows a toboggan held at rest, by a rope, on a smooth icy slope.
The rope is cut and the toboggan starts to slide down the slope. Figure 6.13b shows
the forces acting on the toboggan, which is modelled as a particle. The toboggan has
mass 15 kg, and is sliding down a slope of 20°

m= 15kg
Figure 6.13a Figure 6.13b
Align the unit vectors i and j in the upward direction of the slope and at right angles
to it.
a Write down, in vector form, the resultant force acting on the toboggan.
b Use Newton's Second Law to write down a vector statement linking resultant
force to acceleration.
c Find the normal contact force, N newtons, acting on the toboggan.
d Find the acceleration, a ms , of the toboggan.
4 Take two 200 g masses and connect them with a light inelastic string. Hang the
system over a smooth pulley, as shown in Figure 6.14a. The tension is therefore
constant throughout the string.

200 g
200 g 200 g

Figure 6. Ha Figure 6.14b

a What is the resultant force acting on each mass?
b What is the tension in the string?

98
 6 Newton's Laws
You deflect one of the masses from the vertical using a smooth plane as shown in
Figure 6.14b. Assume that the plane makes an angle of 9 = 5° with the vertical.
c Apply Newton's Second Law to each mass to find the acceleration of the system
and the tension in the string. Don't forget that these masses connected by an
inelastic string will both have an acceleration of the same magnitude.
d Investigate how the acceleration of the system varies with the angle 6 with
which the plane is inclined to the vertical.
5 A wooden block of mass 5 kg rests on a sloping wooden plank. The coefficient
of friction between the two surfaces is 0.5. The plank slopes at 25° to the horizontal.
a By considering the components of the forces acting on the block, in the direction
of the normal to the plank, find the normal contact force.
b Assuming that the model F < /J.N for friction is valid, find the greatest value that
the friction force can attain.
c Can the block remain at rest on the plank - that is, can equilibrium be
maintained?
Suppose that the other side of the plank is smoother, with n = 0.4. Find
d the new maximum value of the friction force
e the acceleration of the block down the slope.
f (Harder) Find how the acceleration of the block varies with the angle of slope,
9, of the plank. Plot a graph showing how acceleration, a, varies with 8.

Reflecting on Chapter 6
What you should know
• Newton's three laws and how they apply in simple situations
• how to use Newton's Laws, together with methods of force analysis, to solve
problems involving systems of forces either in equilibrium or giving rise to an
acceleration.

Preparing for your next review

• Write a few sentences describing what you understand by the term 'equilibrium'.
• Answer the following check questions.
1 A car is driven along a horizontal road at constant speed, v. It experiences a total
resistiance force, R. Make a copy of Figure 6.15, which is the start of a force
diagram for the car, modelled as a particle. Complete the force diagram showing all
the forces acting on the car.

Figure 6.15

2 A hotel guest travels by lift from the ground to the fourth floor with his suitcase
in his hand.

99
 3 Newtonian modelling

a Draw a force diagram showing the forces acting on the suitcase.

b Explain when the weight of the suitcase appears greatest.
c Explain when the weight of the suitcase appears least.
d When, on his lift journey, does the hotel guest feel the true weight of the
suitcase?

Figure 6.16

You could now tackle

* Practice exercises on page 12.
* Activity 9.8 on page 133, or 9.9 on page 134, or 9.10 on page 135.

WO
7 Dynamics of circular motion

In this chapter you will investigate the forces acting on a body that is travelling in a
circle at constant angular speed. In particular, you will use Newton's Laws to
connect the forces acting to the kinematics of such motion.
In Activity 7.1 you will practise drawing force diagrams for bodies travelling in
circles at constant angular speed. This is a skill which you will use when answering
the questions of Activity 7.2. These give you an opportunity to bring together your
knowledge of modelling forces and of Newton's Laws in the special case of circular
motion.
When you have studied this chapter you will be able to tackle problems such as
these.
Geosynchronous satellites rotate about the Earth so that their period of rotation is
the same as the period of rotation of the Earth. The satellite therefore appears to
remain stationary at a fixed point above the Earth's surface.
Such satellites are essential in communications; for example, they allow satellite
receiver dishes to remain stationary when receiving satellite television channels.
What should be the radius of the satellite's orbit?
As the speed of rotation of a chair-o-plane ride increases, the chairs swing out. What
effect does the speed of the ride have on the angle which a chair's supporting chain
makes with the vertical?

Work through the activities in sequence.

101
 3 Newtonian modelling
|0ther forces can act,
Isuch as buoyancy and lift
|forces, electromagnetic
fforces, and so on. Such
fforces are not studied in
Idetail in this course.
Activity 7.1 Force diagrams for circular motion
In each case, model the object
as a particle and assume that
it is undergoing circular
motion at constant angular
speed.
102
Forces in circular motion
In Chapter 3 you have seen that a body undergoing circular motion at constant
angular speed has an acceleration of constant magnitude towards the centre of its
circular path. Newton's Second Law, F = ma, therefore implies that there must be a
resultant force acting on the body towards this centre.
co rads
Figure 7. 7
You know, from Newton's Third Law, that a force on a body is always the result of
the action of another body. For example, a force may be due to gravitation, tension,
normal contact or friction. The resultant force which acts towards the centre of the
path of a body moving in a circle comes from combining all the forces of this type.
In the activities of this chapter you will see many examples of circular motion. In
each example, you should think carefully about the source of this resultant force
towards the centre of the circle.
You know how important it is that you can draw force diagrams showing all the
forces acting on an object. This activity concentrates on force diagrams.
For each situation given below:
a draw a force diagram showing and labelling all the forces acting on the object (in
bold-faced type) undergoing circular motion
b in each case describe how there is a resultant force acting towards the centre of
the object's circular path.
 7 Dynamics of circular motion

Example
A car travelling around a roundabout on a horizontal road.
Force diagram
normal
reaction reaction

or

Figure 7.2a Figure 7.2b

In Figure 7.2a, the resultant force towards the centre of the circle is provided by the
friction force between the car and the road surface.
In Figure 7.2b, the resultant force towards the centre of the circle is the horizontal
component of the reaction force.
1 A conker at the end of a piece of string whirled in a horizontal circle.
2 A girl standing on the outside edge of a playground roundabout.
3 A satellite in a circular orbit about the Earth.
4 A train travelling on a horizontal curved section of track, which is an arc of a
circle.
5 A car travelling on a banked circular track, in the following situations.
a When there is a tendency for the car to slip up the track.
b When there is a tendency for the car to slip down the track.
c When there is no tendency for the car to slip.
Figure 7.3

^Depending upon the IS!

• speed at which the car is :|
{•driven any of these f
• situations can occur. You |
i-can investigate this type |
ir.of motion further in :*
^Activity 10.6.

Figure 7.4

6 The toggle at the end of a cord hanging from the luggage rack of a train. The
train is
a travelling at constant velocity in a horizontal straight line
b accelerating forwards in a horizontal straight line
c travelling at constant speed, round a horizontal curved section of track, which is
an arc of a circle.

103
 3 Newtonian modelling
Activity 7.2 Problems involving circular motion
F=
EM
Figure 7.6
Throughout this problem,
model both the Moon and
Earth as particles. You
should also assume that
the Moon has a circular
orbit about the Earth.
Is your answer what you
would expect?
Think about whether your
answer is what you would
expect.
A problem that extends
this type of analysis is
Activity 9.11.
104
1 An item of clothing being spun in a horizontal circle at the outside edge of a
spin dryer.
Figure 7.5
8 A parcel on the floor of a van that is being driven round a horizontal curve.
In this activity you will need data from the planetary data sheet, page 88, at the end
of Chapter 5. Use the conversion 1 m.p.h. = 0.447 ms" 1 .
1 Newton's observations of planetary motion, and in particular that of the Moon
about the Earth, helped him to formulate many of his key ideas. The Universal Law
of Gravitation states that the force of attraction between the Earth and the Moon is
—— newtons, where ME kg is the mass of the Earth, MM kg is the mass
'EM
of the Moon, rEM m is the distance between the Moon and Earth, and G is the
Universal Gravitation Constant. See Figure 7.6. It is this resultant force acting on
the Moon that keeps it moving on its nearly circular path about the Earth.
a Use the Universal Law of Gravitation to find the force of gravitation, due to the
Earth, acting on the Moon.
b Apply Newton's Second Law to the Moon and hence find the acceleration of the
Moon, giving its magnitude and direction.
c For a body moving in a circle of radius r m, with constant angular speed
co rad/s, the magnitude of its acceleration, a ms~ , is given by a = red1 . Find the
angular speed of the Moon about the Earth.
d Find the time taken for the Moon to make one complete revolution about the
Earth.
2 Find
a the force of attraction acting on the Earth due to the Sun
b the acceleration of the Earth in its orbit about the Sun
c the time taken for the Earth to make one complete revolution about the Sun
d the angular speed of the Earth about the Sun.
3 A children's roundabout consists of a number of model vehicles in which the
children sit. One of these is a boat made of steel, which sits on the steel platform of
the roundabout. If the boat is not bolted to the floor of the roundabout, will it slip
when the roundabout rotates?
 7 Dynamics of circular motion
• Assumptions the boat is a particle
the boat undergoes circular motion with constant angular speed
the model for friction, F < /J.N, is valid.
• Constants the radius of the circle described by the boat is 2.5 m
the coefficient of friction, H, for steel on steel is 0.8
the mass of the boat is M kg
the angular velocity of the roundabout is co rad/s.
• Variables the normal contact force is N newtons
the friction force is F newtons.
a Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on the boat.
b Apply Newton's Second Law to the boat. By considering the horizontal direction
find an expression, in terms of m and ft), for the friction force when the boat is just
on the point of sliding.
c By considering the vertical direction, find the normal reaction, N newtons.
d Find the angular speed of the roundabout when the boat is just about to slide.
e How many revolutions per minute will the roundabout be making when sliding
first takes place? Is this value typical of what you would expect of a roundabout? Is
it necessary to bolt the boat to the floor of the roundabout?
4 For safety it is important that cars can be driven at a speed no greater than 50
miles per hour, = 22.35 ms~', around a circle of radius 40 m. What is the minimum
value of the coefficient of friction between the car's tyres and road surface that will
allow this?
• Assumptions the car is a particle
the car undergoes circular motion with constant angular speed
the model for friction, F < /uN, is valid.
• Constants the radius of the circle described by the car is 40 m
the coefficient of friction for car tyres on road is jj.
the mass of the car is M kg.
Variables the speed of the car is v ms
the normal contact force between the car and the road is
N newtons
the friction force between the car's tyres and the road is
F newtons.
a Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on the car.

b Write down an equation linking the magnitude of the car's acceleration to its
speed and the radius of its path.
c Show that, when the car is just about on the point of sliding, v = ^J392[i.
d Sketch a graph showing how v varies with /H.

105
 3 Newtonian modelling
problem that extends •''
this type of analysis is
Activity 10.6, Sliding cars.
106
e For a typical value of [i = 0.9 for tyres on road surfaces, find the maximum
speed at which you could drive the car round such a circular arc.
f It is important that cars must be able to go at 50 miles per hour without sliding
along such a section of road. Find the coefficient of friction that is necessary
between car tyres and the road surface.
If you wish to validate your predictions, you could examine the speed at which cars
are driven round a local roundabout. You may need to re-work your analysis with a
suitable value of the radius, r m, of the roundabout.
5 A fluffy spider hangs from the driving mirror of a car. As the car accelerates
along a horizontal road the driver notices that, when the road is straight, the angle
that the string supporting the spider makes with the vertical is 10° The driver also
observes that the string makes the same angle with the vertical when the car travels
at a steady speed round a corner that may be considered to be the arc of a circle of
radius 35 metres.
What is the acceleration of the car when travelling along the straight section of road
and round the corner? What is the speed of the car as it is driven round the corner?
a List any assumptions that you make, and define any constants and variables that
you wish to use in reaching a solution to the problems.
b Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on the spider in each of the cases
where the car is accelerating.
c To find the acceleration of the car, use Newton's Second Law applied to the
spider, when the car is accelerating along the straight section of road.
d To find the acceleration and steady speed of the car, use Newton's Second Law
applied to the spider, when the car is accelerating around the corner.
A problem that extends this type of analysis is Activity 9.12.
Reflecting on Chapter 7
What you should know
For a body travelling in a circle at constant angular speed
• the direction of action of the resultant force acting on the body
• how to use Newton's Laws in problems involving such a body
• how to incorporate analysis of circular motion into models of real situations.
 7 Dynamics of circular motion

Preparing for your next review

• Write a few sentences describing the important features of forces which act on a
body which is travelling in a circle at constant angular speed.
• Answer the following check questions.
1 A child sits on a playground roundabout which turns at constant angular speed.
Is he in equilibrium? Justify your answer.
2 A car travels round a roundabout so that its path can be modelled as part of a
circle, as shown in Figure 7.7. It travels at constant speed throughout the period.

Figure 7.7

a On a sketch of the car's path, mark arrows showing the direction of the resultant
force acting on the car at points A and B.
b Is the car's acceleration zero, constant or variable? Give some justification for
your answer.

ou could now tackle "" '" ' ' ' ^Si:|=|Il::|:':i:l':

Practice exercises on page 123
Activity 9.11 on page 136, and 9.12 on page 137.

107
 Summaries and exercises

7 Motion in one dimension

Chapter summary
• introduction to modelling in mechanics (Activities 1.1 and 1.4)
• developing and using equations of motion where acceleration is constant
(Activity 1.2)
• simulating motion using an Euler step-by-step program (Activity 1.3).

Practice exercises
1 An object is moving in a straight line with constant acceleration, a = -2 ms
When t = 0 it has a velocity of 20 ms" , as shown in Figure 8.1.

v = u = 20 ms~

a = 1 ms

Figure 8.1
a Find the value of t when the object comes to rest, that is, when v = 0.
b Find how far the object travels in this time.
2 Figure 8.2 shows a velocity-time graph for an object moving in a straight line
over a period of 30 seconds.
a What is the object's acceleration for the period 0 < t < 5 seconds?
b Find the total distance travelled by the object over the 30 seconds represented by
the velocity-time graph.
3 A ball is dropped - released from rest - from a tower, as shown in Figure 8.3. Its
0 5 acceleration downwards is a = g = 10 ms .
Figure 8.2

108
 8 Summaries and exercises
Find
a how far the ball travels in the first second
b the speed of the ball after one second
c the height of the tower if the ball takes 3.5 seconds to land
d the speed of the ball when it hits the ground.
4 A jogger regularly runs along a straight seaside promenade from her home to an
old windmill and then returns home along the same path. The velocity-time graph,
Figure 8.4, shows a simplified description of how her velocity varies with time on
such a run.
m.p.h.
v*

6--

Figure 8.3 -*• t

20 35 min

Figure 8.4
a Sketch a corresponding displacement-time graph, marking on it all significant
features.
b Find the distance from her home to the windmill.
c How long does her total run take her?
5 In a pin-ball game, a ball is projected up a slope, as in Figure 8.5. The speed of
projection, M, can be varied. For the game to start, the ball has to roll 70 centimetres
up the slope so that it can enter the playing area. The acceleration of the ball is
2 ms acting down the slope.

Figure 8.5
a The speed of the ball is 1 ms when it is projected up the slope. Find how far up
the slope the ball will roll.

