Engineering Geology 196 (2015) 119–125

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Engineering Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enggeo

Thixotropic and anti-thixotropic behaviors of fine-grained soils in various

flocculated systems
Sueng Won Jeong a,⁎, Jacques Locat b, J. Kenneth Torrance c, Serge Leroueil d
a
Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources, 124, Gwahang-no, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 305-350, Republic of Korea
b
Department of Geology and Engineering Geology, Laval University, Sainte-Foy, Pavillon Adrien-Pouliot, local 4317, QC, G1K 7P4, Canada
c
Geography and Environmental Studies, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
d
Department of Civil Engineering, Laval University, Sainte-Foy, Pavillon Adrien-Pouliot, local 2906, QC, G1K 7P4, Canada

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Time-dependent yield stress fluids display hysteresis with respect to reversible and irreversible structural changes.
Received 20 November 2014 We report an experimental study of the rheological behavior of clay-rich soils (i.e., Mediterranean Sea and bentonite
Received in revised form 8 July 2015 clays) and clay-poor material (i.e., iron mine tailings) that includes steady state, dynamic response, and hysteresis
Accepted 16 July 2015
measurement. The Mediterranean Sea and bentonite clays are low- and high-activity clays, respectively. For the
Available online 17 July 2015
materials examined, different thixotropic behaviors are observed as a function of the time of shearing. These
Keywords:
materials typically exhibit strong thixotropic behavior for a given shear rate in the limited time of shearing. In
Thixotropy general, larger grain sizes produce larger hysteresis loop areas. However, the bentonite clay experiences an increase
Anti-thixotropy in viscosity with shear time, regardless of the salinity effect, for sufficiently long shearing times under continuous
Hysteresis shear conditions at the shear rate of 1200 s−1 (the maximum value in the present study). As a result, the flow
Rheology behavior of clayey soils is strongly influenced by the imposed shearing time.
Bentonite © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Yield stress

1. Introduction mostly of clay- and silt-sized particles (b0.075 mm), thixotropy is an

Thixotropy is one of the oldest documented rheological phenomena
but remains the most challenging research area in rheology. The micro-
structural changes associated with the flow of thixotropic and ideal
yield stress fluids are not yet fully understood (Mewis and Wagner,
2009); consequently, a general rheological model capable of fully de-
scribing the different features of thixotropy has not yet been developed.
Mewis (1979) and Barnes (1997) have compiled a wide variety of
examples of thixotropy exhibited by natural and industrial materials,
together with kinetic equations that express the effects of flow on struc-
ture, and have presented a phenomenological model for thixotropy.
Nonetheless, confusion remains about the details and even the definition
of thixotropic behavior. It may be helpful to consider thixotropy as a
reversible phenomenon involving restructuration and destructuration
processes. Mewis and Wagner (2009) have reviewed the concept of
thixotropy with a focus on its shear rate dependence, time dependence,
and reversibility.
Natural clayey soils behave as non-Newtonian viscous fluids with
yield stress and are often resolved by thixotropic phenomena in a
large range of shear rates and times. In fine-grained soils, which consist
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: suengwon@hotmail.com (S.W. Jeong), jacques.locat@ggl.ulaval.ca
(J. Locat), Ken_Torrance@carleton.ca (J.K. Torrance), serge.leroueil@gci.ulaval.ca
(S. Leroueil).
important phenomenon, especially at relatively low shear rates
(Perret et al., 1996), because it influences the rheological behavior of
the material during mass movements. For example, the runout distance
and velocity of mud flows are influenced by yield stress and viscosity
(Imran et al., 2001; Pudasaini, 2012). The flow depth and profile mainly
depend on the velocity and pressure distribution through the depth and
along the slope (Domnik and Pudasaini, 2012; Pudasaini, 2011). In
subaerial and subaqueous landslides that occur in high-water-content
sediments, the failed fine-grained mass transforms into a mud flow as
they experience large deformations (Locat and Lee, 2002). To describe
the flow transformations that resulted in enhanced mobility, a two-
phase model capable of performing dynamic strength weakening
was presented (Pudasaini and Krautblatter, 2014). The debris of
the St-Jean-Vianney landslide, that resulted from the sudden failure of
a high water content, high sensitivity (but not thixotropic) sediment
with a relatively low liquidity index (less than 2) and flowed approxi-
mately 3 km down a deep, narrow valley at a speed of approximately
26 km/h (Saihi et al., 2002; Tavenas et al., 1971), provides a dramatic
example of the applicability of such rheological studies.
