Wellbore Stability

Geomechanical Model
Wathik Alhashimi; P.Eng.
 Wellbore Instability

Chemical Instability Mechanical Instability

Reactive Shale • Overburden Stressed

• Geopressure
• Hydro-Pressured
• Unconsolidated
• Fractured
• Tectonics

Tensile Failure Mechanisms Shear

•Fractures •Carvings
•Loss of Circulation •Tight Hole
•Stuck Pipe
 Causes & Consequences

CAUSES OF STABILITY PROBLEMS

➢ Inadequate well planning
➢ Problematic formation
➢ Inadequate operational practices
➢ Inadequate mud weight
➢ Inadequate well trajectory

STABILITY PROLEMS RESULTING CONDITIONS HOLE COLLAPSE

Excessive wellbore pressure Hole cleaning Stuck pipe
Excessive Rock strength Hole washout Drillsting fatigue
Reactive shale Cementing problems
Loss circulation
Poor logs
Well control
 Wellbore Stability
Wellbore Stability: Maintaining the Balance of Rock Stress and Rock Strength.

Wellbore Stability Model Role:

Predrilling
Prevention of failure/plastic deformation of the rock in the vicinity of the wellbore due
to mechanical stress or chemical imbalance.

While Drilling
Rock surrounding the wellbore suffer stress changes (tension, compression, and shear)
Chemical reactions occur (contact with drilling fluid).
Rock surrounding the wellbore may become unstable.

Post drilling
Mechanical stresses in the formation < rock strength.
Chemical action balanced.
Rocks stable.
 Wellbore Stability Mission
Identify potential drilling problems in well planning phase .

• Reduce NPT
• Reduce costs
• Reduce risk
➢ During Exploration
❖ Reduces exploration risk.
➢ During Drilling
❖ Safe Operating Mud Window
❖ Reduces kicks and lost circulation
❖ Improves wellbore stability
❖ Reduces stuck pipe, sidetracks, washing and reaming
➢ During Production
❖ Improves production from natural fractures
❖ Predicts and manages Sand Production
❖ Optimizes Hydraulic Fracturing operation
❖ Reduces Casing Shear and Collapse
 Objectives

Mitigate wellbore instability:

❖ Stuck pipe.
❖ Tight hole.
❖ Lost circulation.
❖ Wellbore collapse.
❖ Sidetrack.

Optimize:
➢ Mud weights.
➢ Drilling practices.
➢ Casing strings.
➢ Wellbore trajectory.
 Wellbore Instability

Chemical Instability
•Washout Mechanical Instability
•Hole cleaning
Reactive Shale

Tensile Compressional Plastic

Failure Failure Deformation
•Lost Circulation •Cavings •Tight Hole
•Fracture •Collapse •Casing collapse

•Excessive • Overburden Stressed • Mobile Salt

wellbore • Geopressure • Mobile Shale
pressure • Hydro-Pressured
• Unconsolidated
• Fractured
• Tectonics
 Geomechanical Model Components Source

Rock Strength (UCS) : Core tests, Overburden Stress (Sv) :

logs, cuttings, wellbore failure density and/or sonic logs
analysis

Max Horizontal Stress (SHmax) Pore Pressure (Pp): MDT/RFT/PWD,

Wellbore failure analysis (image drilling incidents,
and/or caliper log), laboratory sonic/resistivity/density logs &
measurements, sonic scanner seismic

SHmax Orientation Wellbore

Min Horizontal Stress (Shmin)
failure analysis (Using image
LOT, XLOT, minifracs, losses
and/or caliper log), fault analysis,
world stress map :
 Borehole Stability Analysis Concept

• First, we need stresses around the borehole…

– In situ stresses are vital
– Δp, ΔT, chemistry affect these stresses
– Mud cake efficiency
– In some cases, rock properties are also needed
• Then, we must compare the maximum shear stress with the rock strength…
– We need to know the rock strength
– We need to know if the rock has been weakened by poor mud chemistry
and behavior
• If matrix stress exceeds strength, we say the rock has yielded (or “failed”)

9
 PreDrilling

I. In-situ conditions
II. In-situ stress
III. Effective stress
IV. Rock Strength
Overburden Stress

Horizontal Stress
 I. In Situ Conditions
➢Sedimentary rocks have porosity.
• As porosity increases, pore fluid volume increases and rock matrix volume
decreases weakening the rock.
• Porosity change with depth due to compaction and cementation.

➢Permeability weaken the rock (water base mud filtrate attacks grain-to-grain
cement bond).

➢Hydrostatic/dynamic overbalance forces mud filtrate into pores weakening the

rock.

➢Formation Pore Pressure

• If increase in overburden load does not exceed pore
fluid drainage rate, pore pressure is equal to the
hydrostatic pressure of formation water (normal
pressure).
• If pore fluid cannot escape, pore pressure increases
at a faster-than-normal rate (abnormal pressure).
• Pore pressure of a permeable formation can be lower
than normal pressure (subnormal pressure).
 Overburden Stress Sv
Overburden stress:- pressure exerted on a formation at a given depth due to the total
weight of the rocks and fluids above that depth.
 III. Effective Stress
➢Rock matrix supports part of overburden and horizontal stress.
➢The other part is supported by pore fluid (pore pressure).
➢Effective stress: Resultant stress on rock matrix.
➢Effective stress determine wellbore’s stability.

Effective Overburden Stress - σv

Overburden stress that stresses rock matrix.