109
 Mechanics 1
b Find the least speed of projection that will allow the ball to enter the playing
area.
6 A motorist accelerates away from a set of traffic lights. Suddenly, to avoid
hitting a child who runs into the road, she has to apply emergency braking to halt
the car.
Sketch graphs showing:
a acceleration-time
b velocity-time
c displacement-time.
7 A train is fitted with three gear ratios so that over the stated speed ranges it can
achieve the following maximum uniform accelerations.
-i 0.2 ms~
1st gear 0-32kmh~_
32 - 64 kmh"1 0.4 ms~
2nd gear
3rd gear 64-108 kmh" 0.2 ms~
The train accelerates away from a station, so that it reaches its maximum speed of
108 kmh"' in the least possible time.
a Sketch a graph showing acceleration-time.
b Sketch a graph showing velocity-time.
c Sketch a graph showing displacement-time.
d Find the time taken to reach 108 kmh~ , and the distance travelled by the train
in this time.
8 Table 8.1, taken from the Highway Code, gives stopping distances for cars
travelling at certain speeds.
Speed m.p.h. Thinking distance Braking distance Overall stopping
m m distance m
20 6 6 12
30 9 14 23
40 12 24 36
50 15 38 53
60 18 55 73
70 21 75 96
Table 8.1
The speed is given in miles per hour, which is the conventional measure in the
United Kingdom. To convert from miles to kilometres use the approximate
equivalence that 1 mile = 1.609 km.
The Highway Code gives 'thinking distance', the distance travelled by a vehicle
before its driver reacts and applies the brakes.
a Find the time allowed for thinking at a number of speeds, and explain why you
can assume it to be the same at any speed.
b Assuming that the deceleration is constant when using emergency braking,
calculate the deceleration of a car travelling at 30 m.p.h.
c Calculate the deceleration of a car travelling at 20 m.p.h.

110
 8 Summaries and exercises
A Take the deceleration as constant and always - 6.7 ms when braking in an
emergency, and hence calculate the total stopping distance for a car travelling at
80 m.p.h.
e Find a function relating 'thinking distance', a, in metres, to speed, v, in m.p.h.
f Find a function relating 'braking distance', b, in metres, to speed, v, in m.p.h.
g Give a function relating overall stopping distance, 5, in metres, to speed, v, in
m.p.h.
9 A motorist was driving along a well-lit street on a dry night. The speed limit is
30 m.p.h. An old lady stepped into the road at a zebra crossing. The driver
performed an emergency stop but unfortunately struck and killed the old lady. The
skid marks left on the road were 20 m long. At the scene of the accident in similarly
dry conditions, and using the same car, the police found that their test skids were 8.0
and 8.1 m long, measured from where the car stopped to the point when the brakes
were first applied when travelling at 20 m.p.h.
a Assuming that the car has constant deceleration when braking in an emergency,
find the deceleration of the car in test skid conditions at the scene of the accident.
Use the shorter test skid length so that it can be assumed that the car has the greater
deceleration; this is to the advantage of the motorist.
b Find, using the deceleration calculated above, the speed of the accident vehicle
when the driver first applied the brakes.
c If 10% is allowed in the driver's favour for any errors, would you prosecute for
speeding?

2 Projectile motion
Chapter summary
• developing vector equations to describe the motion of projectiles (Activity 2.2)
• using practical work to validate a model of projectile motion (Activity 2.3)
• graphing projectile motion using an Euler step-by-step program, parametric
equations, and Cartesian equations (Activity 2.4)
• investigating the maximum range of a projectile's trajectory (Activity 2.5).

Practice exercises
1 A golf ball is hit from rest on a level horizontal fairway. Its velocity at time t
48.9 ^ _,
seconds is modelled using the equation v = ms
{ 10.4 — 9.8?
Find:
a when the ball is at its greatest height above the ground

t
b an expression for the displacement r of the ball from the point where it is hit
c when the ball first bounces on the ground
d the horizontal distance (range) of the ball when it first bounces
e the ball's velocity at that point
f the magnitude of the ball's velocity (its speed) at that point.

2 A ball rolls off a table. A student uses the equation r = ( °- 7f 2 ^ m to

model the displacement from the foot of a table of the ball, as in Figure 8.6.

111
 Mechanics 1

Figure 8.6
a List what you know about the acceleration, velocity and displacement of the ball
when t = 0 seconds.
b Find how far horizontally from the foot of the table the ball lands.
At launch 3 Two swimmers attempt to leave a high diving platform 15 m above the surface
3ms" 1 of a pool at the same time. One just steps off the platform, but the other runs along
the platform and is travelling at 3 ms"1 horizontally at take-off, as in Figure 8.7.
Take an origin at the pool's surface directly beneath the launch point of the two
Oms"
swimmers. Assume that you can model each swimmer as a particle and that you can
apply Galileo's projectile model.
a Sketch, on one set of axes, graphs showing how the height of each swimmer
above the pool's surface varies with time.
15 m b Calculate how long it will take each swimmer to hit the water, indicating this
clearly on your graph.
c Find how far horizontally, from the point directly beneath the edge of the diving
board, each swimmer is when she enters the water.
Figure 8.7 4 A ball is thrown across a gym so that its motion can be modelled by the position
( 1.66t }
vector r = 9 metres, where ? is the time in seconds. The position is
{l + 6.43t-4.9t 2 )
measured relative to an origin at the feet of the person who throws the ball.
a Write down the velocity vector v of the ball.
b Write down the acceleration vector a of the ball.
c Find the ball's position r m, velocity v, and acceleration a, one second after it
was thrown.
d Find the ball's speed, in ms~', when t = 1.
30° 5 A tile is dislodged and slides down a roof that makes an angle of 30° to the
horizontal, as shown in Figure 8.8. It is travelling at 2.5 ms"' and is 10 m above the
nn 20m
ground when it leaves the roof. The ground surrounding the house is horizontal and
level.

n a At what horizontal distance, h metres, from the house is the tile when it lands?
b List any assumptions that you have built into your analysis of this problem, and
make suggestions as to how the tile's motion might be different in reality.
hm
6 At a shooting range, a bullet is fired horizontally from a rifle, with a velocity of
Figure 8.8
800 ms~'. Modelling the bullet as a particle to which Galileo's projectile model can
be applied, find how far it will fall by the time it reaches the target, if it is initially
a 100 m away
b 200 m away.

7/2
 8 Summaries and exercises
7 In the service shot in a tennis match, assume that the ball travels horizontally on
leaving the racket, as shown in Figure 8.9. The ball must land in the opposite court.
Using the distances shown in the figure, and assuming that the ball can be modelled
as a particle to which Galileo's projectile model can be applied,
a find the maximum speed in ms~' at which it can leave the racket
b find the minimum speed in ms~' at which it can just pass over the net.

2.5m

1 m

12m 7m
Figure 8.9

3 Circular motion
Chapter summary
• developing vector equations for circular motion at constant angular speed
(Activity 3.2)
• finding and using expressions linking speed and acceleration to the constant
angular speed of a body moving in a circle (Activities 3.1 to 3.3)
• using parametric techniques to graph circular motion (Activity 3.4).

Practice exercises
1 A dog runs round and round his owner who stands still in the middle of a field.
The dog may be modelled as a particle rotating in a circle of radius, r metres, with
centre, O, and with constant angular velocity, ft) rads , as shown in Figure 8.10a.
a On a sketch of the path of the dog, Figure 8. lOb, draw clearly arrows to show the
direction of both the velocity and acceleration of the dog when it is at points A, B
andC.

113
 Mechanics 1

Figure 8. Wa Figure 8.10b

b Write down expressions, in terms of r and co, for the speed and magnitude of
acceleration of the dog.
c Write down an expression, in terms of r and v, the magnitude of the dog's
velocity.
d The dog can run at 3 ms . If she runs round a circle of radius 10 m, find her
angular speed and acceleration.
2 A Ferris-wheel has a diameter of 16 m, as shown in Figure 8.11. When filled
with passengers the wheel rotates at a constant rate of 4 revolutions per minute.
16m

4 r.p.m.

Figure 8. 11

a What is the angular speed in radians per second of a passenger?

b What is the velocity of a passenger? Give both magnitude and direction.
c What is the acceleration of a passenger? Give both magnitude and direction.
3 An electric grass trimmer has a nylon cord of length 1 1 .5 centimetres. This
rotates at 12 000 revolutions per minute. What is the speed of a point at the tip of
the cord?
4 In a fairground ride an arm rotates in a circle about a centre O. The length of the
arm is 6 m. The position vector of the joint, A, at the end of the arm is given by

r= " metres, where t is the time in seconds.

6 sin ^ nt
a What is the angular speed of A in radians per second ?

114
 8 Summaries and exercises
b How many revolutions per minute does A make?
c Write down a vector expression for the velocity, v, of A.
d What is the magnitude and direction of the velocity of A?
e Write down a vector expression for the acceleration, a, of A.
f What is the magnitude and direction of the acceleration of A?
5 The highest speed of rotation ever achieved on Earth was 7250 kmh" 1 . This was
a carbon fibre rod of length 15.2 cm rotating in a vacuum at Birmingham University
in 1975. What was the rate of angular rotation of the rod?
6 A washing machine, when spinning clothes dry, spins at a rate of 800
revolutions per minute. The drum has a diameter of 40 centimetres. A sock is
rotating at the outer edge of the drum.
a What is the speed of the sock?
b What is the acceleration of the sock?
7 In an elaborate theatre set, a rotating circular platform is used. The platform
takes 25 seconds to rotate through one complete revolution. The unit vector i is
aligned with the edge of the stage, and the unit vector j is set at right angles to it
and away from the audience. The origin is taken at the centre of the rotating

platform. An actor is at a point with position vector r0 = m, at time t — 0 s.

a What is the angular speed of the platform in radians per second?

b Write down the position vector of the actor after t seconds.
c Write down a vector expression for the velocity of the actor.
d Find the magnitude of the velocity of the actor.
e Write down a vector expression for the acceleration of the actor.
f Find the magnitude of the acceleration of the actor.

4 Properties of forces
Chapter summary
• developing an understanding of mass and weight (Activity 4.1)
• how to record force systems with a scale drawing (Activity 4.2)
• how to use vectors to model forces (Activity 4.2)
• how to find unknown forces using scale drawings, trigonometry and vector
methods (Activities 4.3 and 4.4).

Practice exercises
1 The system of forces shown in Figure 8.12 is in equilibrium. Use a scale drawing
to find the angle a.

Figure 8.12

115
 Mechanics 7

Figure 8.23

In Figure 8.13, write down the component of the 6 newton force in

a the i direction
b the j direction.
3 With forces of 300 and 450 newtons, two children push a large snowball in the
directions shown in Figures 8.14a and 8.14b. Write each force as a column vector if
a unit vector i is aligned
a along the direction of the 300 newton force - see Figure 8.14a
b along the direction of the 450 newton force - see Figure 8.14b.

J \X

300 N

Figure 8. Ha Figure 8. Hb

c If a third child joins in pushing in such a way that the snowball remains
stationary - that is, the forces are in equilibrium - find the magnitude and direction
of this third force.
4 From Figure 8.15, write down the force F newtons as a column vector.
2
5 Forces N' N and N are in equilibrium. Find the angles between
the forces.
6 The system offerees shown in Figure 8.26 is in equilibrium.
A 4N JA
Figure 8.15
i

Figure 8.16

a Write down the magnitude of the force, F.

b Write down as column vectors each force, referring to the unit vectors, i and j, as
shown.

116
 8 Summaries and exercises
c Write down a statement, in terms of column vectors, expressing the condition
that the forces are in equilibrium.
7 The system of forces shown in Figure 8.17 is in equilibrium. Unit vectors, i and
j, are aligned as shown.
3N a Write each force as a column vector.
b Write, in terms of the column vectors, the condition that must hold if the system
of forces is in equilibrium.
Figure 8.17 c Hence, find the magnitude of the force, F, and the angle, 9.
8 A school bag weighing 50 N is held between two pupils.
SON One of the pupils always pulls the bag with a force of 50 N at an angle of 45° to the
vertical. The other pulls with a force of magnitude P N at an angle of 6° to the
vertical, as in Figure 8.18. Unit vectors, i and j, are aligned horizontally and
vertically, respectively.
a Express each force as a column vector and use them to write an equation which
holds when the bag is in equilibrium.
b Find P (in newtons) and 6°.
9 The force diagram shown in Figure 8.19 represents a system of forces in
equilibrium.
a Find angle a.
Figure 8.18 b Write down the component of the 8 N force that acts in the direction of the ION
force.
c Write down the component of the 6 N force that acts in the direction of the ION
force.
10 In Figures 8.20a and 8.20b, each system of forces is in equilibrium. Find the
magnitude and direction of each force F.

40 N
SON
Figure 8.19

Figures 8.20a Figure 8.20b

5 Modelling some common forces

Chapter summary
• how to model the tension in light inextensible strings (Activities 5.1 and 5.2)
• how to model reaction forces by considering them as the resultant of their
normal and friction components (Activities 5.3 and 5.4)
• the simple model for friction (Activities 5.3 to 5.5)
• forces of attraction using Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation (Activities 5.6
and 5.7).

777
 Mechanics 1

Practice exercises
1 In each of the system shown in Figures 8.21a, b and c, the person pulls with the
force necessary to keep the system in equilibrium. In each instance, the mass which
is supported is 200 g. What is the tension, T N, in the string, which may be assumed
to be light and inextensible, in each case? You may assume that the pulleys are both
smooth and light.

200 g 200

Figure 8.21a Figure 8.21 b Figure 8.21c

2 A painting is hooked on to a single length of string which is attached to a wall at

two points on the same horizontal level 16 cm apart, as shown in Figure 8.22a. The
painting has a mass of 1.5 kg. Assuming that the string is light and inextensible, the
tension, TN, can be modelled as being constant throughout its length. The forces
acting at the point where the painting hangs on the string are shown in Figure 8.22b.

A «- 16 cm
B

V 1.5 kg

Figure 8.22a Figure 8.22b

a Find the angle which each part of the string makes with the vertical.
b By considering the equilibrium of point P in the horizontal direction, explain
why the tension must be the same throughout the length of the string.
c By considering the equilibrium of the string in the vertical direction at point P,
find the magnitude of the tension, T N.

118
 8 Summaries and exercises

26.11 N 3 To ensure that a flagpole remains vertical, three ropes are attached. They may be
considered to be horizontal. The tension in two of the ropes is shown in Figure 8.23.
Find the magnitude of the tension in the third rope.
4 The diagrams in Figures 8.24a, b and c show a cup on the plane surface of a
table in the galley of a sailing boat as it makes its way through choppy water. The
cup remains in equilibrium throughout.
40 N
Model the cup as a particle of weight W. Draw diagrams to show the forces, W, and
Figure 8,23
reaction, R, acting on the cup when
a the table is horizontal, as shown in Figure 8.24a
b the table is sloping to the right, as shown in Figure 8.24b
c the table is sloping to the left, as shown in Figure 8.24c.
a b

Figure 8.24a Figure 8.24b Figure 8.24c

d Then on a copy of each diagram, show the total reaction force, R, split into
normal and friction components.
5 The wheels of a car of mass 1200 kg are locked. Model the car as a particle and
assume that the model (F < fJ.N) for friction holds. Experiment shows that // for
rubber on concrete is approximately 1 .0. The car is pushed along a horizontal road
by a number of people exerting a total force, P newtons, horizontally.
a Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on the car when it is just about to
slide.
b Consider the forces in the vertical direction in order to find the magnitude of the
normal contact force, N newtons.
c Write down the magnitude of the friction force, F newtons, acting when the car
is just about to slide.
d With what total force, P newtons, would the people have to push the car so that
it just starts to slide?
6 A full suitcase, of mass 15 kg, is placed on a conveyor belt system so that it can
be loaded into the hold of an aircraft. When the conveyor belt is at an angle of 40°
to the horizontal, the suitcase just starts to slip. Assuming that the model
HN f°r friction holds, find p. , the coefficient of friction.
7 A boy just starts to move a box of weight 200 newtons along horizontal ground
using a horizontal force P newtons, as shown in Figure 8.25a overleaf. The model of
friction, FMAX = JJ.N', holds and that the coefficient of friction, /j., between the box
and the ground is 0.45.
a With what force, P newtons, does the boy start to get the box to move?
b When pulling, the boy is opposed by another boy pulling with a horizontal force
of 300 newtons. With what force, P{ newtons, must the original boy pull if he is just
to get the box to move. See Figure 8.25b overleaf.