In this paper, we examine the thixotropic behavior of three fine-
grained earth materials: a Mediterranean Sea clay (low-activity clay),
a commercial bentonite (high-activity clay), and the fine fraction of tail-
ings from an iron mine. Steady state, dynamic response, and hysteresis
tests were performed for these materials. Estimation of yield stresses
was not a goal of this study, but their existence in clay suspensions as

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2015.07.014
0013-7952/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
120 S.W. Jeong et al. / Engineering Geology 196 (2015) 119–125
a consequence of interparticle attractive bonds that are broken by shear
forces when applied, is acknowledged. First, we compare the rheological
behavior of fine-grained soils in terms of the relationship of shear stress
versus shear rate. Second, we discuss the thixotropy and anti-thixotropy
of fine-grained soils. Finally, we provide a brief summary and conclusions.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
The materials and methods used in this paper are described in Jeong
et al. (2010). Three samples with different grain size distributions are
used to examine thixotropic behavior. The three samples, Mediterranean
Sea clays, bentonite clays, and tailings, have different origins but are
primarily composed of clay- and silt-sized particles (b 0.075 mm).
Geotechnical properties of the fine-grained soils are summarized in
Table 1. The materials used are tested to determine their liquid (wL)
and plastic limits (wp), which are the moisture levels at defined bound-
aries between material consistency states. The plasticity index (Ip) is the
difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit. The liquidity
index (IL = (w − wp) / Ip) indicates how the material's water content
relates to the liquid limit.
The Mediterranean Sea clay, collected off the Spanish coast, contains
52% clay and classifies as an inorganic clay of medium plasticity. Its
activity (the ratio of plasticity index to the percentage of clay-sized par-
ticles) of 0.7 indicates that its clay fraction is dominated by non-swelling,
low-activity clay and other minerals. All rheological tests were
performed at its natural pore water salinity of 29 g/L (NaCl equivalent).
Sample preparation for rheological testing involved thoroughly mixing
the appropriate amounts of the natural mud and saline water using
a blender to ensure homogenization. Samples were then left to rest
for a minimum of 30 min (usually longer) before rheological testing
commenced.
The bentonite clays are well known for spontaneously forming a gel-
like structure under certain conditions (Van Olphen, 1963). The com-
mercial Wyoming bentonite clay was supplied by Black Hills Bentonite,
LLC (Wyoming, USA). The manufacturer claims that the material is
N99% pure and that the particle density of the powder is 2.6 g/cm3.
The bentonite clays have high plasticity and are greatly influenced by
pore water salinity. The liquid limits and plasticity indices of bentonite
clays are in the ranges of 140 to 360% and 80 to 300%, respectively.
The activities are between 1.2 and 3.9 (Jeong et al., 2010). The bentonite
samples for rheological tests were prepared in the following manner:
powdered bentonite was added to fresh or salt water, briefly shaken,
and then thoroughly mixed using a blender at approximately
3000 rpm until it appeared homogeneous; the mixing procedures
have increased the water content of the material. No water loss
occurred during the rapid transfer of the bentonite slurry into the
viscometer. When this material was subsequently subjected to high
shear rates during viscometric testing (see below) the shear resistance
increased with the duration of shear indicating the water contents of
the mixture were still in the situation of becoming more homogeneous.