Effective Overburden Stress(σv)= Total Overburden Stress - Pore Pressure

Effect of Pore Fluid Pressure on Rock Deformation

• Rocks are generally saturated with fluid:

- mostly water or an aqueous solution
- occasionally hydrocarbons (oil and/or gas)
• Applied stresses attempt to close up the pore space in rock
• Fluid in the pore space resists the closure
• Hence a pressure is built up in the fluid : Pore Fluid Pressure (Pf)
• Pf (hydrostatic pressure) acts normal to the surface of the grains
• Results to reduce effect of the external applied stress
 Shear Strength and Shear Failure
Under compression rocks actually fail in shear (slide rock grains past each other ).
➢Confining pressure resists sliding on the shear plane and the rock appears stronger.
➢Confining pressure = axial load; equal: no shear stress on rock (no shear failure).
➢ Equal stresses promote stability.
➢ Unequal stresses promote shear stress (possible shear failure).
Overburden
Stress (s )

Horizontal
Stress (Sh)

Cohesive Strength
Bonded Grains (Cement)
Increased Pore Pressure reduces the Effective Stress
 Effective Horizontal Stress - σh, σH
Horizontal stresses are equal and the effective horizontal stress is equal to the effective
overburden stress times a lithology factor .
The lithology factor (k) is less than 1 for more rigid material (rocks).

σh = σH = k x σv
In tectonically active areas, the horizontal stresses are not equal.
The maximum horizontal stresses will be higher, or lower depending on tectonic
movements, by the additional tectonic th and tH stresses. In these areas, the effective
horizontal stresses are described by a maximum and minimum value.
σh = k x σv + th
σH = k x σv + tH

Very stiff materials

Noncompressible like formation rock
fluids like water have a much lower k
have a k factor of 1. factor (.37 is common
Stiffer materials for shale.)
like putty have a
lower k factor (.7 -
.9 for example.)
 Failure Modes

• Tensile Failure
• Shear Failure
• Matrix/Pore Collapse

1.12-17
 Symptoms

The wellbore may slough because :-

1. Initiation and/or extension of hydraulic fractures.
2. Local mobilization of pre-existing faults.
3. Sudden spalling may occur during swabbing or tripping.
4. Drag forces may cause rapid sand production.
5. Ductile formations such as salt, other evaporites and soft shales can
squeeze and restrict the hole.
6. Certain shales can swell.

1.12-18
 Failure models

Greatest Effective
Stress (σv , σh , or σH)

Shear Plane

Least Effective
Stress (σv , σh , or σH )

Mohr-Coulomb neglects the intermediate stress and considers only the greatest and least
effective stresses.
 Tensile Failure
Tensile Failure results from stresses that tend to pull the rock apart (tensile stress).
Rocks exhibit very low tensile strength.
Tensile Stress

Failure: Tensile Stress

exceeds rock tensile
strength
 Formation Strength Evaluation

Parameters: Sources:
• Uniaxial Compressive Strength, UCS • Rock Mechanics Tests
• Tick-Wall Cylinder Strength • Petrophysical logs
• Friction Angle • Cuttings analysis
• Cohesion
• Young’s Modulus
• Poisson’s Ratio
 UCS Models
Sandstone

UCS: Uniaxial compressive strength [MPa]

Dt: Compressional sonic transit time [ms/ft]
E: Young’s modulus [GPa]
Ø: Porosity [fraction]

Shale

Carbonates
 OVERBURDEN STRESS

• Density Logs
• Calculated pseudo-density from sonic/seismic.
• Regional empirical relations
• Cuttings, Cavings, Geological Reports
• Core densities from whole core or sidewall coring
 PORE PRESSURE PREDICTION
Pore pressure (formation pressure): pressure
acting on the fluids in the pore space of a
formation.

Overpressure Indicators
❑Field Measurement – DST, RFT, MDT
❑Normal Compaction Trend-line Methods
❑Effective Stress Methods
 STRESS ORIENTATION

(http://www-wsm.physik.unikarlsruhe.de/pub/home/index_noflash.html)
World Stress Map – Middle East
 Failure models

Failure models: predict wellbore stability.

Mohr-Coulomb Model: uses three effective stresses to calculate the resultant shear
stress.

Mean Effective Stress = (σv + σh + σH )/3

Describes the stress state of the rock.

Mohr-Coulomb failure model neglects the intermediate stress and considers only the
greatest and least effective stress.

The greatest shear stress on the rock :

• Occurs on the two-dimensional plane consisting of the greatest and least stress.
• Could be any of the three depending on in situ and well conditions
 Cohesive Strength
Shear stress that fails the rock > cohesive strength So (bonding together of the grains),
and the frictional resistance between the grains (µσ)

Shear Stress = Cohesive Strength + Frictional Resistance

δ= So + µσ

δ : shear stress that fails the rock

So: Cohesive strength (bonding together of the grains),
µσ: Frictional resistance between the grains
µ: friction coefficient = tang θ
σ: effective compressive stress.
Θ: Angle of internal friction.
 Criterion for Shear Failure of Intact Rock: Coulomb
Failure Criterion
consider the situation of a rock mass without a pre-existing fracture (fault) plane.
• Factors which resist the applied shear stress:
o Normal stress acting across the potential shear plane[does not yet exist]
o Cohesive shear strength of the rock [the rock has cohesion because the grains
are bonded together]
• The failure criterion:

• c = the cohesion, and φI is the angle of internal friction (since no real friction exists
because there is no fault plane until failure)
• Similar to that of Amontons’ Law
 Coulomb Failure Criterion represented on a Mohr diagram:

• Failure envelope separates stable regions (no failure) from unstable regions ( failure).
• Orientation of fracture plane at failure: φI + 2θ = 90° or θ = (90° –φI)/2

For most rocks: φI is about 30°

So: θ is also about 30 °
 Fracture and Failure Modes, pore pressure
Failure modes depend on the magnitude of the confining pressure (Pc: Overburden
stress due to depth):

a) Pc = 0 : long axial tension cracks.

b) Moderate Pc: a single shear fracture (fault).
c) Intermediate Pc: a pair of conjugate shear fractures.
d) High Pc: cataclastic flow and barrelling with no shear fracture.
 Fracture and Failure Modes, pore pressure