119
 Mechanics 1
c If the second boy finds that when pulling with a horizontal force of 300 N he can
just get the box to move, with what force P2 was the original boy opposing him?
See Figure 8.25c.

Just about to move Just about to move

P, ** 300 N

Figures 8.25

8 A book of mass 200 g rests on the lid of a desk, as in Figure 8.26a. As the lid is
opened, the book starts to slip when the lid makes an angle of 15° with the
horizontal, as shown in Figure 8.26b.

Book at rest on Sliding just Book kept at rest with

desk lid takes place horizontal force, P

Figures 8.26

Find the least horizontal force that you need to apply to the book to keep it at rest
when the lid makes an angle of 30° with the horizontal, as shown in Figure 8.26c.
9 A tennis ball has a mass of 57 g. What is its weight?
10 The force of attraction acting between two bodies is F newtons. If the distance
between these two bodies is doubled, what then will be the force of attraction?
11 Find the weight of the satellite Sputnik 1:
a when sitting in the laboratory on Earth
b when in orbit above the Earth.
Satellite data - mass: 83 kg; height of orbit above Earth: 592 km.
12 Calculate the force of attraction between the Sun and each of the planets:
a Mercury
b Venus
c Earth.
13 a Draw a graph showing how the force, FE newtons, acting on a 1 k mass due
to the Earth's gravitational pull varies with its distance, r metres, from the centre of
the Earth.
b Calculate the force acting on a 1 kg mass at the Earth's surface, due to the
gravitational pull of the Moon.
c On the same graph plot how the force, FM newtons, acting on a 1 kg mass due to
the gravitational pull of the Moon, varies with its distance, r metres, from the
Earth's centre.

120
 8 Summaries and exercises
14 Find the distance from the centre of the Earth to the point where the forces due
to the Earth's gravitational attraction, FE newtons, and the Moon's gravitational
attraction, FM newtons, acting on the 1 kg mass are equal in magnitude. Do this by
two different methods
a using your graph, and finding the point of intersection
b writing down expressions for both FE (in terms of G, ME and r), and FM (in
terms of G, MM and r), equating the two expressions, and solving the equation in r.
c If you neglect forces due to any other heavenly bodies, what would you expect
to happen to a spaceship at this point?

6 Newton's Laws
Chapter summary
• introduction to Newton's Laws (Activity 6.1)
• using Newton's Laws to solve problems involving forces and motion (Activity
6.2).

Practice exercises
1 A car decelerates along a horizontal road. The magnitude of this deceleration
may be assumed constant and to have the value of 5 ms .If the car has a mass of
400 kg, and can be modelled as a particle, find the resultant horizontal resistive
force, F, acting on the car.

a = 5 ms~2 Direction of
motion of car

resistive
force, F

Figure 8.27
2 a Find, as a column vector, the resultant force, F, acting on the particle P, as
shown in Figure 8.28.
b Give both magnitude and direction of this resultant force.
c If the mass of the particle is 2 kg, find, in column vector form, the acceleration,
Figure 8.28
a, of P.
d Give both the magnitude and the direction of this acceleration.
3 A train of total mass 150 tonnes is approaching a station along a straight section
1 tonne is equivalent to of track, as shown in Figure 8.29 overleaf. It is decelerating at 2 m/s2. Modelling the
1000 kilograms. train as a particle whose motion is resisted by a resultant force, F, find the
magnitude of this force.

727
 Mechanics 1

2 ms~

Figure 8.29
4 A tennis player serves a ball of mass 57 grams. In a simple model of the
situation, assume the air resistance is negligible. Unit vectors, i and j, are aligned
horizontally and vertically respectively.
Consider the ball at any point, A, on its flight before it bounces.
a Write down, as a column vector, the resultant force, R, acting on the ball.
b Write down, as a column vector, the acceleration, a, of the ball.
5 A book, of mass 200 g, rests on a table within the carriage of a train. The train
accelerates at 0.5 ms~" out of a station.
a Draw the forces acting on the book.
b If the book does not slip, find the value of the friction force that is acting on the
book.
c If the book is just about to slip, assuming that the model F < fiN for friction is
valid, find the coefficient of friction between the book and the surface of the table.
6 A driver of mass 57 kg is sitting in the driving seat of a car at rest. There is no
contact between the driver's back and the seat.
a Modelling the driver as a particle, draw a diagram showing the forces acting on
her. _->
The car accelerates at 1 ms along a horizontal road.
b Draw a new force diagram showing the forces that must now act on the driver.
c Find the value of the resultant force acting on the driver, and state where it
comes from.
7 A builder raises bricks to the top of a building by using a pulley system. When
both platforms, each having mass 20 kg, are empty, they hang in equilibrium with
the lower platform just off the ground, as shown in Figure 8.30.
Figure 8.30
Draw a force diagram showing the forces acting on
a the lower platform, A
b the upper platform, B.
So as to lower platform B, the builder adds to it a load of mass 10 kg.
c Draw a diagram showing the forces now acting on each platform.
d Use Newton's Second Law to write down expressions relating the forces acting
on each platform to the acceleration of each. If the system is modelled using the
assumption that the platforms are attached by a light inextensible string passing over
a smooth pulley, then each platform will have the same magnitude of acceleration
and the tension in both parts of the rope will be equal.
e Calculate the acceleration of each platform, and the tension in the rope.
8 A child is trying to drag a heavy load of mass 50 kg across a floor. The child can
pull the load with a force of 70 N.
a Modelling the floor as smooth, the load as a particle, and assuming that the rope
is horizontal, calculate the acceleration of the load.

122
 8 Summaries and exercises
b Assuming that a constant resistive force of 30 N acts, calculate the acceleration
of the load.
If you can assume that the resistive force is only due to friction, and the model
F < [iN for friction is valid, find:
c the normal contact force, N;
d the coefficient of friction, //, between the load and the ground.
9 A large wooden crate of mass 150 kg is standing on a horizontal floor. The
coefficient of friction, [I, between the crate and the floor is 0.35.
a Find the maximum value that the friction force can attain.
b Find the force that is necessary to keep the crate sliding over the floor with
constant speed.
10 A boy skims a stone across a frozen pond. The stone has a mass of 100 g, and
the coefficient of friction, n, between the stone and the ice is 0.1. If the stone has an
initial speed of 20 ms when it first hits the ice, find how far it will travel before
coming to rest. Do this by:
a drawing a force diagram that shows the forces acting on the stone as it skims
over the ice
b finding the normal contact force between the stone and the ice
accelerating c finding the friction force acting on the stone which acts to resist its motion
d finding the acceleration, assumed constant, of the stone
e using the equations of motion for uniform acceleration to find how far the stone
travels before coming to rest.
11 In a stationary car a fluffy die hangs vertically from the driving mirror. As the
car accelerates along a horizontal road it is observed that for a short period the string
holding the die makes an angle of 8° with the vertical, shown in Figure 8.31.
a Find the acceleration of the car over this period.
b List any assumptions that you made in finding this acceleration.

7 Dynamics of circular motion

Chapter summary
• Understanding forces in systems where bodies are travelling in circles at
constant angular speed. (Activities 7.1 and 7.2)
• Using Newton's Laws to solve problems involving forces in circular motion at
constant speed.

Practice exercises
;fiithe planetary data sheet 1 a Calculate, using Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation, the force of
on page 88at the end of attraction acting on Mercury due to the Sun.
Chapter 5 will help you
with the information you
; need for this question.
Mercury

Figure 8.32

123
 Mechanics 1
sfief e re n cr
the period of revolution of
Mercury about the Sun as
being 58.6 days. How
does this compare with
your answer? Why might
,|here be a discrepancy?
Figure 8.34
124
b Assuming that Mercury orbits the Sun on a circular path, find the magnitude of
the planet's acceleration.
c Find the speed of Mercury in ms~
d Find the angular speed of Mercury in rads .
e Calculate the time taken by Mercury to make one complete revolution about the
Sun.
2 Figure 8.33 shows a car of mass 1200 kg driving round a corner which may be
assumed to be the arc of a circle of radius 50 m. The car has a steady speed of
30 m.p.h, that is, 13.4 ms~'.
Figure 8.33
a Find the magnitude of the car's acceleration, and state its direction.
b Find the magnitude of the resultant force acting on the car, and state its direction.
3 The satellite Sputnik I had a mass of 83 kg and was in orbit around the Earth so
that its distance from the centre of the Earth was 6.97 x 103 km.
a Find, using Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation, the force of attraction
acting on the satellite due to the Earth's gravitational field.
b Find the angular speed of the satellite about the Earth.
c Find the time taken by Sputnik I to make one complete revolution about the
Earth assuming that its orbit was circular.
4 When an aircraft turns in a horizontal circle, the resultant force necessary for the
motion is the horizontal component of the lift force. The forces acting on the aircraft
(modelled as a particle) in the vertical plane are a lift, L N, and weight, mg N, as
shown in Figure 8.34.
The aircraft is flying at 150 m/s and is banked at 10°.
a By considering the components of forces in the vertical direction, find an
expression for lift force in terms of m.
b By considering the horizontal acceleration of the aircraft, find the radius, r m, of
its circular path.
5 A cyclist and her cycle have a combined mass of 90 kg. She cycles round a
circular track of radius 10 m, at a constant speed of 18 m.p.h.
a What is her angular speed in radians per second?
b What is the magnitude of her acceleration?
6 In the biblical story of David and Goliath, David rotates a stone in a cloth sling
above his head before releasing it in the direction of the giant, Goliath. Assume that
the stone can be modelled as a particle of mass 200 grams, rotating in a circle of
radius 0.5 metres, at constant angular speed of 150 revolutions per minute.
 8 Summaries and exercises
a Calculate the acceleration of the stone.
b What is the resultant force acting on the stone?
c How might this resultant force be provided?
d What is the speed of release of the stone, and in what direction would it initially
travel?
7 A conical pendulum consists of a mass, m kg, rotating in a circle at constant
angular speed, co rads , at the end of a string of length / m, as shown in
Figure 8.35. The string makes an angle 9° with the vertical. In modelling the
situation it is assumed that, as well as the angular speed being constant, the string is
light and inextensible, the mass is a particle, and there is no air resistance.
a Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on the mass.
b By considering the components of forces in the vertical direction, write down, in
terms of m, g and 9, an expression for the tension, I'M, in the string.
c Write down, in terms of / and 9, the radius of the circle about which the mass
travels.
Figure 8.35 d By applying Newton's Second Law towards the centre of the circle, find an
expression, in terms of g, I and 9, for the angular speed, co rads , of the mass.
e Find co if d = 30° and / = 0.5 m.
f What will happen to the speed of rotation if the mass is doubled and the angle 9
remains at 30°?
g What will be the angular velocity if the mass rotates in a circle of radius / m: that
is 9 = 90° ?
8 A fairground worker finds that on a day when the metal platform of her merry-
go-round is wet, she just starts to slide outward when the speed of the ride reaches
0.9 rads"'. The ride operator always stands 2.5 m from the centre of rotation of the
ride.
a Find the coefficient of friction between the soles of her rubber shoes and the
platform of the merry-go-round, assuming that the model F < /J.N for friction is
valid.
b At what angular speed must the ride rotate if the operator is just to start sliding
on a dry day when the coefficient of friction between her shoes and the platform is
1.0?

725
 Extended problems

Unit You will need to refer to this chapter throughout your study of the mechanics
option. It contains a collection of extended problems. You should tackle some of
O
Activity 9.1 \
Speed humps these as you work through the content of Chapters 1 to 7.
t\
(Chapter 1) T
There are many more problems than you will want to attempt.

Activity 9.2 Activity 9.3

Putting the shot Road chippings ;
(Chapter 2) (Chapter 2 )
Unit 2

Activity 9.4 Activity 9.5 Activity 9.6

Fairground rides Supermarket doors '• Christmas decorations
(Chapter 3) (Chapter 3) (Chapter 5)
\

Unit 3

Activity 9.8 Activity 9.9 Activity 9.10

Aerial runway The runaway train again An accelerometer
(Chapter 6) (Chapter 6) (Chapter 6)

Activity 9.11 Activity 9.12

Satellite orbits Chair-o-planes
(Chapter 7) (Chapter 7)

As a general guide, you should do one problem based on the kinematics covered !
in the chapters of Unit 1, and one other based on the work covered in Units 2 j
and 3. |
Spend about five hours of your time on each problem. f
After completing two problems from this chapter, attempt a problem from I
Chapter 10: 'Real problems'. |

You can tackle each problem at different levels of sophistication. You should be
able to come up with a solution to your chosen problem by using the mechanics that
you have learned. A mathematician working in industry, after having studied the
subject further, may use a more sophisticated model, but your solution may be just
as good. To show this you will have to validate your work.

126
 9 Extended problems
It is important that you think carefully about the modelling process as you work
through a problem. For this a fair amount of guidance is available in the Hints
section, but your aim is eventually to work from your own statement of a problem.
Although the boxes in the modelling diagram are clearly defined, you will need to
think a little less rigidly. For example, when you are setting up a model you will
need to think carefully about which physical quantities you leave as variables, and
which you leave as constant. To do this, you will have to give some thought to what
mathematics you can use to analyse your model. It is important that you keep things
as simple as is realistically possible.
You may find that you need data of real situations at two stages of the modelling
process: when setting up your model, and when you come to validate it. This may
require you to find data from published sources or involve you in collecting data
such as the speed of cars at a roundabout. You may even need to set up a practical
experiment - do this if necessary.

Important note:
There is some guidance as to one possible way of tackling each problem in the
Hints section.

Activity 9.1 Speed humps

In the Hints section there <> This activitV links with the content of ChaPter '•
is a worked example of TO restrjct the speed of vehicles travelling through the grounds of a large hospital, it
how you could tackle this is decided to insta)1 road humps. How far apart should these be placed?
activity. F

Set up your model by making assumptions, defining variables and constants, and
drawing a diagram.
Keep your model simple.
You could assume that drivers accelerate uniformly away from a hump, reach a
maximum speed, and then brake to decelerate uniformly to the minimum speed at
the next hump.
Other assumptions could include: the road is straight with clear visibility (the only
restriction to speed will be provided by the speed humps); a fast car driven
dangerously must be restricted.
A velocity-time or other graph may aid your understanding and analysis.
You may be able to use the equations of motion with constant acceleration.

