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11 ΣΕΙΡΕΣ
11.1 Σειρές µε Σταθερούς Όρους
Αριθµητική πρόοδος
a + ar + ar 2 + = a , r ≠1
1− r
∆υνάµεις ακεραίων
n(n + 1)
1+ 2 + 3 + +n=
2
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + … +(2n − 1) = n2
1 + 8 + 16 + 24 + 32 … +8(n − 1) = (2n − 1)2
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 + + n2 =
6
n 2 (n + 1) 2
13 + 23 + 33 + + n3 = (1 + 2 + 3 + + n) 2 =
4
k
Αντίστροφες δυνάµεις θετικών ακεραίων
1− 1 + 1 − 1 + 1 − = ln 2
2 3 4 5
1− 1 + 1 − 1 + 1 − =p
3 5 7 9 4
1− 1 + 1 − 1 + 1 − = p 3 + 1 ln 2
4 7 10 13 9 3
2 ln(1 + 2 )
1− 1 + 1 − 1 + 1 − =p 2+
5 9 13 17 8 4
1−1+1− 1 + 1 − = p 3 − 1 ln 2
2 5 8 11 14 9 3
2
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + =p
12 22 32 42 6
1+ 1 + 1 + 1 + = z (3) = 1.2020569032
13 23 33 43
4
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + =p
14 24 34 44 90
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + = z (5) = 1.0369277551
15 25 35 45
6
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + = p
16 26 36 46 945
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + = z ( x)
1x 2 x 3x 4 x
[ζ(x) η συνάρτηση ζήτα του Riemann]
2
1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + =p
12 22 32 42 12
SECTION 3
4
1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + = 7p
14 24 34 42 720
6
1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + = 31p
16 26 36 46 30240
2
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + =p
12 32 52 7 2 8
4
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + =p
14 34 54 7 4 96
6
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + = p
16 36 56 7 6 960
3
1− 1 + 1 − 1 + =p
13 33 53 73 32
2
1+ 1 − 1 − 1 + = 3p 2
13 33 53 73 16
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + =1
1⋅ 3 3 ⋅ 5 5 ⋅ 7 7 ⋅ 9 2
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + =3
1⋅ 3 2 ⋅ 4 3 ⋅ 5 4 ⋅ 6 4
= p −8
2
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 +
1 ⋅ 32 32 ⋅ 52 52 ⋅ 7 2 7 2 ⋅ 92
2 16
= 4p − 39
2
1 + 1 + 1 +
1 ⋅ 22 ⋅ 32 22 ⋅ 32 ⋅ 42 32 ⋅ 42 ⋅ 52
2 16
1− 1 + 1 − 1 + x a −1dx
1
a a + d a + 2d a + 3d
= ∫0 1+ x
d
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 22 p −1 p 2p B p
=
12 p 22 p 32 p 42 p (2 p )!
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + (22 p − 1)p 2 p B p
=
12 p 32 p 52 p 7 2 p 2(2 p )!
4 SECTION
1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + (22 p −1 − 1)p 2 p B p
=
12 p 22 p 32 p 42 p (2 p )!
1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + p 2 p +1 E p
2 p +1
=
1 32 p +1 52 p +1 7 2 p +1 22 p + 2 (2 p )!
[Ep οι αριθµοί του Euler]
Με ηµίτονα και συνηµίτονα
sin 12 (n + 1) a sin 12 na
sin a + sin 2a + sin 3a + + sin na =
sin(a / 2)
f ( n ) (j )( x − j ) n −1 ( x − a )
Rn = (τύπος του Cauchy)
(n − 1)!
Αν lim Rn = 0 , παίρνουµε τη σειρά Taylor ή ανάπτυγµα Taylor της f (x) για x = a.
x →∞
Αν a = 0, η σειρά καλείται συχνά σειρά Maclaurin. Η σειρά Taylor (ή Maclaurin)
συγκλίνει γενικά για κάθε x ενός διαστήµατος, που καλείται διάστηµα σύγκλισης,
και αποκλίνει έξω από αυτό το διάστηµα.