• Normal stresses are reduced by the same amount

• Mohr stress circle therefore remains the same size
• Circle moved to the left by an amount Pf
• Pf may induce failure in rock
 Mohr’s Circle.
Shear Stress δ

So

Effective Compressive Stress σ

Confining pressure σc Compression pressure that
fails core sample σf

Shear strength line: line giving the best fit to the maximum shear stress points
on the failure plane from several stress tests.
 Mohr’s Circle.
Shear Stress δ

So

Effective Compressive Stress σ

Confining pressure σi Compression pressure that fails
core sample σf
Drilling The Wellbore

Wellbore Pressure

Horizontal Stress
 Geomechanical Model Components

Sv = Vertical stress
SHmax = Maximum horizontal stress
Pp Shmin = Minimum horizontal stress
SHmaxAzi = Stress direction
Pp = Pore pressure
UCS = Rock strength
UCS
Coordinate system for a hole
Coordinate transformation
 Wellbore Breakouts

Stresses acting on a vertical wellbore When the circumferential hoop stress,

wall when overburden (Sv) is a principal
stress.
σθθ, exceeds the compressive strength of
the rock, breakouts form 90° from the
direction of SHmax. If the hoop stress
becomes tensile and exceeds the tensile
strength of the rock, tensile fractures will
form in the direction of Shmax .
 Breakouts and Natural Stresses

sHMAX Breakouts are evidence of stress

Vertical principal anisotropy and are caused by
borehole stresses, shear rupture of the borehole
s1 > s3 wall
However, care must be taken in
assessing breakouts, as other
shmin factors can “interfere”
Use only vertical wells (10) to
get good stress orientations

breakouts high
damage, sq
ravelling

40
 Some “Confusing” Effects

sHMAX sHMAX
material
anisotropy
shmin
s3
ravelling
slabbing, s1
jointed ravelling bedding
laminated planes
shale
s3
Material anisotropy means the ravelling
mechanical properties are
different in different directions, as
in a fissile shale

41
 Wellbore Breakouts
Stress-induced wellbore breakouts occur when the compressive stress concentration
around the borehole wall exceeds the rock strength.
Presence, orientation, and severity of failure are a function of the :
• In situ stress field.
• Wellbore orientation.
• Rock strength.
Vertical well (overburden is a principal stress): breakouts may form on opposite sides of
the wellbore at the azimuth of the minimum horizontal far-field compression
(compressive hoop stress is greatest).
Wellbore is inclined to the principal stresses: location of the breakouts is a complex
function of the:
• Orientation of the wellbore and
• Orientations and magnitudes of the in situ stresses.
 Near Wellbore Stresses

Induced Stresses
• Max hoop stress acts
in the direction of sh
• Min hoop stress acts
perpendicular to sh
direction
• Shear failure
expected along sh if
stresses exceeds rock
compressive strength
 A. Near Wellbore Stress-State

σr : Radial stress acting along the radius of the

wellbore.
σθ : Hoop(tangential) stress acting around the
circumference of the wellbore.
σz : Axial stress acting parallel to the well path.

Additional shear stress components designated

by (σrθ , σrz, σθz ).
 Hoop Stress - σθ
Hoop stress is dependent upon wellbore pressure ( Pw), stress magnitude and
orientation, pore pressure, and hole inclination and direction.
Wellbore pressure (Pw ) is directly related to mud weight/ECD.
 Axial Stress - σz
Axial stress is oriented along the wellbore path and can be unequally distributed around
the wellbore.
Axial stress is dependent upon; stress magnitude and orientation, pore pressure, and
hole inclination and direction.
Axial stress is not directly affected by mud weight.
 Radial Stress - σr
Radial stress is the difference in wellbore pressure and pore pressure and acts along
the radius of the wellbore.
Since wellbore and pore pressures both stem from fluid pressure acting equally in all
directions, this pressure difference is acting perpendicular to the wellbore wall, along
the hole radius.
=-
Radial Stress =Wellbore Pressure - Pore Pressure
Σr = Pw - P
 Mechanical Stability
Mechanical stability: Management of the near wellbore stress-state (Hoop, radial, and
axial stress) to prevent shear or tensile rock failure.
Mechanical stability is achieved by controlling the parameters that affect hoop, axial,
and radial stress.

Shear Stress
Hoop - σθ

Axial - σz
Hoop - σθ

Radial - σr Radial - σr
Radial - σr

Hoop - σθ
 Mohr’s Circle.

Shear Stress δ

So

Effective Compressive Stress σ

Confining pressure σi Compression pressure that fails
core sample σf
 Controllable & Uncontrollable Parameters

Controllable parameters Uncontrollable parameters

•MW/ECD •Unfavorable In Situ Conditions

•Mud Filter Cake •Adverse Formations
•Well Path - Inclination and Azimuth •Constrained Wellbore Trajectory
•Drilling/Tripping Practices
 Effect of Mud Weight

Occurrence of drilling induced tensile wall fractures due to excess mud weight
(causes a component of tensile stress to be added to the hoop stress acting around
the wellbore)
Decrease in hoop stress is simply proportional to the excess mud weight.
 Effect of Mud Weight/ECD
Increase in MW
Shear Stress δ

So
Stress-State Before
MW Increase

Stress-State
After
MW Increase

Effective Compressive Stress σ

Radial Stress Hoop Stress
 Effect of Mud Weight/ECD
Excessive Increase in MW
Shear Stress δ

So Stress-State Before
MW Increase

Stress-State
After
MW Increase

Effective Compressive Stress σ

New Hoop Stress New Radial Stress
 Effect of Mud Weight/ECD
Shear Stress δ Decrease in MW

So Stress-State
After
MW decrease

Stress-State
Before
MW Decrease

Effective Compressive Stress σ

Radial Stress Hoop Stress
 Hole Inclination and Direction
Wellbore inclination and direction impacts wellbore stability.