727
 Mechanics 1
Is your answer realistic?
What does observation of cars driving between speed humps suggest about the
Observe realism of the assumptions in your model?
Identify
the If possible, refine your model.
problem
Validate

Activity 9.2 Putting the shot

This activity links with the content of Chapter 2.
A shot-putter is practising on sloping ground at his local sports club. How should he
correct his measured distances so that he can find how far he would have thrown in
the horizontal arena of an international athletics stadium?
Do this by making assumptions, defining variables and constants, and drawing a
diagram.
Keep your model simple.
You could assume that the shot is released from ground level.
Choose realistic values for quantities that you are keeping constant, such as the
speed and angle of release of the shot.

Find where the projectile lands on the sloping ground, and where it would have
landed on horizontal ground.
You may wish to simulate the motion using either an Euler step-by-step program in
your graphics calculator, or parametric equations.
Interpret the findings of your analysis.
How does the angle of slope affect the range of the shot?
Investigate the effect of various realistic slope angles on the range achieved on the
sloping ground.
If possible, refine your model.

128
 9 Extended problems

Activity 9.3 Road chippings

This activity links with the content of Chapter 2.
What is a safe speed to recommend for cars travelling over road surfaces that have
been newly dressed with stone chippings, so that damage to cars travelling behind is
avoided?

?MPH
Do this by making assumptions, defining variables and constants, and drawing a
diagram.
Keep your model simple.
You could assume that the speed of a chipping as it leaves the rear wheel of a car is
the same as the speed of the car.
You will have to assume something about how cars are driven: for example, the
distance between cars travelling at different speeds.
Find where the path of a stone thrown up by a car intersects with the path of a car
travelling behind.
Investigate the effect of various launch angles for stones.
Interpret the findings of your analysis in words.
If possible, refine your model.

Activity 9.4 Fairground rides

This activity links with the content of Chapter 3.
What path does a passenger follow on a rotating fairground ride such as 'the spider'
or 'the octopus'?

129
 Mechanics 1
Do this by making assumptions, defining variables and constants, and drawing a
diagram.
Keep your model simple by assuming that the ride has settled down so that all arms
are rotating with constant angular speeds. Assume that a person can be represented
as a particle sitting at the end of a rotating arm.
Possible variables and constants include the lengths of arms, and the speeds and
directions of their rotations. Choose suitable values for those which you decide to
keep constant. You may need to make some observations of real rides.
Assume that these lengths and speeds can be achieved.

Find the coordinates of the person as a function of time. You can then use your
Observe graphic calculator in parametric mode to plot the path of a passenger.
Identify
the Interpret the path that your analysis suggests.
problem
Validate Is it realistic? Observe a real ride.
Refine your model. Allow some of the lengths of arms, speeds and directions of
rotation to vary. Investigate how different passenger paths can be achieved.

Activity 9.5 Supermarket doors

This activity links with the content of Chapter 3.
A supermarket has a constantly revolving door at the main entrance through which
all customers pass, with or without loaded or unloaded trolleys. At what speed
should the door revolve?

Do this by making assumptions, defining variables and constants, and drawing a

diagram.
Keep your model simple. Make some assumptions about likely the dimensions of
the door, its speed of rotation, the speed at which a person walks, and so on.

130
 9 Extended problems

You could assume that the person and trolley combined is a particle - this is an
assumption which you should reconsider later.
Draw a diagram to show the door and the way in which a person walks through it.
Use the equations of motion for circular motion at constant angular speed to find the
speed of rotation of the door.

Is your solution realistic? Compare it with a real door if possible. Think about how
many people could get into and out of the shop per hour.
Refine your model to take into account:
• the dimensions of a person pushing a trolley
• people using different paths.

Activity 9.6 Christmas decorations

This activity links with the content of Chapter 5.
A High Street Traders' Association is erecting its annual display of illuminated
Christmas decorations. At one point in the High Street a low building requires one
of the supporting cables to be horizontal so that the central decoration is at the
correct height above the High Street. The building opposite allows the other cable to
make a range of angles with the horizontal.
How will the tensions in the cables vary with the point of attachment chosen for the
sloping cable?

Do this by making assumptions, defining variables and constants, and drawing a

diagram.
Keep your model simple. Assume that the cables are light and inextensible, and
assume a value for the mass of the decoration.

131
 Mechanics /
Consider the equilibrium of the system. Find how the tension in each cable varies
with the angle that the sloping cable makes with the horizontal.
Plot graphs.

Observe
Identify
the What would be a realistic range of values for angles of the sloping cable? What
problem
Validate tensions would then act in the cables?
Simulate the situation using practical equipment. Use elastoscales to measure the
forces. Is your analysis validated?

Activity 9.7 Taking a break

This activity links with the content of Chapter 5.
Reaching a full solution to this activity will take a little longer than most activities
in this chapter.

A builder wants to use a pulley system to drag a heavy load up a ramp to the flat
roof of a building. He cannot pull the rope continuously so will need to take rests. Is
it always possible for the builder to take rests without the load sliding down the
ramp? Can the builder let go of the rope?
Do this by making assumptions, defining variables and constants, and drawing a
diagram.

132
 9 Extended problems
Keep your model simple. Assume that the rope is light and inextensible; assume a
value for the mass of the load; and assume that the model F < /^N for friction is
valid.
Consider the forces acting on the load when it is just about to slip. Use the condition
for equilibrium, including at that instant FMAX = [lN.
Plot graphs if possible.

What does your analysis tell you about how steep the ramp can be, for typical values
of the coefficient of friction? Could a builder pull with the necessary force for a
typical load?
Carry out an experiment to collect some data to validate your theoretical analysis.
Interpret your experimental results and consider how they compare with your
analysis. Try to explain why there will be differences between reality and theory.

Activity 9.8 Aerial runway

This activity links with the content of Chapter 6.

What is the speed and acceleration of a person at any point on an aerial runway?
Do this by making assumptions, defining variables and constants, and drawing a
diagram.
Keep your model simple.
You can either choose values of constants which are realistic - that is, observations
of a real system - or use values which would suit a practical simulation.

133
 Mechanics 1

You will need to use Newton's Second Law. To obtain solutions, you may be able
to use an Euler step-by-step program within your calculator, integration, or the
equations of motion for constant acceleration.
Plot graphs of the motion.

Interpret your solution. For example, if the runway was very long what would
happen? Would this happen in reality?
Make predictions.
Validate your predictions - you may be able to do this using a practical simulation.

Activity 9.9 The runaway train again

This activity links with the content of Chapter 6.

You first tackled this activity in Chapter 1. However, at that stage you
were unable to use Newton's Laws to analyse the situation. Now you can
set up a Newtonian model and use this to make predictions. You can then
use the data which you collected to validate your model.

How does the time taken by a trolley rolling down a slope vary as the distance it
rolls increases?
Do this by making assumptions, defining variables and constants and drawing a
diagram.
You could look back to the work that you did in Activity 1.4.
In setting up a Newtonian model you will need to know the mass of the trolley and
the angle of slope.

134
 9 Extended problems
You will need to use Newton's Second Law.
Plot graphs of the motion.

Interpret your solution. For example, if the track is very long what would happen?
Would this happen in reality?
Make predictions and validate them. Use the data that you collected while working
through Activity 1.4.

Activity 9. W An accelerometer
This activity links with the content of Chapter 6.

Can you use a plumb line and bob to make a meter to measure acceleration?
Do this by making assumptions, defining variables and constants, and drawing a
diagram.
Keep your model simple.
You should bear in mind that you will need to do some practical experimentation to
make a meter, and that you will need to measure some accelerations.

135
 Mechanics 7
You will need to use Newton's Second Law.
A graph showing how the angle of inclination of the plumb line varies with
acceleration will be useful.

Observe
Identify
the
problem
Validate

Make an accelerometer and use it to see if your model is valid.

Use your accelerometer in an accelerating car or train. How can you use it to find
the acceleration accurately?

Activity 9.11 Satellite orbits

This activity links with the content of Chapter 7.
Geosynchronous satellites rotate round the Earth so that their period of rotation is
the same as the period of rotation of the Earth. The satellite therefore appears to
remain stationary at a fixed point above the Earth's surface.
Such satellites are essential in communications; for example: they allow satellite
receiver dishes to remain stationary when receiving satellite television channels.
What should be the radius of the satellite's orbit?

Do this by making assumptions, defining variables and constants, and drawing a

diagram.
Keep your model simple.
You will need to be able to use the mechanics of circular motion to reach a solution
to this activity.
You will need to use Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation and Newton's Second
Law.
Find the period for one revolution as a function of the radius of the satellite's path.
A graph may be helpful.

136
 9 Extended problems
Interpret your solution.
Use your analysis to predict the time taken for the Moon to make one complete
Observe revolution about the Earth. Does this validate your model?
Identify
the Use your analysis to predict the radius of the orbit of a geosynchronous satellite. Is
problem
Validate your solution correct? Look up some data to validate your answer.

Activity 9.12 Chair-o-planes

This activity links with the content of Chapter 7.
As the speed of rotation of a chair-o-plane ride increases, the chairs swing out. What
effect does the speed of the ride have on the angle which a chair's supporting chain
makes with the vertical?

Do this by making assumptions, defining variables and constants, and drawing a

diagram.
Keep your model simple.
In the first instance you may consider the simple case of a conical pendulum, where
the chain supporting a chair is attached directly to the rotating axle of the ride, as in
Figure 9.1.

You will need to use Newton's Second Law, and to consider the forces and
accelerations in both the horizontal and vertical directions.
Drawing a graph may help you.

Figure 9.1

137
 Mechanics 1

Interpret your solution.

You may be able to validate your findings by observing an actual chair-o-plane ride,
or through a simulation using a motor with string and bob running as a conical
pendulum.
Refine your model to take account of the fact that chairs are supported by chains
suspended from points at a distance from the axis of rotation.

138
 Heal problems

The introduction to this book explained that the purpose of studying mechanics is to
model the physical world so that you can solve problems involving motion and
forces. This chapter presents a number of such problems set in real contexts. You
should choose one that interests you, find one from another source or think of a
problem yourself.
Solve your problem by using the ideas that you have met while studying mechanics.
You will probably need to find further information about the topic that you choose.
Initially set up a simple model - remember, don't be too ambitious to start with.

Activity 10.1 Rock climbing

When rock climbing, there are a number of situations where a climber needs to use
anchor ropes to anchor himself to two points on the rock face. He may, for example, be
waiting for his partner to join him on a ledge.
Safety advice to the climber will include making sure that both ropes are taut. If this
is not done and the climber falls, one of the ropes will receive a jerk, and perhaps
break away from the rock face.
A further piece of advice is to make sure that the angle between the ropes is less
than 60°. This is so that the tension in each rope is not too great.
Investigate whether or not this is good advice.

Figure 70.7

Activity 10.2 Controlling speed

There are some places on our highways where road traffic engineers would like to
attempt to control the behaviour of motorists. A method which they have tried using
is to paint markings on the road surface.

139
 Mechanics 1
For example, when a dual carriageway approaches a roundabout, yellow bands may
be marked across the entire road. The gaps between these decrease as the
roundabout approaches, so that motorists have an impression of travelling at high
speed if they fail to slow down.
On some stretches of motorways, in an experimental attempt to get motorists to
leave safe gaps between cars, chevrons have been painted on each lane. Motorists
are advised to leave a gap of at least one chevron between themselves and the car
ahead.
How far apart should markings be painted in each situation?

Activity 10.3 Accident investigation

In most road traffic accidents, drivers apply their brakes as hard as they can so that
their vehicle's wheels lock. This causes them to slide to a halt, leaving skid marks
on the road. Accident investigators can use these marks to estimate the speed at
which the vehicle was travelling when the brakes were applied. To do this, in the
simplest case of a horizontal road surface, they use the model u = 2jJigs, where
u ms~ is the speed at the onset of braking, n is the coefficient of friction between
the vehicle's tyres and the road surface, and s metres is the length of the skid.
To find a value for the coefficient of friction, investigators carry out a controlled
skid from a known speed. They can then measure the stopping distance, and
calculate jU. It is important that this is done in conditions similar to those prevalent
at the time of the crash and, if possible, in the accident vehicle.
Investigate the suitability of the given model used by investigators. Consider how
this may be refined for accidents which occur on non-horizontal road surfaces.

Activity 10.4 Speed skiing

Speed skiing is one of the latest additions to the growing list of snow sports.
Participants plummet down a kilometre or more of mountainside on slopes at nearly
60°. Their speeds are electronically timed over a 100 metre stretch, which they
cover in less than a second as they approach speeds of over 140 m.p.h.
The exhilaration of travelling at such speed has been achieved following
technological advances in many areas including aerodynamic streamlining, ski
structure, and ski waxing.
It has been claimed that speed skiers travel down the initial one kilometre or so of
mountain faster than a parachutist in free-fall over a similar distance. Investigate this
claim.

140
 10 Heal problems

Activity 10.5 Rapid weight loss

What do bathroom scales measure? Try, if you can, going on a lift journey while
standing on a set. Can you increase or decrease your measured weight?
The speed of passenger lifts depend on their use. In some buildings all lifts have to
be able to stop at each floor, whilst in others it is possible to have lifts which are
dedicated to whisking passengers directly to the top floor. Japanese passenger lifts
reach speeds in excess of 22 m.p.h. in buildings with about 60 floors. Such speeds
are surpassed by those reached by the cages in the deep mine shafts of South Africa.
There speeds greater than 40 m.p.h. can be reached as the cages rise and fall over
2000 m.
In the world's tallest buildings a system of express and local lifts is used so that the
number of shafts needed at ground level is reduced. At present lifts have a
maximum speed of three floors per second, but it is hoped that this can be increased
when a system is used whereby lifts quickly take you to key floors in the building
Figure 10.2 from which you will use local escalators.
When people talk about being weightless, what do they mean? Can you achieve this
in a lift?

Activity 10.6 Sliding cars

You will have noticed that in both motor racing and cycling events banked tracks
are sometimes used. What is the advantage of banked tracks?
The famous Indianapolis 500 race uses a track with such banking. This track is two
and a half miles long and is rectangular with banked corners. It is known as an oval.
Here, 33 of the world's fastest drivers take more than two hours to complete 220
laps. Their cars are capable of speeds of up to 230 m.p.h. and they have a minimum
weight of 700 kg. This contrasts with a typical weight of 500 kg for a Formula One
car.
Spectators at the Indianapolis 500 sit close to the action at the outer edge of the
track. They are protected from cars sliding out by a 1-metre-high concrete wall,
topped by a chain-link fence. Nelson Piquet, who crashed on the track in 1992,
experienced very large forces when decelerating from 200 m.p.h. to a stop in just
0.14s.
Investigate how banking allows cars to be driven at higher speeds round corners.

Activity 10.7 Serving an ace

Top professional tennis players can still serve an ace even though their opponents
are of a similar standard. They do this by precision and speed of serve. Top players
can hit a ball at speeds in the region of 60 ms . They often aim to serve so that the
ball lands in the corner, formed by their opponent's service line and the centre line,
of the permitted area.

747
 Mechanics 1
The consistency and accuracy required to do this is formidable, as the player can
vary the angle of the racket head or the speed of serve only slightly to ensure that
the ball lands in the court.
Investigate.