Για συναρτήσεις δύο µεταβλητών έχουµε
f (x, y) = f (a, b) + (x − a)fx (a, b) + (y − b)fy (a, b)
1
+ {(x − a)2 fxx (a, b) + 2(x − a)(y − b) fxy (a, b)+(y − b)2 fyy (a, b)} + …
2!
όπου fx (a, b), fy (a, b), … είναι οι µερικές παράγωγοι ως προς x, y, … υπολογισµένες
στο σηµείο x = a, y = b.
Αναπτύγµατα συναρτήσεων
∆ιωνυµική σειρά
n(n − 1) n − 2 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n −3 3
(a + x) n = a n + na n −1 x + a x + a x +
2! 3!
n n n n
= a n + a n −1 x + a n − 2 x 2 + a n −3 x3 + + a n−r xr +
1 2 3 r
(a + x)2 = a2 + 2ax + x2
(a + x)3 = a3 + 3a2x + 3ax2 + x3
(a + x)4 = a4 + 4a3x + 6a2x2 + 4ax3 + x4
(1 + x)−1 = 1 − x + x2 − x3 + x4 − … −1 < x < 1
(1 + x)−2 = 1 − 2x + 3x2 − 4x3 + 5x4 − … −1 < x < 1
(1 + x)−3 = 1 − 3x + 6x2 − 10x3 + 15x4 − … −1 < x < 1
(1 + x)−4 = 1 − 4x + 10x2 − 20x3 + 35x4 − … −1 < x < 1
(1 + x)−5 = 1 − 5x + 15x2 − 35x3 + 70x4 − … −1 < x < 1
(1 + x) −1/ 2 = 1 − 1 x + 1 ⋅ 3 x − 1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 x3 + , −1 < x ≤ 1
2 2⋅4 2⋅4⋅6
6 SECTION
(1 + x)1/ 2 = 1 + 1 x − 1 x 2 + 1 ⋅ 3 x3 − , −1 < x ≤ 1
2 2⋅4 2⋅4⋅6
(1 + x) −1/ 3 = 1 − 1 x + 1 ⋅ 4 x 2 − 1 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 7 x3 + , −1 < x ≤ 1
3 3⋅ 6 3⋅ 6 ⋅9
(1 + x)1/ 3 = 1 + 1 x − 2 x 2 + 2 ⋅ 5 x3 − , −1 < x ≤ 1
3 3⋅ 6 3⋅ 6 ⋅9
(1 + x) −1/ 4 = 1 − 1 x + 5 x 2 − 5 ⋅ 9 x3 + , −1 < x ≤ 1
4 4 ⋅8 4 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 12
(1 + x)1/ 4 = 1 + 1 x − 3 x 2 + 3 ⋅ 7 x3 − , −1 < x ≤ 1
4 4 ⋅8 4 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 12
(1 + x) −3 / 2 = 1 − 3 x + 3 ⋅ 5 x 2 − 3 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 7 x3 + , −1 < x < 1
2 2⋅4 2⋅4⋅6
(1 + x) −5 / 2 = 1 − 5 x + 5 ⋅ 7 x 2 − 5 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 9 x3 + , −1 < x < 1
2 2⋅4 2⋅4⋅6
Ρητές συναρτήσεις
1 + x = 1 + 3x + 5 x 2 + 7 x3 +
(1 − x) 2
1 + x = 1 + 22 x + 32 x 2 + 42 x3 +
(1 − x)3
1 + 6 x + x 2 = 1 + 32 x + 52 x 2 + 7 2 x3 +
(1 − x)3
a + (b − a ) x
= a + (a + b) x + (a + 2b) x 2 +
(1 − x) 2
Τριγωνοµετρικές συναρτήσεις
3 5 7
sin x = x − x + x − x + −∞< x<∞
3! 5! 7 !
( p
2
)(
4p
2
9p
2
)(
sin x = x 1 − x 2 1 − x 2 1 − x 2 )
SECTION 7
1 = 1 − 2x
sin x x 2
1 −
x −p 2 {
1
x − 4p
2 2
+ 2 1 2−
x − 9p }
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 +
2
sin x x 2
(x − p) 2
(x + p) 2
( x − 2p ) 2
( x + 2p ) 2
2 4 6
cos x = 1 − x + x − x + −∞< x<∞
2! 4! 6!