Under its own weight, it was not experiencing self-weight consolida-
tion, rather it was still attempting to transfer water to its drier parts,
Table 1
Geotechnical properties of the experimental materials.
wn S wL wp Ip CF
Mediterranean Sea clay 67.5 29 62.8 24.4 38.4 52
Bentonite (commercial) n.a. 0* 353.4 53.9 299.5 77
30 140 51.3 88.7 77
Tailings Flocculated n.a. – 22.9 16.7 6.2 b22
Not flocculated n.a. 22.3 18.5 3.8 b22
Note: Ac = activity, CF = clay fraction (%), Ip = plasticity index (%), S = salinity (g/L), wn
= natural water content (%) and wL = liquid limit (%). 0* means that the bentonite clays in
fresh water are considered as 0 g/L without any special method to achieve this value.
and expand the volumes of these zones. Self-weight consolidation is
only a risk with the low-activity sediments that are at water contents
somewhat above their liquid limits.
The iron mine tailings, from Wabush Lake, Newfoundland, Canada,
consist of approximately 80% silt-sized particles and 20% clay-sized
particles. There is no information about their clay mineralogy, but we
do know that a considerable proportion of the clay-sized material is
not phyllosilicate clay minerals. It is unlikely that phyllosilicate clay
minerals significantly affect on the flow properties. These ‘clay-poor
materials’ were chosen to compare the influence of grain size effect on
thixotropic behavior. Any particles larger than sand (i.e., N 2 mm) origi-
nally present were removed before testing to respect the operational
capacity of the rheometer. The sand-free material was stored under
water from the tailings pond until it was deliberately air-dried. This mate-
rial was prepared in two conditions: without change (‘unflocculated’) and
after the addition of a small amount of organic polymer (‘flocculated’).
The liquid limits of the two materials are identical (within the limits
of error of the procedure), but the plastic limit is slightly less for the
flocculated material (Table 1). The plasticity indices (IP) of both materials
are extremely small, 3.7 and 6.2% for the unflocculated (dark brown) and
flocculated (reddish brown in color) tailings samples, respectively; the
activity is less than 0.3 for both samples. The samples are classified as in-
organic clayey silts of low plasticity. The thixotropic behavior is examined
for the flocculated tailing samples.
2.2. Rheological procedures
The rheological analyses of the samples described above were con-
ducted using a Rotovisco RV-12 (Haake) coaxial cylinder viscometer.
In all rheological tests, the shear rate-controlled mode was employed.
The shear rates ranged from 1 to 1200 s−1. Details of test methods to ob-
tain flow curves of soils are presented by Torrance (1987). For hysteresis
curves, testing procedures are well described by Locat and Demers
(1988) and Perret et al. (1996). Three types of tests were performed:
(1) steady state, in which the shear rate is maintained constant until
the shear resistance remains constant; (2) dynamic response, in
which the shear rate in each step is suddenly decreased from the
highest rate to each of a series of lower rates until the shear resistance
becomes constant; and (3) hysteresis, in which the shear rate is de-
creased stepwise from the higher rate to the lowest rate (i.e., 1 rpm)
and then stepwise returned to the higher rate (i.e., 512 rpm); in each
case, the shear resistance is recorded at a fixed time interval (a few
seconds) after the shear rate has been changed. The difference between
the viscosity determined from the shear resistance curve when the
shear rate is increased and that recorded when it is decreased defines
the hysteresis relationship of the viscosity. For both dynamic response
and hysteresis determination, the shear rate extremes are approximate-
ly 1 and 1200 s−1. When a rheological test was completed with an initial
low water content, the water content (or liquidity index) of the
prepared material was slowly increased to the next desired value with
constant salinity. Upon placement in the viscometer, each sample was
stirred at the highest rate of rotation for 1 to 2 min before the desired
rheological procedures were applied.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Steady state consideration of fine-grained soils
Ac
The steady state regime was maintained by using a Rotovisco RV12
0.7 viscometer, equipped with an MV sensor system, at its maximum rota-
3.9
1.2
tion rate of 512 rpm. The corresponding shear rate was either 460 or
0.3 1200 s−1, depending on whether the shear resistance of the suspension
0.2 required that the sensor provide a gap ratio of 1.14 or 1.05, respectively
(Locat and Demers, 1988; Perret et al., 1996). With the exception of pe-
riodic dynamic response tests, the maximum shear rate was maintained
until a nearly stable strength was reached.