Activity 10.8 Speed of grass

If you play a round of golf you will have to play a variety of shots. Whether using
the wood to drive the ball from the tee, using the sand wedge to get out of a bunker,
or carefully using the putter to sink the ball on the green, each shot requires a
different skill.
A difficulty that you will encounter on the green is having some idea of how
resistive the surface will be to your rolling ball. The green speed is designated as
being fast, medium/fast, medium, medium/slow or slow, depending on how far a
ball will roll. This is found by using a device known as a stimpmeter, which releases
the ball in a consistent manner. Two or more balls are released from the same point
and roll across a level piece of green. They should come to rest within 8 inches of
each other. After repeating the test in the opposite direction, the speed of the green
is found using the mean of the two distances obtained.
Investigate whether you can rank the smoothness of surfaces in this way.

Activity 10.9 Judging the gap

Drivers in a hurry, or those just tired of sitting behind a farm tractor crawling along
a country lane, have to judge whether or not it is safe to overtake. What advice does
'The Highway Code' offer?
Paragraph 99: "Do not overtake unless you can do so safely. Make sure the road is
sufficiently clear ahead and behind. Do not get too close to the vehicle you intend to
overtake - it will obscure your view of the road ahead. Use your mirrors. Signal
before you start to move out. Take extra care at night and in poor visibility when it
is harder to judge your speed and distance."
Paragraph 100: "Once you have started to overtake, quickly move past the vehicle
you are overtaking, leaving it plenty of room. Then move back to the left as soon as
you can but do not cut in."
Further useful advice is given in a table setting out how far apart cars should be
when travelling at various speeds if they are to allow sufficient distance to stop in an
emergency. In good conditions, among fast-moving traffic, there is a suggestion that
a two-second gap between vehicles will be sufficient.
If the road ahead is clear, how far will a car travel while overtaking? If a vehicle is
approaching, when should you risk making the move?

142
 Hints
Activity 1.3, page 15
1 You can use the Euler step-by-step method to find approximate solutions to the
differential equations of motion. If you know the acceleration, a — a(t), as a
function of time, or as a function of displacement, a = a(x), and you know the
initial conditions, a(l , v0 and x0 , then you can calculate successive values of t, a, v
and x. The graphs of Figure 11.1 indicate how the process would apply over the
interval from tn to tn+l , where tn+l —tn = h.
('„ + /.

an = f(xn)

Figure 7 7.7

Here is an algorithm which you can use to plot a displacement-time graph for a
stone falling from rest. Take its acceleration as 9.8 ms~ .
EulerMotion
Input Differential equations of motion and initial values
SETTHEGRAPHICS {Set the ranges, clear the screen and so on}
{Set the starting point for t}
{ Set the starting point for x}
0->V { Set the starting point for v}
-9.8-» A {Set the starting point for a}
0.01 ->// {Set the step length}
repeat
X + HxV-^X
V+HXA-+V
T+H^T
ploi(T,X) {Plots one point each time it goes round the loop}
until T > 5
Output A graph simulating displacement plotted against time.

745
 Mechanics 1
Consider carefully the time interval, h, that you are using: this needs to be chosen to
give you calculated values and plotted points in a reasonable time, and to give a fair
degree of accuracy. If h is too big, the calculation will be inaccurate; if h is too
small, the calculation will take too long. You need to compromise.
dv 2
2 a You will need to use a = — = -kv .
dt -i
To find the time taken for the boat to slow down to 2 ms , solve this differential
equation by separating the variables to obtain —~- — —k \dt.
J\ 5 v Jo
dv
To find the distance travelled by the boat in this time re-write a as v —. (Since
dx v —
v = —, dv = —dx x —dv = —
dv .)x
dt dx dt dx dt dy 2
You have to solve the differential equation v -r- = -kv by separating the variables
t , . fz vdv , fA,
to obtain —=- = —k\dx.
J15 V Jo

Activity 2.2, page 24

1 When you integrate a = ms you have v = + c ms . Note that

the constant of integration c is a vector, c = . Alternatively you can consider
v= ms . Find c = by finding v ms ' when t = 0 s .
-9.8? +c.
2 When you integrate you will get a constant of integration which has components
utcosd + k, \
in both i and j directions, so r = m. Find &, and k2 by using
ut sin d - g —

the initial conditions, that is when t = Os, r = m.

Activity 2.3, page 28

_
Assuming that a = ms use integration to find expressions for v and r. Find
the constants of integration by using the conditions at launch, that is

When the ball lands r = (-h) m. By equating this to the expression you found for r
by integration you will have two equations, one for each of the horizontal and
vertical directions. Find R as a function of u by eliminating t between these two
equations.

Activity 2.5, page 31

3 Build your program in stages.
Consider the ^-direction. You will have to modify the algorithm which you used in
Activity 1 .3 to take account of the initial upward component of velocity of the ball.

144
 // Hints
When your program is running satisfactorily, add to it to take account of the x-
direction. Here is an algorithm which takes account of both directions.
EulerMotion2D —————————————————————————————————————————
Input Differential equations of motion and initial values
SETTHEGRAPHICS {Set the ranges, clear the screen and so on)
0 -> T (Set the starting point for t}
0 —> X { Set the starting point for x}
0 —> Y { Set the starting point for y}
10cos60 —> W {Set the starting point for V K }
10 sin 60 —> V { Set the starting point for vy }
0 —» B { Set the starting point for ax }
-9.8 —> A { Set the starting point for a v }
0.01 -> H {Set the step length}
repeat

Y+HxV^Y
W + H x B —> W {This line is redundant since a x - 0 }
V + H x A -> V {Work out a new value of v each loop)
T+H^T
Plot (X, Y) {Plots one point each time it goes round the loop)
until T > 5
Output A graph simulating displacement plotted against time.

Activity 2.5, page 32

2 Use equations for when the shot lands:
the range, R = ut cos 9
the height 0 = ut sin 9 - -^ gt .

From the second equation, find the value of t when the projectile lands. Substituting
this into the first equation will give you an expression for the range, R, in terms of u
and 0.
Find its maximum value as 9 varies, by using either a graphical method or by using
the identity sin 2 9 = 2 sin 9 cos 9.

Activity 2.6, page 33

dv dv
2 To solve the differential equations, —— = —kvx and —— = -9.8 - kvy , you will
need to separate the variables to give:

hf
f dv v = J-
f
and
9.8 + v,,
You will then have expressions for vx and vy . Solving these equations again will
give you expressions for x and y in terms of t. You can then determine whether or
not the ball is at the correct height to pass through the net when it is at the
appropriate horizontal distance.

745
 Mechanics 1

Activity 3.1, page 38

3 Think about what happens over a small interval of time, for example you might
try one-tenth of a second.
4 Find the speed of a child at a general position, a distance r metres from the
centre. You will need to use the ideas of questions 1 and 3.

Activity 3.2, page 39

2 b To investigate the direction of the velocity, find the velocity vectors at a
number of specific instants and put them on a scale drawing of the circular path on
graph paper. Try t = 1 s, t = 2 s, etc. You will need to choose values of r and ft) to do
this. Use those for child A, r = 2 metres and ft) = — rads" . See Figure 1 1.2.

4 b Calculate the acceleration at some specific instants and put the vectors
Figure 11.2
representing them on to a drawing of the circular path on graph paper. Find the
acceleration of the body at t = 1 , t = 2 , etc.

Activity 4.4, page 65

4 a If you align i with the 2 N force, you have + + =0

-Fsm9) ( 4sin30 J
So F cos 0 = 1.464, Fsin0 = 2
To find F,
(Fcos0)2 +(Fsin0)2 =1.4642 +22

Fz =6.143
F = 2.48N
To find 9,
Fsin9
Fcos0 1.464
tan0 = 1.366
0 = 53.79°

N Activity 5.2, page 73

A 3 Use either
• a scale drawing in which you construct a 'triangle of forces',
• a sketch of a triangle of forces together with trigonometric calculations, or
• column vectors to represent each force and consideration of the equilibrium of
the system.

Activity 5.4,page79
V 1 Consider the equilibrium of forces acting on each block modelled as a particle. A
mg force diagram for this is shown in Figure 11.3.
Figure 113 When the block is about to slide, Ps]iding = FMAX and FMAX = ^N.

146
 77 Hints

3 b Consider the equilibrium of forces in both the horizontal and vertical

directions in conjunction with the model for friction, FMAX = fJ.N.
4 b Write down two equations linking the forces acting on the slabs, by
considering their equilibrium in directions along the slope and at right angles to it.
Use your two force equations together with the equation for the simple model for
friction, that is FMAX = /J.N.

Activity 5.6, page 83

I If w = 1kg, W7 = — N. Think about what W will be when the mass is 2 x rE ,
rE
3 x rE metres etc. away from the Earth

Activity7.2, page 106

^m

5 c

Figure 11.4

Applying Newton's Second Law to the situation shown in Figure 11.4 gives you
two equations, when you consider the horizontal and vertical directions. Solve these
equations to find the acceleration of the spider and car, a ms .
5 d In this case the spider has an acceleration towards the centre of the circle, it
therefore has a resultant force in that direction. This is provided by the horizontal
component of the tension. Applying Newton's Second Law to give you two
equations. Solve them to find the acceleration, a ms of the spider and car. Use
v2
a = — to find the speed of the spider and the car.
r

147
 Mechanics 7

Practice exercises for Chapter 2, page 111

1 a The ball is at its greatest height above the ground when the vertical

component of velocity is zero, i.e. if v = ms , v =0.

c The ball first bounces on the ground when the vertical component of

displacement is zero. i.e. if r = (A m, y = 0.

\y)
d The range is found using the time, ts,when the ball first bounces in the
expression for horizontal displacement, xm.
2 b When the ball first lands its vertical component of displacement is zero. Use
this to find the time t s, when the ball lands. Use this value of time to find the
corresponding horizontal component of displacement.
0
7 a a= ms,r = m. If the ball
-9.8t 2.S-4.9? 2

just gets in the service court r = ,| m.

You can find the time when the ball bounces, and consequently find the horizontal
displacement.
b When the ball just passes over the net r = m.
2.5-4.9?'

Practice exercises for Chapter 4, page 117

7 c You have two equations when you consider the two components of the vectors
separately.

If FcosO = a and Fsin 9 = b, then F cos 9+F sin 6 = a +b .

so F cos 6> + sin 9} = a +b ,

and F = a +b ,
, sin d b , . . „ b
and ——77 = —, that is tan 0 = —.
cos da a

Practice exercises for Chapter 5, page 119

7 b A force diagram for this situation
N
A

300 N

V 200 N
Figure 11.5

148
 // Hints
7 c A force diagram for the crate is now
N

200 N

Figure 11.6
8 Firstly find the coefficient of friction for the book and desk lid using the
information that the book just starts to slip when the lid makes 15° to the horizontal.
This is the angle of friction.
H= tan 15° =0.268
A force diagram for the book when it is just about to slide with the desk lid making
an angle of 30°

Figure 11.7
Consider the equilibrium of the book expressing each force in component form in
the direction of the sloping desk lid and at right angles to it.

Activity 9.1, page 127

Note: This is a possible approach, not the only approach.
To narrow the problem down assume that cars will have zero speed at each hump
and reach a chosen maximum speed between humps. You can allow either or both
of these to vary later if you want to investigate what effect this will have.
• Variables distance between humps, d metres (s\ metres while accelerating
and s2 - i'i metres while decelerating),
Constants acceleration, a, ms -2
deceleration, a2 ms -2
speed at humps, vmm ms -2
maximum speed, vmax ms
You will need to choose suitable values of constants.

149
 Mechanics 1
Use vmin = 0, vmax = 15 m. p. h. = 6.706 ms . Newspaper advertisments give
acceleration figures such as 0-60 m.p.h. in 15 seconds, so use
a, = —j-=— = 1.788 ms~' You could find a value for the deceleration from the
emergency braking distances in the highway code. These give a reasonable value of
a2 = -6.6ms .
• Draw a diagram Figure 11.9 shows the relevant information.

a, = 1.788ms"2 a, = -6.6 ms
Constants that
VMIN =0
—>•
VMAX = 6 706ms" 1 vMIh
——>• — _^p >• you have given
realistic values
•v.:^

dm
i,m
s2 m
J
Figure 11.9

Apply the equation for constant acceleration, v2 = u 1 + 2as, to the two parts of the
motion where the car is accelerating and decelerating.
When the car is accelerating 6.706 2 = O 2 + 2 x 1.788 x ,v, so
s, = 6.706 2 = 12.576m.
1 2x1.788
When decelerating 0 = 6.706 + 2 x (-6.6) x (s2 - s,) so
= 6.706 + = 3- 407+ 12.576 =15.983m.
2x6.6
The distance between speed humps is approximately 16 metres.
You may consider making the following refinements to investigate how the distance
between humps is affected by
• assuming that cars pass over them at 5 m.p.h
• assuming that cars reach a maximum speed of vmax m.p.h. beween humps
• taking more moderate values of a, and a2 .

Activity 9.2, page 128

Note: This is a possible approach, not the only approach.
Define clearly the problem that you are going to investigate. For example, you may
assume that the shot-putter can consistently put the shot at the same angle and
speed, so you need to investigate how the length of put on the sloping ground will
compare with what it would be on a horizontal surface.
Align unit vectors, i and j, horizontally and vertically, respectively, as shown in
Figure 11.10.

150
 11 Hints

horizontal range R , m

Figure 11.10
• constants speed of launch, « ms"1
angle of launch 6°
horizontal range, R{ metres .
• variables range on slope, R2 metres, angle of slope, a"
-i
A realistic speed of release of the shot is 10 ms
Make the additional simplifying assumption that the shot-putter releases the shot so
that it makes an angle of 45° to the horizontal, so that it would then achieve the
maximum range when released from ground level.
You can tackle this in two ways, graphically and analytically. You will probably
find it easier to use a graphical approach.
Graphically
• Use your graphics calculator either with your Euler step-by-step program or in
parametric mode to find where graphs of the projectile's path and the line
representing the ground intersect.
Analytically
Find an expression for the maximum horizontal range, /?; metres.
Find the equation of the projectile's path.
Find the equation of the sloping ground.
Find the point of intersection of the last two equations.
Find R} from the first equation.
n
• Plot a graph showing how —- varies with angle of slope a".
R2
Refine your model by taking into account the height, h metres, above the ground at
which the shot is released.

Activity 9.3, page 129

Note: This is & possible approach, not the only approach.
Narrow the problem down by investigating what happens to chippings released by a
car travelling at a specific, realistic, speed.
• Assumptions the speed of a chipping as it leaves the rear wheel of a car is
the same as the speed of the car
air resistance is negligible
a chipping obeys Galileo's model for projectile motion
chippings can be projected at any angle to the horizontal,

151
 Mechanics 7
from 0° to 90°,
the road is horizontal,
all cars travel at the recommended speed, say 20 m.p.h.
(later, you can vary this speed)
all cars keep the distance recommended in the Highway
Code behind the car in front
a chipping cannot be higher than 0.5 metres above the road
without causing damage.
Variables the angle that a projected stone makes with the road
(horizontal) is 0° (start by taking 8 = 45; you can vary this
angle later) /x\
a chipping has displacement r = metres at time /
seconds after launch. w/
Constants chippings have an initial speed of launch of 20 m.p.h.
(= 8.94 ms ), that is, the speed of all cars
the cars are initially 12m apart (this is the distance
recommended by the Highway Code for this speed).
• Draw a diagram as shown in Figures 11.11, 11.12 and 11.13.
At launch of chipping

12m

Figure 77.72

iru
path of path of
chipping roof on car

0.5
12 m
Figure 11.13

152
 77 Hints

Here is one strategy you could use.