Minimum
Hoop Stress

Maximum Maximum
Hoop Stress Hoop Stress

Minimum
Hoop Stress

Increased Vertical Stress of the Overburden

 s
Filter
HMAX
Cake in Sandstones
• Filter cake is made of clays,
polymers, etc.
po
Filter cake • Very low permeability
shmin

• Sand k is much larger than

cake k…
• Allowing the pressure
pw difference to give a direct
support stress
Damaged rock • Therefore: sands almost
held in place by never slough, but:
+ve mud support
• Differential sticking is an
issue in sandstones
The positive support pressure in a
sandstone is usually close to pw – po
because permeability is high
Mud Filter Cake and Permeable Formations

Shear Stress δ

So

Stress-State
With Good Filter Cake

Effective Compressive Stress σ

Radial Stress σr=0 Hoop Stress δθ
 Bottom-hole Temperature

Mud cooler than the formation

▪ Reduces the hoop stress as the formation is cooled.
▪ Reduction in hoop stress can prevent shear failure and stabilize the hole, if the
hoop stress were high due to low mud weight.
▪ Mud weight is too high and close to the fracture gradient, excessive cooling can
lower the hoop stress and make it tensile, causing tensile failure or fracturing as it
effectively lowers the fracture gradient.

Mud hotter than the formation

Increase in Hoop stress : promotes spalling or shear failure.
Variations in Hoop Stress in a High Temperature Well

Shear Stress δ

So

Changes in Shear Stress on Formation

Radial Stress Effective Compressive Stress σ

Hoop Stress Prior to Trip Increased Hoop Stress While POOH

Decrease in Hoop Stress While Circulating Bottoms-Up

 Thermal Destabilization
shear stress Shear strength criterion for
the rock around the
borehole
heating leads to initial
Y
borehole destabilization conditions
s r To
po
s q
mud
support T + DT  i,j

Ds q

normal
stress
s r s q s q + Ds q

When the stress state semicircle “touches” the strength criterion,

it is assumed that this is the onset of rock deterioration (not
necessarily borehole collapse…)
 What Happens with Hot Mud?
• The rock in the borehole wall is heated
• Thermal expansion takes place
• This “attracts” stress to the expanding zone around the well
• The peak stress rises right at the borehole wall, and yield and sloughing is
likely
• For cooling, the rock shrinks; this allows the stress concentration to be
displaced away from the borehole, helping stability
• Cooling occurs at and above the bit
• Heating occurs farther uphole
 Heating and Cooling in the Hole
T
cooling Heating occurs uphole, cooling downhole.
in
tanks The heating effect can be large,
mud up casing exceptionally 30-35°C in long open-hole
annulus sections in areas with high T gradients.

Heating is most serious at the last shoe.

heating The shale expands, and this increases s q,
geothermal shoe often promoting failure and sloughing.
temperature
open At the bit, cooling, shrinkage, both of
+T
hole which enhance stability.
mud
down
pipe drill Commercial software exists to draw these
pipe curves
mud
temperature -T
BHA
cooling
depth
bit
 Effect of wellbore cooling
Excess mud weight and wellbore cooling can influence the occurrence of drilling
induced tensile wall fractures (cause a component of tensile stress to be added to the
hoop stress acting around the wellbore and can play a role in the
formation of tensile fractures.
Thermal stress at the borehole wall proportional to the amount of cooling and the
physical properties of the rock:

where
α is the linear coefficient of thermal expansion and
E is Young’s modulus.
ΔT Temperature difference between the wellbore fluid and the rock surrounding the
well
Impact of Mechanical Stability on the Wellbore
Deformations of the vicinity of a Wellbore occur when in situ rock stress are
redistributed.

Encroachment

Cavity

Original
Hole Size

Shear Failure
Zone (Breakouts)
 Drilling-Induced Fractures

shift of peak stress site

stress

reduction in s q]min
s q,
damaged s q
s q, intact
s r
damaged zone
po fractures are propagated
during drilling and trips
when effective mud
pressures exceed sq
borehole,
σHMAX pw
radius
limited depth fractures

σhmin
Effect of Drilling Direction
 Stresses and Drilling
sv
sHMAX ~ sv
To increase hole stability, the >> shmin
best orientation is that which
minimizes the principal stress
difference normal to the axis
60-90° cone
sHMAX
shmin
Favored hole sv
orientation
sv
Drill within a 60°cone
(±30°) from the most
favored direction sHMAX

sHMAX
shmin
shmin sHMAX >> sv > shmin
sv >> sHMAX > shmin
67
 Mud Weight Prognoses
• Data garnered from many sources, offset wells, geology, XLOT, MWD…
• The interval defined is the secure window:
– MW below pfrac (= shmin) at the shoe
– MW above pmax, usually at or near the bit
• However, the window can be pushed a bit!
– Drilling MW + ECD can be a bit above p frac
– If shales are strong and no high k sands, drilling may take place slightly
below the pore pressure
• Tricks such as high weight pills on trips
• Underbalanced drilling in strong shales

68
 Mud Weight Window Prognosis
1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3

prognosis density, g/cm3

for shmin
MW Previous
Convert to prognosis =1.92 casing
density units for po string
sv
by dividing XLOT shmin
pressures and value
stresses by
vertical depth
overpressure shoe
transition zone
shoe location for
next casing string
area indicates
possible MW
depth strong overpressure zone

This is a conservative approach: often, we can stretch the lower limit a bit, carefully
69
 Pushing the Envelope in Drilling!
(2.0 = 16.7 ppg) 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 density, g/cm3

prognosis
for shmin
MW Previous
Convert to prognosis =1.92 casing
density units for po string
sv
by dividing XLOT shmin
pressures and value
stresses by
vertical depth
overpressure shoe
transition zone
deeper shoe
area indicates for
possible MW casing string!
depth strong overpressure zone