 S.W. Jeong et al. / Engineering Geology 196 (2015) 119–125
Fig. 1 shows the evolution of shear stress as a function of shearing
time for all samples. The Mediterranean Sea sample was tested at liquid-
ity indices ranging from 1.9 to 4.3 (solid contents from 27.7 to 16.3%,
respectively), whereas the other materials were each tested at a single
liquidity index. For the Mediterranean Sea samples (Fig. 1a), the shear
stress was monitored for 1 h. The results indicate that the steady state
condition is approached more rapidly when the water content is great-
er: after 1 h at IL N 3, while longer times are necessary for the lower
water contents. For the flocculated tailings with an undrained remolded
shear strength (Cur) of 0.22 kPa (measured by a Swedish fall cone appa-
ratus) and water content (wn) of 26.6% (solid contents of 54%), the shear
stress decreases for only a short period (Fig. 1b). For the non-flocculated
tailings the steady state was achieved after approximately 3 h.
When the same test was applied to the bentonite suspensions
hydrated with fresh water (0 g/L) and salt water (30 g/L), very different
results were obtained (Fig. 1c and d). The shear stress was monitored at
t = 60, 120, 180, 240, 300, and 360 min. and continued to change for
even longer periods. The most important observation is that the shear
stress of both the low and high salinity bentonite clays increased with
increased shearing time, whereas the low-activity clays experienced
the decrease in the shear stress as the shearing time increased.
3.2. Dynamic response
The results of the dynamic response tests are presented in Fig. 2.
These dynamic response tests were conducted at particular intervals
during the tests to determine the time required at high shear rate to
achieve the steady state condition. The rotation rate was changed
according to the sequence 512 → 256 → 512 → 128 → ⋯ → 512, as
described earlier, at the times identified in Fig. 2. Because steady states
had not yet been achieved, each dynamic response curve for each mate-
rial started from a different point in shear rate-shear stress space.
The Mediterranean Sea clay was only tested at IL = 2.1, the water
content at which the dynamic response curves are effectively identical
at all time periods. The results presented in Fig. 2a suggest that similar
superimposition would be expected for all higher values of IL but that
Fig. 1. Steady-state measurements of samples from Mediterranean Sea clay, tailings, and bentonite clay. Increasing numbers indicate increasing liquidity indices (or decreasing solid
concentrations).
121
the curves would show a downward displacement with time of testing
for lower IL values. We contend that, as the liquidity indices decrease, a
longer time period is required to reach the steady state condition, and
this condition is unable to be reached in the short time available.
Hence the additional stirring between the dynamic response tests has
allowed for the lower water content material to more closely approach
the steady state condition than each previous measurement. The
dynamic response curves for the tailings (Fig. 2b) show a downward
displacement with time over the first 200 min while the 256 rpm rota-
tion rate was being applied; after the 512 rpm rotation rate was applied,
the curves shift downward, and the curves at subsequent times are
superimposed. In contrast, the dynamic response curves for bentonite,
in both fresh and salt water (Fig. 2c and d), are slightly displaced
upward with increasing time after shearing commenced.
The purpose of dynamic response testing is to obtain the yield stress
(τy) and plastic viscosity (ηh). Of particular interest is that the flow
curve is nearly of the same form regardless of the state of approach to
steady flow. However, the maximum difference in the Bingham yield
stress (Δτy) decreased by approximately 70 Pa (for the iron mine
tailings) between 30 and 360 min, which almost certainly is related to
the achievement of a more uniform state of structure (or structural
disturbance) throughout the shearing zone in the sample — even
minor “lumpiness” will increase the resistance to shearing. We also sus-
pect that this behavior is related to residual non-uniformities deriving
from preparation procedures. The test results show that, for all the
low-activity materials, the same flow forms are observed over a wide
range of shearing modes independent of salinity. As with the steady
state tests, the shear stress of bentonite in dynamic response tests
(Fig. 2c and d) progressively increases with shearing time at constant
water content (solid content of 5% for fresh water and 12% for salt
water), a behavior that is directly opposite to that of the low-activity
clays (Fig. 2a) and tailings (Fig. 2b).