• Using your graphics calculator in parametric mode, draw the graph of the path of
the stone.
• On the same graph, draw the parametric graph of the path of the following car.
• Use the trace key to determine whether or not the car and the chipping are in the
same place at the same time.
• Make an assumption about the size of the following car so that you can decide
whether or not the stone hits the car.
Perhaps a more efficient method is to program your calculator, using an Euler step-
by-step method, so that it updates the positions of both car and chipping at each pass
through a loop, and plots them on the screen as it does so. You can then see
dynamically whether or not the chipping hits the car.

Activity 9.4, page 129

Note: This is a possible approach, not the only approach.
Figure 11.14 shows what may be considered as a typical spider or octopus ride.
Main arms spread from a central hub, O, to subsidiary hubs such as A. Passengers
sit in positions such as P, at the ends of arms spreading from the subsidiary hubs.

Figure / /. U
• Constants main arm, OA, length, r{ metres,
subsidiary arm, AP, length r2 metres,
main arm speed of rotation, o^rads' 1 ,
subsidiary arm speed of rotation, o^rads" 1
align the unit vector i horizontally
take the point O as origin.
Choose suitable values for some of these constants. Later you can change the values
of one or more of them to vary and explore the different paths you obtain.
Align unit vector, i, horizontally. Take the point O as origin.

At time t = 0, assume that P is at a point with position vector r = , shown

0
in Figure 11.15a; t seconds later P is the point with position vector r m, as shown in
Figure 11.15b.

153
 Mechanics 7

Figure 11.15a Figure 11.15b

After t seconds, arm OA has rotated through an angle a>|f radians, and the arm
AP has rotated through an angle (O2t radians, as shown in Figure 11.16.

Write the position vector r of P in terms of r] , rv (a\, co2 and t.

Use a parametric graph plotter to trace typical paths of P.

Activity 9.5, page 130

Note: This is a possible approach, not the only approach.
• Assumptions the plan of the doorway is as shown in Figure 11.17

Figure 11.17
a person with a trolley is a particle
people with trolleys walk at constant speed
the door rotates at constant angular speed
people walk along a straight line which is perpendicular to
the building.
Constants the radius of the door, r metres
the speed of a person and trolley is v ms .

154
 77 Hints

Variables the angular speed of rotation of the door, a> rads~

the distance of the path of a person from the centre of the
door, / metres.
Draw a diagram as shown in Figure 11.18.

Figure 1118

Choose realistic values for the constants.

A person who enters the door area when the leading door P is at A, has to reach B
after the leading door P and before the trailing door S, as shown in Figure 11.19.

Figure 11.19

Use the equations of circular motion at constant angular speed to find a value for the
speed of rotation of the door.
Investigate how this speed of rotation would vary for different speeds of walking.
Investigate different positions of the path taken by the person.

Activity 9.6, page 131

Note: This is a possible approach, not the only approach.
• Constants the mass m kg of the decoration, for example, 5 kg
align unit vectors, i and j, horizontally and vertically,
respectively.
• Variables tension in horizontal cable, 7j N,
tension in sloping cable, T2 N,
the angle, 6°, that the sloping cable makes with the
horizontal.
• Draw a diagram as shown in Figure 11.20.

155
 Mechanics 1

V mg
Figure 11.20

Write each force as a column vector. Write down in terms of these column vectors
the condition for equilibrium.
Find how each tension varies with angle 9°.
Plot graphs of T{ against 9°, and T2 against 6°
Interpret your graphs.
When will the tension in the horizontal cable be least? What then is the tension in
the sloping cable?
When is the tension in the sloping cable least?

Activity 9.7, page 132

Note: This is a possible approach, not the only approach.
There are two situations to consider.
1 The load is not being pulled and the builder is taking a break. In this case the
friction force will act to attempt to stop the load sliding down the slope.
2 The builder is pulling on the rope. In this case the friction force will act to
oppose the movement of the load up the slope.
You will need to investigate whether the friction developed between the load and
the plank will be able to stop the load sliding down the slope but that it will not be
so great as to prevent the builder pulling the load up the slope when he wants.
Investigate one case at a time before bringing your findings together.
1 Taking a break, that is, the rope is slack.
• Constants mass of load, Mkg
• Constants the coefficient of friction, \i
the angle, 9° ,of the slope of the ramp at which slipping just
occurs.
Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on the load.
If the load is sitting on a slope as the angle increases, the component of the load's
weight that acts down the slope increases, and consequently a greater friction force
is needed to maintain equilibrium. The friction force will increase until at a certain
critical angle it can increase no further; limiting friction has been reached and
sliding will occur.
Consider the forces acting on the load when the load is just about to slip. At this
point the slope makes an angle 9° with the horizontal.
Use column vectors, with unit vector, i, aligned with the direction of the slope.
Represent each force as a column vector and write down in terms of these vectors
the condition for equilibrium.

156
 11 Hints

At the point where sliding is just about to occur, the standard model for friction is
FMAX = p.N, where FMAX is the friction force, JJ. the coefficient of friction and N the
normal contact force.
Find an expression relating the coefficient of friction, //, to the angle of slope, 9°,
at which sliding just occurs.
Draw a graph showing how 9° varies with fl.
• What does your graph tell you about how steep you can have the slope so that
the builder can stop pulling on the rope without the load sliding down the slope?
Is this reasonable for typical values of /U. ?
• Think about particular points on the graph, e.g. at 9 = 0°.
• For a given angle your graph will tell you the least value of /U for the load to
remain at reast. If f*l is less than this, the load will slide down the slope.
Consider the questions in Figure 11.21 while carrying out an experiment to validate
your solution.
For a mass, M kg, What is the
increase the angle of the coefficient of
slope until sliding occurs friction?

What happens for

different values of
coefficient of friction?
Does the angle depend
on the mass M?

Figure 11.21
2 When the builder is pulling on the rope.
• Constants in addition there is now a tension T newtons in the rope due
to the builder pulling on it. Assume a value T— you may wish
to use a multiple of the weight of the heavy load.
• Draw a diagram draw a new diagram showing the forces now acting on the
load.
As the builder pulls on the rope the friction force will act in the direction opposing
the potential movement of the load. The friction force will increase until the limiting
value of friction is reached.
Consider the system in equilibrium just as the load is about to slide up the slope.
Find an expression for the pulling force which the builder applies, and use this to
find an expression for fl in terms of 9° Add a line to your graph from the analysis
of case a, showing how 9° varies with jj.
• What does your graph tell you about how steep you can have the slope so that
the builder can manage to pull the load up the slope against the force of friction?
Is this reasonable for typical values of /I ?
• Think about particular points on the graph, e.g. at 0 = 0°.

757
 Mechanics 7
• For a given angle, your graph will tell you the greatest value of \i that the
surfaces in contact can have. If /J. exceeds this value the builder will not be able
to pull the load up the slope.
• For motion to occur, the builder must pull with a force greater than the value of
T N that you have calculated. Use this to deduce what you can about values of
H, the coefficient of friction.
You may wish to carry out a practical investigation to validate your findings. Figure
11.22 gives some ideas about how you might do this.
For a mass, M kg, decrease Does a graph, obtained by experiment, of
the angle of the slope until 6 against ^ resemble that obtained by
sliding up the slope occurs your analysis?

A multiple of the
'heavy load'

Figure 11.22

Interpret the findings of your analyses of both cases a and b together.

Activity 9.8, page 133

Note: This is a possible approach, not the only approach.
• Assumptions the pulley and person can be modelled as a single particle
Itmaybe possible to ¥gS:^
no friction force acts (you may wish to refine your model
simulate an aerial runway
and validate your later to take into account a friction force acting)
analysis of the model you • Constants the total length of the journey, / m.
set up in response to this the angle, 6°, that the rope makes with the horizontal
problem. the total mass, m kg, of pulley and person.
• Variables time, t s
the distance travelled down the slope, x m
the velocity, v ms , of the person and pulley.
• Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on the pulley and person,
considered together as a particle.
Suppose that at time t = 0, x - 0 and v = 0. Use Newton's Second Law applied to the
pulley and person in a direction acting down the length of the ropeway, to find an
expression for their acceleration. Use this expression to find the speed and distance
travelled by the person at any instant.
Predict how long it would take for your practical simulation of a rider on an aerial
ropeway to travel from top to bottom. You will need to use real data for the masses
and lengths.
Validate your predictions practically.

158
 77 Hints

Why might your predictions be inaccurate?

Refine your model by taking friction into account.

Activity 9.9, page 134

Note: This is a possible approach, not the only approach.
• Assumptions the slope has constant gradient,
the release is consistent and at release the distance travelled
and speed are zero
the trolley is a particle sliding down the slope,
You will need to have • Constants the mass, in kg, of the trolley
measured the values of the angle, 9°, of the slope,
mass, M kg, and angle of • Variables distance travelled, x m
slope, 9°. If you did not time taken, t s.
do this when you did • Draw a diagram showing clearly all forces acting on the trolley.
Activity 1.4 you will need
to collect some new data Apply Newton's Second Law to the trolley in the downhill direction of the slope.
Obtain expressions for the acceleration, speed and distance travelled by the trolley, /
seconds after release.

Use the measured values Draw graphs of acceleration-time, velocity-time, displacemnt-time. Are these what
for mass, M kg, and angle you would expect?
of slope, 0°. so that you Use your analysis to make predictions. For example, predict how long it will take
can predict real values the trolley to travel 50 cm. Use practical equipment to see if your model is
for your practical set-up.
validated, i.e. see if your prediction is accurate.
Notice that due to the simplicity of your model and errors in measuring you may
find that your predictions are not very accurate. You need to think carefully about
the degree of error in all values and what overall effect these errors may have on
your predicted values.

Activity 9.10, page 135

Assumptions the plumb line is light and inextensible.
Constants mass, m kg, of the bob.
Variables the tension, T newtons, in the string
the angle, 6°, string makes with vertical
the acceleration, a ms of trolley.
• Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on the bob when the meter is
accelerating.
Use Newton's Second Law applied to the bob to find an expression for the angle 9°
of the string's inclination to the vertical in terms of the acceleration, a ms" , of the
meter.
Draw a graph showing how angle 0° varies with acceleration, a ms"
Use an accelerometer that you have made to carry out an experiment to see if your
model is valid.

159
 Mechanics /
Figure 11.23 shows some equipment that you could use.
You will ne'ed:'Trolley,
track, light string, pulley, 1 accelerometer
mass hanger, masses,
tape measure, stopwatchaj

Figure 11.23

The masses M kg and the mass of the trolley, Mr kg, have to be chosen carefully so
that the trolley accelerates and covers a measured distance in a reasonable time.
Assume that the trolley accelerates with a constant value, a ms , You can calculate
a if you find the distance travelled by the trolley and the time that it takes: use the
equations of uniformly accelerated motion.

Activity 9.11, page 136

• Assumptions the satellite is a particle
the Earth is a particle
the air resistance is negligible.
• Constants the mass, m kg, of the satellite.
• Variable the radius, r m, of the circular orbit of the satellite
the angular speed, (O rads , of the satellite
the period, Ts, of one revolution.
• Draw a diagram as shown in Figure 11.24.

F = CM,

Figure 1 J.24

Use Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation to find the force acting on the satellite
due to the influence of the earth. Use Newton's Second Law applied to the motion
of the satellite to find an equation linking the force acting on it to its acceleration
and hence its angular speed.

160

ft"his relationship was first
^suggested by Johannes
pKepler in 1619. Note that
fthe constant, k, would be
Idifferent if you were
leonsidering the moons of
I Jupiter, for example, as it
|ts dependent on the mass
|of the planet whose
Isatellites you are
Iconsidering.
fYour result here is
^important: think about
f what will happen to an
I empty ehair positioned
|nextto a chair holding a
Ipassenger.
// Hints
Write down an expression for the time period, T s, of the revolution of the satellite
in terms of its angular speed, (0 rads . Hence show that the radius, rm, of the orbit
of the satellite is given by r3 = kT2 , where k is a constant.
Draw a graph showing how the radius of the orbit, rm, varies with time period, Ts,
of one revolution. Change the axis in such a way that you obtain a straight-line
graph. Investiagte similar graphs for the planets in their orbits about the Sun.
How does your analysis suggest that the period of orbit of a satellite varies with its
mass? Find out what you can about man-made satellites and their time periods.
Investigate the positioning in space of telecommunications satellites.
Activity 9.12, page xx
• Assumptions the chain supporting a chair is light and inextensible.
• Constants the length, / m, of a chain.
• Variables the angle a chain makes with the vertical is x°
the angular, CO rads speed of the chair-o-plane.
• Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on a chair and any relevant
additional information.
Use Newton's Second Law applied to the motion of a chair to find an equation
linking the resultant force acting towards the centre of its circular path to its angular
speed. By considering the forces in the vertical direction find an expression for the
tension in the supporting chain in terms of the weight of the chair.
g
Show that the expression cos x = —^- links the angle, x°, that a chain makes with
I® _,
the vertical and the angular velocity, co rads , of the rotating chair.
Write down the two possible solutions for x", and draw a graph showing how
angular speed o> rads varies with x°. Describe in words how x° varies as o>
increases. In particular describe what happens when x is 0 and nearly 90. How does
the angle of inclination of a chain vary with the mass of a chair?
You may validate this by observing an actual chair-o-plane ride, or simulation using
a motor and conical pendulum with two bobs of different masses.
Re-write your solution to find an expression for /cos x m, i.e. the depth of a chair
below the point of suspension, Figure 11.25.
Figure 1125
161
 Mechanics /

If a ride is rotating at constant angular speed, what does this suggest about the depth
of chairs beneath their point of suspension when they are supported by chains of
different lengths?
Extend and refine your model to take account of the fact that chairs are supported by
chains suspended from points at a distance, d m, from the axis of rotation, Figure
11.26.

Figure 11.26

162
 12 Answers

Activity 1.1, page 8 2 Velocity increases as a linear function of time;

ms~ distance is a quadratic function of time, that is it
a v= = 4.9t 2 m
increases with (time)2 .
ms
at 3 & 4 Depend on data that you have collected.

Activity 1.2, page 11

1 v = u + at
9.8
u+v
2 a *=
b x = w/ + 4-xrxaf = ut + ^at2
-*• t c x = vt - j x t x al = vt - -5- at
s

ms -, which is usually
2a
v quoted as v 2 = u 2 + 2ax
5 a 37.49s
b 1510.8m
6 a 11.03m
b 14.7 ms' 1
-2
7 a -0.818 ms
b 49.5m -2
-*• t c 0.55 ms
s
8 a 50m
b 350s
c -0.26 ms" 1
d The canoeist is travelling back towards the jetty
although she is paddling forwards, away from the jetty.
e after 685 s

163
 Mechanics 1

Activity 2.1, page 22

1 a m

-0.67 " range m

Activity 1.3, page 15

2 a 434 s, 201.49m
b 43.2s, 200.97m (using H = 0.1)
c

-*• JC
m
range
c m
XL

45 s
range

Notice the links between the three graphs.