Using high weight trip pills and careful monitoring, the lower limit can be extended
70
Mud Window
Geomechanical Events
More Rock Mechanics
Issues in Drilling
 “Predicting” Onset of Instability
• Estimate in situ stress conditions
• Measure/estimating strength
• Calculate stresses around a circular hole,
• Put together
➢ Prediction of shearing initiation on the borehole wall
➢ An estimate of “breakouts initiation”
 Linear Poroelastic Borehole Model…
• Eqn:
31 −  3 + A  p − UCS + (N − 1)p i
p w ] cr =
N+1
• Where:
– pw]cr critical wellbore pressure, shear initiation
– pi pressure just inside the borehole wall
– σ1, σ3 largest, smallest ppl σ in borehole plane
– A = α(1-2)/(1-) ( = Poisson’s ratio)
– α Biot’s coefficient (1.0 for soft rocks)
– N friction coefficient = (1 + sin’)/(1 - sin’)
– UCS,  Unconfined Compressive Strength, friction angle (MC yield
criterion)
– Δp “drawdown” = pi - po
 Discussion of Parameters
pw
pi

• pw – pi is support pressure po

radius - r

• Usually, we ignore effects of “α”, except in low porosity, stiff shales (E > 30-40
GPa)
• UCS and N are equivalent to the c’, ’ of the linear MC yield criterion for
shear
• Poisson’s ratio for shales, 0.25 to 0.35
• σ1, σ3 are computed using equations converting 3-D stress to stresses in the
plane of the borehole (90° to hole axis)
 Control Parameters in Drilling

• Mud weight, mud rheological properties, the geochemistry of the filtrate, cake
quality, mud type (WBM, OBM, foam, etc.)
• LCM content, type and gradation
• Tripping and connection practices:
– Surging (run-in), swabbing (pull-out) pressures
• Drilling parameters:
– ROP, bit type…
• Hydraulics and hole cleaning
• ECD (BHA characteristics, mud properties)
• Well trajectory, and maybe a few others
 Defining Limits in Well Plan: Operating Window
Pressure or stress Gradient

Predicted MW for onset of

unmanageable sloughing

shmin, danger of LC
σv
Onset of
ballooning in shale
zones

σv

po, onset of blowout

if in a sand zone
Depth Depth
 Lower & Upper Limits
• Lower MW limit
– Pressure control
– Rock Mechanics stability, experience, use of correlations to predict
stability line, etc.
– Tolerable sloughing
Upper MW limit
– Avoiding massive lost circulation
– Fracture gradient, earth stresses analysis
– Effects on ROP
 Underbalanced Stress Conditions
s – stress

sq
High shear
stress at the shmin = sHMAX
borehole
wall
sr
po
pw

pw < po radius

Some tensile stress exists near the hole wall in

underbalanced drilling because p o > pw
 Mud Rheology

• High gel strength can cause mud

Mud Rheology Diagram
losses on connections, trips
•
Shearing resistance

Increases surge and swab effects

Static condition when BHA is in a small dia. Hole
• Also affects ECD
m – mud
• Mud rheology & density can be
viscosity
changed for trips to sustain hole
integrity
• Hydraulics is a vital part of borehole
stability!
Yield
YP point Dynamic conditions

Shearing rate
 Effect of Mud Weight Increase
, shear stress
MC failure line

yield 
Mohr’s circle
of stresses

 max = c +  n tan  
c no yield

 r  a  n, normal stress
Increasing MW (with good cake) reduces the stresses on the wall
 Effect of Loss of Good Filter Cake
, shear stress
MC failure line


failure
Mohr’s circle
of stresses

 max = c +  n tan  
c

 r  a  n, normal stress
With loss of mudcake effect, radial support disappears, shear stress increases
 Stresses and Drilling
v
HMAX ~ v
To increase hole stability, the >> hmin
best orientation is that which
minimizes the principal stress
difference normal to the axis
60-80° cone
HMAX
hmin
Favored hole v
orientation
Drill within a 60°cone v
(±30°) from the most
favored direction HMAX
HMAX
hmin
hmin HMAX >> v > hmin
v >> HMAX > hmin
 Uncontrollable Parameters

• Constrained trajectory (no choice as to the wellbore path)

• Sequence of rock types (stratigraphy)
• Rock strength and other natural properties
– Fractured shales
– Clay type in shales (swelling, coaly, fissile)
– Salt, etc.
• Formation temperatures and pressures, plus other properties such as geochemistry
• Natural earth stresses and orientations
 Can You Live with Breakouts?
• Yes, in most cases the breakouts are a natural consequence of high
stress differences, and can be controlled
• In exceptional cases, the breakouts are so bad that massive
enlargement takes place
• If hole advance is necessary, there are special things that can be done:
– Some new products, silicates, polymers that set in the hole and can
even be set and then drilled
– Increase MW, even to the point of overbalance
– Gilsonite and graded LCM can help somewhat
– In desperation, set casing!
 Some Diagnostic Hole Geometries

General sloughing Swelling,

a. d.
and washout squeeze

b. sHMAX
drill
pipe Keyseating
e.
shmin
Breakouts
Fissility Induced by high
c.
c.
sloughing stress differences

f.