The plastic viscosity of the bentonite samples in the flow regime,
similar to the tailings, is almost unaffected by shearing time, whereas
the yield stresses are observed to increase with time, with the largest
difference in yield stress being between 18 and 21 Pa (a much lower
122 S.W. Jeong et al. / Engineering Geology 196 (2015) 119–125
Fig. 2. Dynamic responses of Mediterranean Sea (a) and iron tailing (b and c) samples. The arrows indicate the upward and downward curves with increasing shear time.
range than for the tailings). This response can cause uncertainty as to
the reaching of steady state conditions at a constant rate of rotation
and introduces uncertainty into the determination of rheological prop-
erties. It is unclear as to whether the particular yield stress determined
in the laboratory is applicable to field conditions. The critical question is
whether the highest or lowest value is most useful. We propose that, for
bentonite, the lower value would be more appropriate at the start of
flow, with the opposite being the case for low-activity clays.
3.3. Hysteresis
The concept of thixotropy has changed over time. Mewis and
Wagner (2009) state that the scientific community now generally
agrees that thixotropy should be defined as “the continuous decrease
in viscosity with time when flow is applied to a sample that has been
previously at rest and the subsequent recovery of viscosity in time
when the flow is discontinued.” Furthermore, they state that “the essen-
tial elements of the definition used nowadays are that: i) it is based on
viscosity; ii) it implies a time-dependent decrease of the viscosity
induced by flow; and iii) the effect is reversible when the flow is
decreased or arrested.”
The results of the viscosity tests are presented in Fig. 3. The method-
ology was previously described by Locat and Demers (1988). The time
step is given as 15 s for both upward and downward flow curves. All
the materials at all water contents tested exhibit a yield stress, and
all exhibit shear thinning behavior; however, Bingham behavior is
approached at the highest water contents examined. None of these
materials would be considered thixotropic according to the classic
definition of Freundlich, in which a gel can be transformed to a sol by
mechanical agitation and the gel reforms when agitation ceases
(Mewis and Wagner, 2009).
If we apply the above thixotropy criteria to the curves in Fig. 3, we
conclude that all the materials exhibit thixotropy and that the strength
of the thixotropic effect decreases as the water content of each material
increases. However, if we apply these criteria to the results presented in
Fig. 1, the smectite in both fresh and saline water environments does
not meet the second thixotropy criterion because its viscosity increases
with increased time of shearing. The Mediterranean Sea clay and ben-
tonites do not exhibit hysteresis in the relationship of viscosity with
changing shear rate; however, the flocculated iron mine tailings do ex-
hibit hysteresis, with greater viscosity when shear rate is increasing
than when decreasing. As stated by Kelessidis (2008), it is important
to know the change in viscosity of drilling fluids because, after being
sheared through drill bits at very high shear rates, drilling fluids experi-
ence very low shear rates in the annulus for prolonged periods, possibly
even hours; during this time, the structure is rebuilt, significantly
increasing viscosity. Thus, thixotropic models must be implemented
into the modeling of flow behavior for drilling fluids. The dependency
of viscosity on shearing or the cycling of shearing when passing through
low shear rates should be examined. In addition, we cannot neglect the
effect of anti-thixotropy, which has been reported for various flocculat-
ed systems (Barnes, 1989). We should note that, in other experiments
with low-activity, silty-clay Champlain Sea sediments from eastern
Canada, hysteresis in this relationship did not occur at low (~ 0 g/L)
and high (~ 30 g/L) salinities but did occur at intermediate salinities.
This could be useful in the context of quick clay because, in as much as
the loss of strength of quick clays upon failure is not reversible, the con-
cept of thixotropy would not apply to them – because once they have
failed, they are no longer quick clay – but have been transformed to
being quick clay debris. The quick clay debris does exhibit a very modest
reversibility in its behavior. The reversible gel–sol–gel transformation
that is also recognized as thixotropy (and is reversible in smectitic dril-
ling mud) would disqualify ‘intact quick clay’ from being considered
‘thixotropic’ because, while the transformation from gel to sol occurs,
the reverse transformation from sol to gel does not. Thus, quick clay
(the intact material) is ‘collapsing’, but not ‘thixotropic’, whereas the
remolded post-failure material that once was quick clay exhibits mild
thixotropy.