Activity 2.2, page 24

( 'I ^
1 v= . When r = 0 , it is known that
45 s fucos9\ _ (c\ "|\
v = u= = . So in general

WCOS0
v=
wsin 0 — g
-2-- ut cos 9 + k.
2 r= .Whenf = 0,r = 0 = |
-ygJ +A;2
^ utcosO
so r =
\utsm9-jgt 2

164
 12 Answers

Acceleration projectile falls towards the ground the rate of increase of

Horizontally Vertically distance fallen increases as it speeds up. This gives rise to
a parabola when height is plotted against time.
> ms "
5 See answer 3 above.
fly,

Note: no 6 At A, highest point of flight:

acceleration
component
————ft 0 ————*• t i-direction j-direction
s s Half maximum horizontal Maximum height
Disp
distance travelled reached
-g- Constant at initial
Vel 0
horizontal component
Ace 0 -g
ms ms

At B, furthest point from point of projection:

i-direction j-direction

u cos 0 Maximum horizontal

Disp 0
distance travelled (Range)
Constant at initial Negative
Vel
horizontal component value
0 ~e
Ace

m Displacement
x, Activity 2.4, page 29
B A

4 Acceleration: horizontally, zero; vertically, constant,

negative (if measured positive upwards), value -g.
Velocity: horizontally, constant at the initial value,
u cos 9; vertically: decreases linearly from the initial
value, M sin 9, reaches zero at the top of the flight path,
and is negative as the projectile falls to the ground. When
5 The angle of launch so that ball falls through the net
the projectile lands, the value of this vertical component
is 75.6°.
of velocity is -M sin 6
Displacement: horizontally, increases linearly with time;
vertically, rate of increase of height falls as the projectile 6 V= 8.66-9.8r lmS
slows down and reaches the top of its flight; as the

165
 Mechanics 1

5t b | a | = rco ; the direction of a is always towards the

r= m centre of the circle.
2.2 + 8.66f-4.9f
7 (—rcoscot} (rcoscot}
5 a a = -ft) , but r = , so
a=-m 2 r \-rsincot) {rsin cot)
Activity 2.5, page 32
b The magnitude of a is the magnitude of r multiplied
1 When the ball is launched from ground level, the
by co 2 that is, rco 2 . The direction of a is in the opposite
angle which achieves maximum range is 45°. This is true
direction to that of r; that is, towards the centre of the
for any speed of release.
circle.
3 When the ball is released 2 m above ground level, an
6 Position: the body moves on a circular path so that a
angle of 43.5° gives maximum range.
line joining it to the centre of the circle sweeps out equal
areas in equal time intervals.
Activity 2.6, page 33 The velocity, v, of the body has magnitude given by
1 Probably not. It may fall just short. v = rco. This is always directed along the tangent to the
circle at any instant.
The acceleration, a, of the body has magnitude given by
Activity 3.1, page 37
1 a, band c Child A:± n = ms~\ Child B: |7r = ms~' a- rco = —. The acceleration is always directed
r
2 0 ms"' towards the centre of the circle.

3 a Child A:^. n = ms~' , Child B: | TT = ms~'

b In each case, the direction is at right angles to the Activity 3.3, page 40
radial line from the centre to the child; that is, it is 1 a 0.000145 rads
tangential. b 0. 00175 rads" 1
c 1 hour 5.26 minutes
4 Magnitude v = r x i n ms .
2 a 0.7 rads"', 10m
5 Magnitude v = rco ms ; direction: tangential to their b 7 ms
circular path. c 4. 9 ms
(-lsmO.lt} (-4.9cosO.lt}
Activity 3.2, page 38 d v— <j —
(lcosO.lt)' (^.9sm0.1t)
rcoscot\ 3 a Outer rider: 8.06 ms~ ; inner rider: 5.86 ms
1 a r: _O T

) b outer rider: 11.8 ms '; inner rider 8.60 ms

4 a 7.29xlO"5 rads"'
This means that the particle is always a distance, r m, b 465 ms~' =1040m.p.h.
from the centre of the circle, which is what you would 5 a 2.66xlO-6 rads~'
expect. b
_1
1020 ms"'; 0.00272 ms"'
_")

-rcosincot}
a v= Activity 3.4, page 41
rco cos cot )
v = rco 1.5cos-y/
(-rcosincot} (rcoscot}
3 v.r= . . =0
^ rco cos cot J \ r sin cot) -1.04
The velocity is always tangential to the position vector at 4 a r
1.08
an instant.
b 1.0s, 8.4s
—rco cos cot}
4 a a=
-rco 2 sin cot)

166
 12 Answers

Activity 4.2, page 51 fFcos60°

4 a When the forces all have the same magnitude, the [Fsin60°
angles between them are all 120°. Fcosl5°
b When two of the forces have the same magnitude, -Fsinl5°
these two forces both act in a direction making the same
angle with the direction of the third force.
c When all the forces have different magnitudes, as in
the diagram, the smallest angle, a, lies opposite the
0
largest force, fj. The largest angle, y, lies opposite the 4 a -W
smallest force F3 .
F,
b
-Wcos8
2.5 -1.85 -0.65
5 a F, =
-0.76 0.76
b F, + F2 + F3 = 0

Activity 4.4, page 59

1 Notice that you have found your answers to this
Activity 4.3, page 57 question by drawing, and depending on the accuracy of
1 Notice that you have found your answers to question your drawings they may vary slightly from those quoted
4 by drawing and, depending on the accuracy of your here.
drawings, they may vary slightly from those quoted here. a a = 154° £ = 144° c = 62°
a Magnitude 13.5 N at 13° to 8 N force. b F, = 8 N F2 = 7N
b Magnitude 10.6 N at 41° to 8 N force. c F=12N a =: 157° £=113°
c Magnitude 14.9 N at 27.5° clockwise from 12 N d a = 135° F, := 2.8N F2 =2N
force.
2 a a = 102.64° £ = c = 128.68°
d Magnitude 4.6 N at 50° clockwise from 9 N force.
b a = 155 O ^ = 12.40 N F, = 7. 41 N
F"
e Magnitude 8.5 N at 15° anti-clockwise from 4 N
c a = 137 .66° £ = 102.34° = 10.15 N
force. d a = 100 O fi = 6.82N fi = 4. 45 N
2.598"! 3 a a = 65° F, = 3.02N F = 6. 24 N
2 a
1.5 I b a = 155 .20° b = 111.80° ft = 21 .54 N
c a = £ = 114.62° c = 130.75°
F, =5.32N F2 =1.82N
'5.44^ 4 a 2.48 N, 53.79°
2.541 b 4.47 N, 116.57°
c F, =F2 =2.83 N, 135°
d a = 151.04°, )3 = 133.43°, 0 = 75.52°.

(-4.5 ,
e F, = ,F,= Activity 5.1, page 70
1 (5.36 ' 2
,'6.43 N 1 a Its weight and a tension force.
5.5
f F,=|_ . I,F2
-9.53

(F cos 25°
VFsin25°

167
 Mechanics 7

Ar 2 -" I/}
0.196N V -
0.392 N
0.294 N

3 a = 43.4°,/? = 61.1°

v Activity 5.3, page 76

Mg
1 Your list might include: the nature of surfaces in
contact; the area of surfaces in contact; the weight of the
c The forces are equal in magnitude and act in opposite object; the size of the force pushing the object.
directions, so T = Mg.
2 The tension is the same at all points A, B, C, D. 2 a friction
force
3 a For each mass Ft
Ar region 1 region 2

V force is equal in magnitude to the pulling force and acts
Mg
b T = Mg
c Each system is in equilibrium, so the masses should
remain in their position, and at rest. Using practical
equipment, this may not happen, as the string has some
weight, and therefore the mass on the side of the pulley
with the longest piece of string will tend to move
downwards.
pulling force, P
In region 1, the system is in equilibrium, so the friction
in the opposite direction. In region 2, the friction force
reaches a maximum value and the block will then move.
b As the mass increases, the maximum value of F
increases, but the general shape of the graph remains the
same.
3 You will probably find that your experimental results
only roughly agree with the model Fmax = constant x N.
newtons

Activity 5.2, page XX

1 a 0.294 N
b 0.196N
c 0.392 N
0.294 N

O.I96N

newtons

0.392 N

168
Activity 5.4, page 79
1 a 2.94 N
b 5.88N
c 9.8 N
2 a
A/?

vw

e As the slope increases the friction component, F, of

reaction R needs to increase so that R remains vertical.
Eventually, F will reach a maximum possible value and
the block will then slide.

25

V 15 g
b u=(

d Parallel to slope: F = 15gsin0; Perpendicular to

slope: N = \5gcos6.
e 0 = 9.648°

169
 Mechanics 7

4 a

b 0 = 26.565°
c Your analysis suggests that the angle at which sliding
takes place is independent of the mass of the slabs; if
more are added they will slide at the same angle. If the
coefficient of friction between concrete and concrete is 6 The steepest slope on which the box can rest is one
less than that between concrete and wood, the tiles will such that tan 6 = n.
start to slip off the pile before the bottom tile starts to slip
down the ramp. Activity 5.5, page 81
5 a AN (-F\ (0\ o A
1 F= „ L N= ,,L T = W=
O N (Tsme -mg,

2 T=
H sin 6 + cos 0

Vmg

90°

Activity 5.6, page 83

Vmg 1 weight of
1 kg mass
N

2 9020 km

170
 12 Answers
3 5.98xl07 km constant speed in that direction. In the vertical direction
there is a component of force, so it will not have motion
Activity 5.7, page 84 with constant speed in that direction.
1 9.81 *- No forces act

2 a 637 N
b 14 700 N
There is no resultant force acting on the space probe, so it
c 7. 45 x 10s N
will continue to move in the same direction with the same
d 0.1xg = 0.981N
speed.
3- 6.67x10" ^
8 = —————— x5.98x!024
——————
a 9.78
b 7.47
c 0.00270
d 1.77xlO'8
4 9.38 xl N,No!
5 a 706 N
b 117N
c 0.165-1
The resultant force acting on the Moon is one which
6 a r = 2.00x!07 m attracts it towards the centre of the Earth. It does not,
b 2.82xlO7 m therefore, move with constant velocity. Although its
c 3.99X107 m speed is constant, its velocity is not. It is continually
changing its direction of motion.
Activity 6.1, page 91 2 a The resultant force acting on the ball is its weight,
la Aw mg. Since Newton's Second Law gives F = ma,
mg = ma, and therefore a = g. The ball will have an
acceleration of g = 9.8 ms downwards.

_J

v mg
N = mg, there is no resultant force, so the book remains
at rest.
-mgsind ^
The resultant force acting on the train is
-mgcosd )
if you align i and j up the slope and at right angles to it.
In the j direction, N - mgcosO = 0, so the train has no
component of acceleration. It remains in contact with the
The resultant force acting on the ball is its weight. The slope.
ball is not in equilibrium; it will not remain at rest nor In the i direction, Newton's Second Law gives
move with constant speed. -mgsin 6 = ma, so a = -gsin 9. The train accelerates
( ° down the slope at a constant rate.
W , when i and j are aligned horizontally and
\mg
vertically respectively. In the horizontal direction there is
no component of force, so the ball will move with

171
 Mechanics /

The acceleration is in a direction making an angle of

tan~' = 14.04° with the i direction.

The resultant force acting on the chair and rider is given 14.04°
( TsinO }
by if you align i and j horizontally and
^ T cos 9 — mg j d For equilibrium, a force equal in magnitude to the
vertically. In the j direction, 7 cos 9 - mg = 0, so they resultant force needs to be applied, acting in the opposite
have no component of acceleration. As they are not
moving up or down, they continue to move in a direction. F3 = -F = - newtons.
horizontal circle.
In the i direction, Newton's Second Law gives e | F | = A/82 + 2 2 = V68 = 8.25 newtons. This acts in
the opposite direction to the force, F, so makes an angle
Tsin 9 = ma, so a = — sin#. This acceleration is due to of-165.96°
m
the changing direction of the chair and rider's direction
of motion. 165.96°
3 a The book experiences a contact force N newtons,
acting vertically upwards. The table experiences a force -mgsin20°
equal in magnitude, N newtons, acting in the opposite 3 a F=
-mgcos20°+N
direction. Since the book is in equilibrium N = mg.
b The resultant force acting on the ball is mg newtons -15gsin20° 'i (-a
= ma, = 15
towards the centre of the Earth. The Earth experiences a -15gcos20°+AfJ 0
force of the same magnitude acting towards the ball. c In the j direction, -1 5g cos 20°+A' = 0,
/V = 15gcos20°=138.13 newtons.
d In the i direction, 1 5g sin 20° = 1 5a,
a = gsin20°=3.35ms~2 .

Earth 4 a Each mass is in equilibrium, therefore the resultant

acting on each is zero.
b Forces acting on one mass:
T
mg

Activity 6.2, page 97

1 a F = | _ | = ma = 3a

0.2 g
Therefore T = 0. 2g - 1.96 newtons.
-2
b |a| = {^/62 +(-2) 2 =^V4U =z.ll ms
The acceleration makes an angle of tan" 1 ^ = 18.43°
with the i direction.
2 a F = F+F= + newtons

772
 12 Answers
c Forces acting on mass on plane: 5 Diagram showing forces acting on block:

58
a As the block is in equilibrium, in the direction of the
normal contact force N = 5gcos25° = 44.41 newtons.
b FMAX = ^ = 0.5x44.41 = 22.20 newtons.
c The component of the block's weight acting down the
0.2 slope is 5gsin25°= 20.71 newtons. The friction force
can reach this value and keep the block in equilibrium.
Forces on hanging mass: d If ^=0.4, FMAX =0.4x44.41 = 17.76 newtons.
T e Down the slope, Newton's Second Law gives
20.71-17.76 = 5a,soa = ~

0.2 g

For the mass on plane, in direction of plane, Newton's

Second Law gives T — 0. 2g cos 5° = 0. 2a. For the mass
hanging freely, in the downward direction, Newton's F-5gs'm8\ f
Second Law gives 0. 2g - T = 0. 2a. Hence =5 , so TV = 5 gcosO and
N-5gcos8) ( K
T-Q.2gcos5°=0.2g-T, so 27 = 0.2gcos5°+0.2g. F = [iN -n5g cos d. This leads to
Hence T = 1.956 N and a = 0.1865 ms
a = g(sin 6-0. 4cos 9). Notice that up to tan"' 0.4, the
d If instead of 5°, the slope is at the angle 9°, block remains at rest.
T-Q.2gcos6°=0.2a and 0.2g-T = Q.2a. Hence
T = 0.2g-0.2a so0.2g-Q.2a-0.2gcosO = 0.2a,so
a = lg(l-cos0). 9.8--

9.8--

4.9 --
tan" 1 0.4

Activity 7.1, page 102

180
degrees 1 T
Notice that when 9 = 0, a - 0, the system is in
equilibrium.

173
 Mechanics 7
The resultant force towards the centre of the circle is 5 a
provided by the horizontal component of the tension.

or

mg
The resultant force towards the centre of the circle is
provided by the horizontal component of the reaction, i.e.
the friction component if the reaction is considered as
split into normal and friction components.

a The resultant force towards the centre of the car's

The resultant force towards the centre of the satellite's
circular path is provided by the force of attraction
between the Earth and the satellite.
circular path is due to the horizontal component of
normal reaction and friction forces. This situation will
arise when the car is travelling fast and tends to slide
outward and up the bank.
b When the car is travelling slowly, it will tend to slide
inward and down the slope. The resultant force towards
the centre of the circle is due to the horizontal component
of the normal reaction; in this instance the friction force
has a horizontal component acting away from the centre
of the circle.
c At a critical speed, the car has no tendency to slip up
or down the slope. In this case, the resultant force
towards the centre of the circle is due to the horizontal
component of the normal contact force.
6 a

mg

The resultant force towards the centre of the train's

circular path is provided by the horizontal component of
the reaction force. This force is as a result of contact
between the train's wheels and the tracks.