Only breakouts are symmetric in one direction

with an enlarged major axis
 Equivalent Circulating Density
• Viscous resistance increases the apparent mud weight at the bottom of the
hole
• This is a kinematic (viscosity) effect, and takes place only as the mud is
circulating
• ECD can lead to fracture at the bit though static pressure of mud column is
below PF
• As high as 2.0#/gal recorded in 4¾” hole!
• Real-time BHP pressure data allow it to be measured and managed (offshore
drilling)
– This leads to early warnings of high ECD
– This leads to better control and mitigation
 Pressure gradient plot
ECD 15 16 17 18 19 ppg

PF (shmin)

MW = 16.7 ppg
reamers and stabilizers (static value)

mud rings also increase ECD

Dynamic pressure (ECD)
BHA and collars

because of friction, hole

A hydraulic fracture is restrictions, high mud m
induced at the base of
the hole where the ECD
exceeds PF (shmin).
When the pumps stop,
much of the mud comes
back into the hole!
Depth

High ECD!
 ECD
• pBH = mud weight plus friction p loss
• High ECD values (>0.5 ppg) are related to:
– High mud viscosities and gel strengths (evident on connections and trips
as “breathing” of hole)
– Rapid slim hole drilling leading to large cuttings loads in the drilling
fluids near the bit
– Limited clearance with BHA (MWD system), reamer system, extra large
collars…
– Sloughing of shales leading to partial mud rings or high cavings loads in
the mud
• Reducing ECD is the same as expanding your safe MW window for drilling!
 High ECD Effects
15 16 17 18 19 ppg

Gradient
po PF = shmin plot
Top of restrictive BHA
MW = 16.7 ppg
reamers (static value)

mud rings
Dynamic pressure (ECD)
Cannot reduce the MW much because of friction, hole
because of borehole instability restrictions, high mud m
uphole or blowout danger on
BHA and collars

trips, connections, gas cutting…

stabilizers
Large mud losses at hole bottom
because of fracturing High ECD!
Depth
 Reducing High ECD Values
• High ECD: excessive ballooning, high losses, increased risk, reducing the
drilling window
• The high ECD values can be reduced in several ways, here are a few
examples:
– Reduce the mud weight (careful about gas cuts!)
– Reduce the viscosity and gel strength
– Avoid sloughing above bit (increases ECD)
– Circulate out cavings and cuttings as needed
– Use less restrictive BHA, reduce ROP
– Use an off-center bit (lower friction losses)
– Redesign well plan (one less casing, larger hole)
– OBM probably somewhat better than WBM
 North Sea ECD Example
• Serious ECD problems, but extra
10¼” depth needed
casing • Very long & restrictive BHA was
being used
• Drill (mud motor) to Z with 8.5” hole
size
• Trip out, replace bit with eccentric
9¾” bit
• Ream to bottom & trip
• Drill to TD with the 8.5” drill bit size
• Set 7” casing to TD

High ECD Underream

Drill to TD
 Some Other Comments on ECD
• If high drill chip loads from rapid ROP are contributing to ECD, reduce ROP
• Lower viscosity and gel strength during drilling, but increase it a bit for trips
• Break the gel strength of the mud during trips by pumping, rotating pipe as
you are breaking circulation
• Be careful in inclined and horizontal holes where pipe is not being rotated
much, better to rotate more aggressively
• Use LCM in mud to plug fractures
 ECD Services
• Example of output from BHI
service
• MWD gauges used
• Gives ECD, MW, annular pressure,
connection effects…
• This data can be used in a
diagnostic manner during drilling
to manage ECD and aid well
performance
• This website gives many useful
formulae

http://www.tsapts.com.au/formulae_sheets.htm
 Drilling and Shale Fissility
• If a hole is within 20° of strong
fissility…
– Sloughing is more likely
• Shale breaks like small brittle
beams
bedding
• Breakouts can develop deep into
direction
strata
• In this GoM case, in the “tangent”
section, the hole angle was 61°
• Vertical offset hole, no problems

Courtesy Stephen Willson, BP

 Coping with Fissile Shale Sloughing
• If possible, stay at least 30° away from the fissility dip direction (see sketch)
• Otherwise, keep your mud properties excellent, keep circulation rate & ECD
low, gilsonite and fn-gr LCM in mud may help…

Keep the drillhole within this cone

100-120° cone to avoid severe fissility sloughing
problems

Normal to bedding planes

 DENSITY NEUTRON IMAGE OF
12500’ MD SHALE BREAK OUT

SECTION OF
SHALE
BREAKOUT
Note that the
majority of the
shale sloughing
appears to be
from the top of
the borehole.
PHOTOELECTRIC BOTTOM OF DENSITY
Density Neutron Image
FACTOR CURVES BOREHOLE GR CURVES
 Drilling Through Faults
• The fault plane region is often:
– Broken, sheared, weak shales and rocks
– It may have a high permeability
– It can be charged with somewhat higher po
• First, expect the faults from your data:
– Seismic data analysis
– Near salt diapirs, especially shoulders
• Accurate mud DV(t) measurements can be of great value to good drilling
• Cavings monitoring
• MWD (ECD, resistivity, bit torque…)
 Borehole Shear Displacement
• High angle faults, fractures can slip and cause pipe pinching
– Near-slip earth stresses condition
– High MW causes pw charging
– Reduction in σ n leads to slip
– BHA gets stuck on trip out
• Can be identified from borehole wall sonic scanner
logs (profile logs) n pw
• Raising MW makes it worse! Lowering MW is better…
• Also, LCM materials to plug the fault or joint plane are effective
 Slip of a High-Angle Fault Plane
borehole
v = 1

casing bending
h = 3 and pinching in
completed holes

high pressure pipe stuck on trips

transmission

slip of joint surface

slip of joint
 Slip Affected by Hole Orientation!
OFFSET ALONG PRE-EXISTING DISCONTINUITIES
FILTRATE

75

70

Effective normal stress (bar) Azimuth:

65 0
10
20
60 30
40
50
55 60
70
80
50 90

45

40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Inclination () (deg)

TYPICAL
MUD
OVER-PRESSURE Courtesy Geomec a.s.
 Diagnostics for Fault Slip Problems