3.4. Thixotropic and anti-thixotropic behaviors
Time-dependent behavior can be either thixotropic, if viscosity
decreases with time, or anti-thixotropic (sometimes called negative
thixotropic), if viscosity increases with time. It is generally accepted
 S.W. Jeong et al. / Engineering Geology 196 (2015) 119–125
Fig. 3. Hysteresis response of Mediterranean Sea, tailings, and bentonite clays. The numbers in parentheses are the liquidity indices of materials.
that the qualitative explanations of these phenomena are related to the
breakdown and buildup of structure (Cheng and Evans, 1965).
However, explaining structural change is difficult because the viscosity
of flocculated and dispersed clay suspensions is strongly influenced by
several factors, including pH, electrolytes, shear rate, and time (Galindo-
Rosales and Rubio-Hernández, 2006). For example, a thixotropic system
begins to flow under stirring and thickens again when standing
(Neaman and Singer, 2000). This behavior is quite different from and
should not be confused with the term ‘rheopexy’ (Barnes, 1989;
Freundlich and Juliusburger, 1935; Hauser and Reed, 1936), that is used
to denote an effect by which a material recovers some of its pre-sheared
viscosity at a faster rate when it is gently sheared compared with when
it is allowed to stand (Hackley, 2001). At any given solid content, low-
activity clays exhibit pronounced thixotropic behavior, when a time
factor (tb) of 15 s (shearing time at a constant rate of rotation of
512 rpm) is applied. The hysteresis loop area is largest at low water
content, and decreases as water content increases.
Unlike the flow behavior in low-activity clays, the behavior of ben-
tonite hydrated with fresh water becomes clearly “negative thixotropic”
when a longer shearing time is imposed. Fig. 4 shows the flow curves of
bentonite hydrated with fresh water (IL = 2.2) at time factors ranging
from 1 to 30 min. In accordance with phenomenological characteriza-
tion, bentonite temporarily exhibits thixotropic behavior within a
range of shearing times between 1 and 10 min. When a relatively
short shearing time is imposed, the hysteresis loop presents a very
small area between upward and downward curves and may indicate a
rapid rate of build-up, which would be typical of a strongly thixotropic
material. After a longer shearing time, however, the opposite behavior
of increasing shear stress (or viscosity) with time is observed.
For the case in which bentonite hydrated with fresh water is sheared
for 30 min at a shear rate of 1200 s−1, in particular, the increase in shear
stress (Δτ) is equal to approximately 10 Pa (Fig. 4f). As a result, anti-
clockwise hysteresis loops are observed, and they are attributed to neg-
ative thixotropy. Approaching the maximum shear rate of 1200 s−1, an
upward curve (clockwise) can be made. At a shear rate of 1200 s−1,
shear stress (or apparent viscosity) increases continuously with
123
shearing time, and a downward curve (anti-clockwise) can then be
drawn. Consequently, bentonite can be either thixotropic, if sheared
for a short period of time, or anti-thixotropic, if sheared for relatively
long periods of time. Similarly, Samyn and Jung (1967) presented floc-
culated clay suspensions displaying negative thixotropy characterized
by a reversible transformation from a more viscous state achieved by
high shear to a less viscous state obtained by low shear. This behavior
only appears to be the case for low salinity, Na-type bentonite materials
(most likely very low salinity). Fig. 5 shows that shear stress grows
larger when shearing time exceeds 10 min at the highest shear rate
imposed, indicating more rapid structural breakdown/build-up in the
network. The flow curves are superimposed until the time factor (tb)
equals 10 min; when the time factor (tb) is larger than 10 min, the larger
anti-clockwise hysteresis loops are made.