774
 72 Answers

b accelerating

mg
or

C accelerating

mg
The resultant force towards the centre of the circle is
provided by the horizontal component of the reaction: i.e.
the friction component if the reaction is considered as
split into normal and friction components.
a At constant velocity, the toggle is not accelerating:
there is no resultant force.
b When the toggle is accelerating forwards in a Activity 7.2, page 104
horizontal straight line, there must be a resultant force in 1 a 1.99xl0 2" N
that direction. This is provided by the horizontal b 0.00271 ms~2
component of the tension. c ft> = 2.65xlO~6 rads'1
c When the toggle is accelerating, at constant speed, d The time for one revolution is 27.4 days.
round a horizontal section of curved track, the resultant
force towards the centre of the circle is provided by the 2 a 3.53xl022 N
horizontal component of the tension. b « = 0.0059ms"2
c ft> = 1.98xlO~7 rads~'
d 366.7 days
3 a N

mg
The resultant force towards the centre of the item of
2. 5 A/ft> 2 newtons
clothing's circular path will be provided by the normal
c N = mg newtons
contact force.
d 1.771 rads~'
e 16.9 r.p.m. It is probably best to bolt the boat to the
floor.

775
 Mechanics 1

4 a around the corner:

T
mg

c On the point of slipping, F = /J. N, and F = ma, but

2 ,. 2
N = Mg and a = — where r = 40m, so —— = n Mg
mg
-2
c a = 1.728 ms
d 17.4 m.p.h.

Practice exercises
Chapter 1, page 108
1 a 10s
b 100m
2 a 0.4 ms~2
b 45
5 a You will need to assume that the spider is a particle
of mass, m. 3 a 5m
b Along the straight section of road: b 10 ms"1
c 61.25m
d 35 ms
4 a displacement m

20 35
time mins
b 1 -| miles
c 41-| minutes
5 a 0.25 m
b 1.673 ms~'

176
 12 Answers

6 a acceleration displacement m

time

velocity
d 127.8s, 1953.7m
8 a 0.671 s for all speeds. The thinking time is
independent of speed; it is the time taken for the driver to
react.
b -6.421 ms' 1 , 6.662 ms~2
c -6.659 ms~'
d 119.4m
time e a = 0.3v
C displacement
^ 65

9 a -5.00 ms~2
b 31.63m.p.h.
c No. 31.63±10% gives 28.5<v<34.8 m.p.h.

Chapter2, page 777

1 a 1.06s
time
48. 9t
b r=
' acceleration ms~2

d 103.79m
48.9
v=
-10.4
-i
f 50.0 ms
2 a The acceleration is g vertically downwards; the
velocity is 0.7 ms horizontally; the displacement is 0.7
m vertically, above the origin.
b velocity ms
b 0.265m
3 a height m
Note that the
graph is the same
for each swimmer

times

777
 Mechanics 1
b 1.75s 42
T25 ^ COS
c Om, 5.25 m e a=

,, 4 2 -2
Chapter 3, page 113 I ySr ^ ms

1 a
Chapter 4, page 115
1 72°
2 a 5.196N
b -3.00 N
(300^1 (318.2A
3 a N, N
0 '318.2
.
b N, N
U12.13J '[ 0
v = ro) ms ; a = r(i) ms
c 695.3 N making an angle of 17.76° with the line of
c a= ms action of the 450 N force.
-I -2
d 0.3rads ,0.9 ms
4 N
2 a 0.419_rads~' I, Fcos0 }
b 3.35 ms tangentially to the circular path. 5 81.87°, 147.53°, 130.60°
c 1 .40 ms towards the centre of the wheel
6 a 4N
3 1.45 ms"
(0} (3.46^ (-3.4 ,
b N, N, N
4 a -| n rads" (4) '(-2) ( -2
b 12 r.p.m. (0"i (3.46"| (-3.46"! (°
1 -j •}
--'f-Trsm-t-ro C 4 + -2 + -2 =0
c v=

d v = -y n: ms ; direction: tangential to circular path. 7 a | " IN, I " IN, | cos IN

'3J ' 0 ' -Fsin0,
74 2 9 A
- -£f 7T COS 4 OT
e a=
^-f w2 sin|» / [sj"1"^ 0 J + lv -Fsin0J~[o
a = --24-7T ms c 6.7 IN, 26.57°

5 13 200 rads 'Psinfl^

(-50sin45°"| ( 0 "\ (0
8 a + +
:o&e) Iv 50cos45°j \-50j (0
6 a 33.5 ms
b 38.27 N, 67.50°
b 2810ms~2
9 a 36.87°
7 a ^n rads
b -6.4 N
5 cos ^ ro c -3.6 N
b r=
5 sin
10 a 64.37 N making an angle of 53.02° with 100 N
force.
c v=
•^ ^ cos -^ ro b 64.03 N making an angle of 51.34° with 40 N force.
ms
Chapter 5, page 118
1 a 1.96 N

m
 72 Answers

b 1.96N
c 1.96 N
2 a 32.23°
b For equilibrium, the horizontal component of each
tension must be equal, therefore the tensions must be
equal.
c 8.69 N

5 a

b 11 760 N
c 11 760 N
d 11 760 N
6 0.839

7 a 90 N
b 390 N
c 210N
8 0.525 N
9 0.559 N
10 \F
11 a 814 N
b 681 N

12 a 1.307xl0 22 N
b 5.521 x!022 N
c 3.547xl0 22 N

179
 Mechanics 1

mg or
b F = ma = 0.2 x 0.5 = 0.1 newtons
Moon
c ^=0.051
Earth,s
surface 6 a N
b 3.438xlO~5 N
C N
F -
9.8--

Earth,s Moon
surface
14 a and b 3.46 x 10 8 m from the Earth.
c Move neither towards nor away from the Earth.

Chapters, page 121 or

N
1 -2000 N
9
2 a
6.93
b F = 11.36 newtons, direction 37.6° above the i
direction
cC .-'( 9
a '\6.93
c R = 561 N; the horizontal component of the resultant
d | a | = -j(l 1.36) = 5.68 ms~ , in the same direction force may come from friction between the driver and the
seat, or by her leaning against the back of her chair.
asF.
3 300 kilo-newtons 7 a

4 a R=
0 1
-0.057£J (-0.059

b a=

5 a Note that the friction source, F newtons, opposes

the potential motion of the book.

180
 12 Answers
b 0.396 ms~2_

1 c
d
e
47 880 ms~'
8.269xlO~7 rads~'
87.9 days
-2
2 a 3.59 ms
b 4310N

20.? 3 a 681N
b 0.001 rads~'
c 104 min
4 a 9.95m N
b 13.02km
5 a 0.805 rads"1
b 6.47 ms"2
6 a 123.4 ms~2
b 24.7 N
d For A: T- c The resultant force would be provided by the
ForB: horizontal component of the tension in the material of the
sling.
a = 1.96ms" 2 ,235.2N
d 7.85 ms~'
a 1.4 ms~2
8
0.8 ms~2
b
c 490 N
d 0.061
9 a 514.5 N
b 514.5 N
10 a

mg
b T=

T
COS0
c r = lsmd
0.1 g d a> =
b 0.98 N e 4.757 rads~
c 0.098 N f The angular velocity ft) is independent of m, and so
-2
d -0.98 ms will not change if m is doubled.
e 204.1 m g It is impossible to swing a pendulum at 0 = 90°.
-2 There has to be a vertical component Tcos 9 to support
11 a 1.38 ms"
the mass of the bob, and cos90°= 0.
b It has been assumed that a dice can be modelled as a
particle on a light inextensible string, and that any effect 8 a 0.21
due to air currents or resistance can be ignored. b 1.98 rads~'

Chapter 7, page 123

1 a 1.3xl0 22 N

757
 Index

D acceleration due to 8 , 1 1 , 93
force of attraction per
acceleration 7, 12 displacement unit mass 47 , 84, 93
(Act. 6.1) 93 displacement-time graphs 1 see also Universal Law of
in circular motion, (Act. 3.2) 38^40 falling bodies 9, 11 Gravitation
diagrammatic representation 9 (Act. 1.3) 15-16
negative 14 dragging loads 76 /
acceleration due to gravity see g (Act. 5.5) 81-3
acceleration-time graphs 8 dynamic equilibrium 91 inelastic (inextensible) string 69
falling bodies, (Act. 1.3) 16 dynamics, defined 89
accelerometer (Act. 9.10) 135-6 K
accident investigation (Act. 10.3) 140 Kepler. Johannes 83, 161
aerial runway (Act. 9.8) 133^ Earth, data 88 kilogram (unit) 47
algorithms elastic string 69 kinematics, defined 5
EulerMotion 143 elastoscales
EulerMotion2D 31, 145 (Act. 4.1) 48-50 L
angle of friction 80-81 (Act. 4.2) 51-7
angular speed 36-7 lifts (Act. 10.5) 141
(Act. 5.1) 70-71 limiting friction 77
(Act. 3.1) 37-8 equations
Aristotle 8, 89 of circular motion M
(Acts. 3.2, 3.3) 38-41
B for projectile motion (Act. 2.2)
1.2) 24-6
mass 47
merry-go-round (Act. 3.1) 37-8
ball for uniformly accelerated motion
otion
11-15 Moon
falling (Act. 1.2)
(Act. 1.1) 8-11 data 88
equilibrium (system offerees) 51,56
static and dynamic gravity on 86
(Act. 1.3) 15-16 91
Euler' s method orbit about Earth 84,92
(Act. 6.1) 96-7
motion of thrown (differential equations) 15-16,
16,30-31
30-31 (Act. 3.3) 40-41
(Act. 2.1) 22 motion
describing 7-8
(Act. 2.4) 29-31
(Act. 6.1) 92, 94 equations for (Act. 1 .2) 11-15
fairground rides graphs 7-8, 1 5
effect of air resistance (Act. 9.4) 129-30
(Act. 2.6) 33^ (Act. 1.3) 15-16
see also 'chair-o-plane' with uniform acceleration 11
basketball player falling bodies 8, 46, 93
(Act. 2.4) 29-31 see also circular motion;
(Act. 1.1) 8-11 projectiles, motion
(Act. 2.6) 33^ (Act. 1.3) 15-16
bathroom scales 50, 141 96-7
book on table 75
(Act. 6.1) N
see also gravity
(Act. 6.1) 92,96 force meters see elastoscales Newton, Isaac 46, 83^. 89
forces 50 newton (unit) 47 , 85. 93
analysis of systems Newton's Laws
(Act. 6.1) 91-7
centre of gravity 22 (Acts. 4.3, 4.4) 57-66 97-9
centre of mass 84 definitions 45 (Act. 6.2)
centre of symmetry 84 investigating systems (Act. 4.2)51-7
4.2) 51-7 (Act. 7.2) 104-6
'chair-o-plane' measuring (Act. 4.1) 48-50 (Acts. 9.8-9.12) 133-8
(Act. 6.1) 95 see also contact forces; tension
ion see also Universal Law of
friction force 75, 78-9 Gravitation
(Act. 9.12) 137-8
(Act. 5.3) 76-8 normal contact force 74,77
Christmas decorations (Act. 9.6) 131-2
circular motion 36-7 (Act. 5.4) 79-81
(Act. 6.1) 95 (Act. 9.7) 132-3 0
(Acts. 9.4, 9.5) 129-31 overtaking (traffic) (Act. 10.9) 142
(Act. 9.12) 137-8
equations (Acts. 3.2, 3.3) 38^1 93 P
forces in 102 g
acceleration due to gravity 8, 11 planetary data sheet 88
(Acts. 7.1,7.2) 102-6 force of attraction per polygon of forces 55
graphing (Act. 3.4) 41-3 unit mass 47,84 practical work 2-3, 28
see also fairground rides Galileo Galilei 46 projectiles 21
coefficient of friction 78, 79, 81 motion of falling bodies 8,9 motion
contact forces 74-6 see also under projectiles (Act. 6.1) 92
see also friction force golf, speed of grass (Act. 10.8) 142 (Acts. 9.2, 9.3) 128-9
cosine rule 61-3 gravity 46, 83-4 Galileo's model 22-3

182
 Index
(Act. 2.1) 22 speed humps (Act. 9.1) 127-8 velocity 8
(Acts. 2.2, 2.3) 24-8 speed skiing (Act. 10.4) 140 Universal Gravitation
(Act. 2.4) 29-31 static equilibrium 91 Constant (G) 84,88
simulation 28-9 stimpmeter (Act. 10.8) 142 Universal Law of Gravitation 46,84
(Acts. 2.4-2.6) 29-34 supermarket doors (Act. 9.5) 130-31 (Act. 5.7) 84-6
pulley systems (Act. 7.2) 104
(Act. 5.1) 71-2 T (Act. 9.11) 136-7
(Act. 5.2) 72-3
tennis, service (Act. 10.7) 141-2
(Act. 9.7) 132-3 tension 69-70 V
in light strings vector equations
(Act. 5.1) 70-72 analysing force systems
racetrack, banked (Act. 10.6) 141 (Act. 9.6) 131-2 (Act. 4.4) 64
reactions 74-6 in real strings (Act. 5.2) 72-3 of circular motion
(Act. 6.1) 96 tides 41 (Acts. 3.2, 3.3) 38^1
resolving forces 56,64 timer ball 10 for projectile motion (Act. 2.2) 24-6
resultant (force) 55 traffic speed control vectors, forces as
road chippings (Act. 9.3) 129 (Act. 9.1) 127-8 (Acts. 4.2, 4.3) 53-9
road markings (Act. 10.2) 139-40 (Act. 10.2) 139^0 (Act. 4.4) 64-6
rock climbing (Act. 10.1) 139 trajectory 31 velocity 7,8
runaway train 16-17 triangle of forces 55,60,61 in circular motion
(Act. 6.1) 94-5 trigonometry, in analysis of (Act. 3.1) 37-8
simulation force systems (Act. 4.4) 61-3 (Act. 3.2) 38-tt)
(Act. 1.4) 17-19 trolley experiments (runaway velocity-time graphs 7, 12
(Act. 9.9) 134-5 train simulation) falling bodies (Act. 1.3) 15-16
(Act. 1.4) 18-19
(Act. 9.9) 134-5 I/I/
satellite orbits (Act. 9.11)
shot-putter
136-7
u weight
(Act. 5.6)
47, 74, 83, 84
83
correcting practice results uniform motion 91 (Act. 5.7) 84-6
(Act. 9.2) 128 units (Act. 6.1) 93^1
maximum range (Act. 2.5) 32-3 acceleration 8 (Act. 10.5) 141
sidereal day, defined 40 force 47, 85, 93 measuring 47-8
sine rule 61-3 mass 47 weightlessness (Act. 10.5) 141

We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce We are grateful to Her Majesty's Stationary Office for
copyright material: permission to reproduce Crown Copyright material from The
Highway Code, 1993, Table 8.1 and Activity 9.3.
The controller of Her Majesty's Stationary Office for
Paragraphs 99 & 100 from The Highway Code; Newspaper
Publishing Pic for the article 'Runaway train hits station crash
barrier' by Jason Bennetto from The Independent on Sunday
6.10.91.

183
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