• In tectonic areas, near salt diapirs…

• On trips, BHA gets stuck at one point
• Easy to drop pipe, hard to raise it
• Borehole scanner shows strange shapes: not the same as keyseating or breakouts

drill pipe

Start of keyseat Serious keyseat Evidence of fault plane slip

 Curing Fault Plane Slip Problems
• Usually occurs up-hole in normal faulting regimes that are highly faulted,
jointed, as MW is increased to control po downhole
• May occur suddenly near the bit when a fault is encountered
• Back-ream through the tight zone
• High pw contributes to the slip of the plane, thus reduce your MW if possible
• Condition the mud to block or retard the flow of mud pressure into the slip
plane:
– Gilsonite, designed LCM in the mud
• Use an avoidance trajectory for the well
 Mud Volume Measurements
• Extremely useful, but, accurate V/t Losses - gpm
20
needed A
15
• Case A: fracture/fault encountered,
quickly blocked, now analyze data for 10
k and aperture! 5
Hole deepening rate
• Case B: fractured rock not healed by Filtration
fluid loss
LCM
0 Time - min
5 6 7 8 9
• Other cases have their own typical
response curves (ballooning, slow B
kick…) Losses - gpm
20
• Diagnostics!
15

10

5
Filtration Hole deepening rate
fluid loss
0 Time - min
5 6 7 8 9
 A Precise Mud Volume Installation

Outlet mud line Precision flow meter

(taken from SPE 38177 - Agip well )

 Actual Field Example of Analysis
Hydraulic Aperture (mm) Average permeability (D/m)
0 0.5 1 0 20 40 60
2890 2890

2910 2910

2930 2930
Depth (m)

2950 2950

2970 2970

2990 2990

3010 3010

3030 3030

3050 3050
Courtesy
This information proved extremely valuable for reservoir Geomec a.s
engineers in this case, as a gas reservoir was found
 Losses Identify Fractured Zones
70

60
22 liters 35 liters
– litres/min

50
19 liters 25 liters
40
(L/min)

30
Rate

20
loss
Loss

10
Mud Q

-10
Likely, each event involved filling a single fracture
-20
4101.5 4101.7 4101.9 4102.1 4102.3 4102.5 4102.7
Depth
Depth - m(m)
 Problems in Coal Drilling
• OBM are worse than WBM in Coal
– Filtrate penetrates easily (oil wettability)
• Coal fractures open easily if pw > po
– Coal is extremely compressible
• Difficult to build a filter cake on the wall
– Fissure apertures open with surges
• Sloughing on trips, connections, large washouts, …
• Packing off of cuttings and sloughed Coal around the pipe, even during trips
 Drilling in Coal
stresses around wellbore

q Mud rings and pack-off caused by

r slugs of cavings and cuttings
Deep pore pressure penetration
because of coal fractures
Massive sloughing

fracture-dominated coal
 Drilling Fractured Coal Safely

• Keep jetting velocities low while drilling through the coal (avoid washouts)
• Keep MW modest to avoid fractures opening and coal pressuring, low ECDs while the
BHA is opposite the coal seams
• Drill with graded LCM in the mud to plug the fractures and build a cake zone
• Avoid swabbing and surging on trips
• See Appendix to Module H for some results on drilling overbalanced with LCM
A Case History of Salt Diapir Drilling in the
North Sea
 North Sea Case, Shallow Depth
Well A
1a

Shallow Gas
2000 m

Gas Pull Down

Courtesy Geomec a.s.

 Above a Deep Diapir, North Sea
• Normal faulting observed well above the top of the diapir, these will likely
be zones of substantial mud losses (low shmin)
• Beds are distorted, likely shearing has occurred along the bedding planes
(weaker)
• Seismic data show strong “gas pull-down effect”, lower seismic velocities
because of free gas in the overlying shales and high po
• Free gas zones are noted in the strata, and these will increase gas cuts
• (Gas “pull-down” refers to the effect of free gas on seismic stratigraphy)
 Deeper, Around the Diapir
This region avoided
Well A
1b
Gas Pull Down

2000 m

Mid-Miocene regional pressure boundary

Top Balder
Top Chalk
Intra Hod/Salt

3000 m

Courtesy Geomec a.s.

 MWD RESISTIVITY LOG SIGNATURE (OBM)

Well A

Depth (m MD-RKB)
2540 2560 2580 2600 2620 2640 2660
100
MWD Resistivity (Ohm.m)

10

SESP
Invaded Zone SEDP

0.1

Time-lapse and different spacing resistivity Courtesy Geomec a.s.

logging data identified fractured zone clearly
 INVADED ZONE Symmetry(O-B)

Well A

1.6

1.4

1.2
Ratio SEDP/SESP (Ohm.m)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
2540 2560 2580 2600 2620 2640 2660
Depth (m MD-RKB)

Courtesy Geomec a.s.

 What Was Done to Improve Driling?

• A trajectory was chosen to avoid the worst of the crestal faulting and gas
pressures
– Shales also intersected at ~ 90 to fissility
• Mud losses were carefully monitored with depth in the critical zones, then
analyzed
• Designed LCM in the mud allowed a bit of overbalance in a critical region
• Of course, gas cuts, shale chip geometry, total cutting volumes, etc., and
many other things were monitored in “real-time”
 Statfjord Case: North Sea
STATFJORD
OVERBALANCED!
-800 psi
Mud Pressure minus stress in

6
MegaPascals

0 B-06B B-23AT2 B-39A B-39BT2

Well

These wells were drilled with overbalance: a MW Courtesy Geomec a.s.

above the lowest estimated hmin in the zone
 Conclusions
• Fracturing pressure can be increased by several 100 psi by graded LCM,
analysis
• Young’s modulus (E) is the control parameter
• Induced fractures or even natural fractures encountered open up almost
immediately to their final width:
– This aperture controls LCM design
• The plugging happens rapidly with right LCM
• The effect is enhanced with high viscosity mud and slower ROP
• Design tools are available for this
 A Well Plan, North Sea
• classical mud weight window is too narrow;
cannot avoid instability
• low mud weight → breakouts
• high mud weight → destabilized fractured
zones & losses
• breakout problems are controllable by good
hole cleaning; fracture zones are
uncontrollable