We now seek the explanation for the increasing shear resistance de-
veloped in these bentonite slurries over long shearing times at high
shear rates. The most logical explanation is that continuing application
of high shear rates leads to further changes in the slurry that ultimately
lead to a rearrangement that presents a greater resistance to shearing.
Let us examine the preparation process for the bentonite slurries. The
first step is to mix together a known weight of bentonite and the neces-
sary volume of water to achieve the desired water content. The first
product is a very lumpy material which must be physically manipulated
by various means in an attempt to obtain a homogeneous slurry. This is
not simple, but at some point the material looks homogeneous at the
macroscopic level and is suitable to be placed into the viscometer
where it can be subjected to high shear rates for long periods. During
this step, the shear stress of the bentonite slurry increased as the clumps
that remained in the slurry gradually became smaller. The process of the
clumps becoming smaller consists of the forces acting on the clumps'
surfaces gradually pulling individual clay particles and small groups of
particles away from the main body and their newly exposed surfaces
adsorbing water from the well-mixed, adjacent, better-dispersed slurry.
Thus, the homogenization process is one by which the water content
of the well-mixed slurry is continuously decreased as the clumps are
broken down. This means that the well-mixed portion of the slurry is
124 S.W. Jeong et al. / Engineering Geology 196 (2015) 119–125
Fig. 4. Time-dependent properties of bentonite hydrated with fresh water (time factor tb = maximum shearing time varying from 1 to 30 min).
presenting greater and greater resistance to flow as material becomes
more and more homogeneous. It must also be recognized that the
shearing process brings the individual smectite particles into parallel
alignments with one another. This above process applies to smectite
slurries in which the pore water salinity is low. At high salinites, the ten-
dency for smectite particles is to organize themselves into packets in
which several particles are aligned in parallel and act as an individual
unit. At the same water content, a slurry composed of packets (with
water separating the packets) has a lesser resistance to shear than
does a slurry in which the bentonite particles act as individuals. Looked
at another way, with longer shearing time, the extent of structural
break-down increases with time such that increasing numbers of
particles act independently with shearing time (more complete break-
down). When acting independently, each of these particles will attempt
to develop its double layer independently while trying to maximize the
distance from its nearest neighbors. The degree to which the double
layers can be developed is constrained because they exist in a closed
system in which water can be redistributed but no extra water is
available. The net effect of the structural break-down (in this material
Fig. 5. Hysteresis loop as a function of shearing time at the highest shear rate of 1200 s−1.
Arrow indicates the direction of shear, i.e., increasing or decreasing shearing.
that wants to swell freely) is that the independent particles liberated
from flocculation will tend to align in a parallel arrangement, which
maximizes the repulsive forces between particles and leads to a more
negative water potential (i.e., increased effective stress); hence, the
shear strength of the low-salinity bentonite becomes greater as the
structure is increasingly broken down.
4. Conclusions
In conclusion, in agreement with the rheological literature, we have
reported the effects of thixotropy on structural change (reversible and
irreversible) and its time dependence. We have shown that thixotropic
behavior is a very common phenomenon in fine-grained soils of widely
different origins. We have examined thixotropic behavior with a focus
on the effects of mineralogy and grain size. Anti-thixotropy, previously
known as rheopexy, is less well documented than thixotropy, and a
mechanical understanding of internal structure under shearing remains
unclear. We have demonstrated the time-dependent flow behavior of
flocculated and dispersed clay suspensions are strongly influenced by
imposed shearing time. In future studies, an inventory should be made
for the fine-grained soils with regard to industrial use, application, and
model description of materials. This study is of fundamental interest
and is essential to a better understanding of the rheology of natural,
flocculated clayey soils and sediments, some of which constitute
major geotechnical risks.
Acknowledgments
This research was funded by the Natural Sciences and Engineering
Research Council Canada via the Continental Slope Stability (COSTA)
Canada project. The research described in this paper was performed at
the Laboratorie d'Etudes sur les Risques Naturels (LERN), Laval University,
Quebec, Canada. This research was also partially supported by KIGAM
research project ‘Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (14-9102)’, funded
by the Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries, Korea.
 S.W. Jeong et al. / Engineering Geology 196 (2015) 119–125
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