Strategy:
• keep mud weight low
• manage breakouts with good hole
cleaning before increasing mud weight
during trips
• monitor cavings and mud losses for
warning of fractured zones
Courtesy Stephen Willson, BP
 Executing this Difficult Well
• Background gas controlled by ROP, not MW
• Monitoring greatly reduced “wiper trips”
• Continuous ECD and mud volume monitoring to avoid destabilization
(+”charged” faults)
• Chip analysis to identify fractured shales
• Strength profile modified “on-the-fly” using ISONIC MWD + behavior +
prognosis
• Ballooning analysis refined shmin data
• Hole condition from CRD scan on trips
• Weighted pills placed for trips
• Mud properties well maintained (ECD…)
 Trajectory Variations Example
• Erskine HPHT field
• Deviated holes need MWD, better
control, the dashed line path was
abandoned
• Instead, reach was established S-profile trajectory 5000 m
above HTHP zone, then the well
turned vertical Reach section
• No MWD used, hole cleaning was
better, lower ECD, etc…
• Also, low flow rates, low surge- Top of HTHP zone
swab, etc…

A vertical trajectory in
the HTHP zone proved
to be cheaper and
faster, rather than
steering an inclined well
trajectory
 Real-Time Wellbore Stability
• For deep, difficult, costly holes only
• Quality prognosis is needed – po(z), shmin(z)
• Diagnostic tools used:
• Real-time pressures (ECD management)
• Caliper and resistivity data, D-exponent data
• Borehole imagery (on trips)
• Accurate mud loss gauges & ballooning analysis
• Cuttings volumes and visual classification
• Prevention and and remediation options:
• Mud properties and special chemicals
• Hydraulics, drilling parameters, reamers…
• Special cures… (pills, LCM,,,)
 Tests on the Rig Floor on Chips
• Performed on “intact” cuttings
• Brinnell hardness is related to strength
• The dielectric properties can be related to the shale geochemical sensitivity
• Sonic travel time can be related to strength and stiffness empirically
• You can use dispersion tests in water of different salinities to assess swelling
• Even some others can be used
• These can be taken regularly and plotted as a log versus depth (very useful)
Mud Cooling to Increase Borehole Stability
in Shales
 Heating and Cooling in the Hole
T
cooling • Heating occurs uphole, cooling
in tanks
downhole. The heating effect can be
mud up casing large, exceptionally 30-35°C in long
annulus open-hole sections in areas with high
T gradients.

heating
• Heating is most serious at the last
geothermal shoe
shoe. The shale expands, and this
temperature
open increases q, often promoting failure
+T and sloughing.
hole
mud
down
pipe drill • At the bit, cooling, shrinkage, both of
pipe which enhance stability.

mud
temperature -T • Commercial software exists to draw
BHA
these curves
cooling
depth
bit
 ΔT Effects in the Borehole
• Mud goes down the drillpipe fast: ~5 to 10  faster than it returns up
the annulus
• It picks up heat from rising mud in annulus
• At the bit, still 10°-40°C cooler than rock in HT wells with long open-hole
sections
• Rising uphole, the mud picks up heat from formation, and heats rapidly
till the cross-over point (T diff. Is as large as 30°-40°C)
• Then, it cools all the way to the surface
• It gets to the tanks hot, and loses some heat, but usually goes back in
quite warm
 A Simple Quantitative Example…
• Change in q at the wall is given by:
q]ri ~ (T·b·E)/(1-)
• E = Young’s modulus = 1 to 5106 psi
• b = Thermal expan. coef. = 10-1510-6/°C
•  = Poisson’s ratio = 0.30 – 0.35
• T = Temperature change
• Reasonable values are: E = 3106 psi, b = 12 10-6/°C,  = 0.35, T = +25°C
• This increases q at the wall by ~1400 psi!
• Not good for shale stability!
 Heat Also Reduces Strength a Bit
80
Deviatoric stress (MPa)
Temperature = 20°C 3 = 2.5 MPa
Temperature = 60°C
60

40

20

Mancos shale
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Strain (%)
About 10% strength loss for this ΔT, so this is a secondary effect
 More Temperature Effects
• +T reduces strength, increases stress
• +T also makes adsorbed water more mobile
• Absorbed water layer thickness is reduced
• Either water is expelled, or stresses must change because the pore pressure
changes

• In either case, additional V takes place, in addition to thermoelastic

effects
• Furthermore, reaction rates change w. T
• Boy! Does this make modeling difficult!
 Cooling the Mud Reduces +T
Cooling mud T
The mud is cooled at surface through heat
exchangers and sea water. As much as -
30°C to -40°C is feasible in some cases.
mud up
annulus Now, the amount of heating at the shoe is
very small, only a few degrees.
+T
Also, the shale remains stronger by virtue
of the cooling.

There are other benefits as well…

-T

BHA
cooling
depth
 Benefits of Mud Cooling

• Increases shale stability throughout hole!

• Low temperature reduces the rate of negative geochemical reactions between
the mud filtrate and the shale
• Generally, mud properties are far easier to maintain with cooler mud, lower cost
• Tanks are less hot (in some areas, mud can exit the hole almost boiling!)
• BHA is “protected” from high T
• Use it when appropriate!
 Lessons Learned
• Stability in drilling involves many factors
• Rock mechanics information, cavings and cuttings information, rig site
tests…
• Hydraulics management
• Lithostratigraphic knowledge
• MWD in difficult offshore cases (ECD)
• Temperature management
• MW and rheology management
• The key is rock mechanics behavior, as stability is mainly a stress issue
• But… All factors must be considered together in difficult wells