(
cos x = 1 − 4 x2
p
2
)( 9p)(
2
25p
2
1 − 4x2 1 − 4x 2 )
1 = 4p
cos x
1
{ − 3 + 5
p 2 − 4 x 2 9p 2 − 4 x 2 25p 2 − 4 x 2
− }
1 = 4 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 +
(p − 2 x) (p + 2 x) (3p − 2 x) (3p + 2 x) 2
2 2 2 2
cos x
3 5 7 22 n (22 n − 1) Bn x 2 n −1
tan x = x + x + 2 x + 17 x + + + , x<p
3 15 315 (2n)! 2
tan x = 8 x {p 2
1 + 1 + 1
− 4 x 2 9p 2 − 4 x 2 25p 2 − 4 x 2
+ }
3 5 22 n Bn x 2 n −1
cot x = 1 − x − x − 2 x − − − , 0< x <p
x 3 45 945 (2n)!
x x −p {
cot x = 1 + 2 x 2 1 2 + 2 1 2 + 2 1 2 +
x − 4p x − 9p }
sin −1 x = x + 1 x + 1 ⋅ 3 x + 1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 x +
3 5 7
, x <1
2 3 2⋅4 5 2⋅4⋅6 7
2 2 (
cos −1 x = p − sin −1 x = p − x + 1 x + 1 ⋅ 3 x +
3
2 3 2⋅4 5
5
), x <1
8 SECTION
x − x3 + x5 − x 7 + , | x| < 1
3 5 7
tan −1 x =
± p − 1 + 1 − 1 + , + αν x ≥ 1, − αν x ≤ −1
2 x 3 x3 5 x5
cot −1 x = p − tan −1 x =
2 3 (
p − x − x3 + x5 − ,
5 ) | x| < 1
2 pp + 1 − 1 + 1 − , p = 0 αν x < 1, p = 1 αν x < −1
x 3x3 5 x5
Εκθετικές και λογαριθµικές συναρτήσεις
2 3
ex = 1 + x + x + x + , −∞ < x < ∞
2! 3!
( x ln a )3 ( x ln a )3
a x = e x ln a = 1 + x ln a + + + , −∞< x<∞
3! 3!
2 3 4
ln(1 + x) = x − x + x − x + , −1 < x ≤ 1
2 3 4
( )
1 ln 1 + x = x + x3 + x5 + x 7 +
2 1− x 3 5 7
, −1 < x < 1
( ) ( ) + 13 ( x x− 1) +
2 3
ln x = x − 1 + 1 x − 1 x≥ 1
x 2 x 2
ln x = 2 ( x − 1 ) + 1 ( x − 1 ) + 1 ( x − 1 ) +
3 5
, x>0
x +1 3 x +1 5 x +1
Υπερβολικές συναρτήσεις
3 5 7
sinh x = x + x + x + x + , −∞< x<∞
3! 5! 7 !
( p
2
4p)(
2
9p
2
sinh x = x 1 + x 2 1 + x 2 1 + x 2 )( )
1 = 1 − 2x
sinh x x
1 +
{ 1 + 1
x 2 + p 2 x 2 + 4p 2 x 2 + 9p 2
+ }
SECTION 9
2 4 6
cosh x = 1 + x + x + x + , −∞< x<∞
2! 4! 6!
(
cosh x = x 1 + 4 x2
p
2
)( 9p
2
)(
25p
2
1 + 4x2 1 + 4x 2 )
1 = 4x
cosh x
1
{ + 3 + 5
p 2 + 4 x 2 9p 2 + 4 x 2 25p 2 + 4 x 2
+ }
3 5 7 (−1) n −1 22 n (22 n − 1) Bn x 2 n −1
tanh x = x − x − 2 x − 17 x + + , x<p
3 15 315 (2n)! 2
tanh x = 8 x {p 2
1 + 1 + 1
+ 4 x 2 9p 2 + 4 x 2 25p 2 + 4 x 2
+ }
3 5 (−1) n −1 22 n Bn x 2 n −1
coth x = 1 + x − x + 2 x + + , 0< x <p
x 3 45 945 (2n)!
x x +p {
coth x = 1 + 2 x 2 1 2 + 2 1 2 + 2 1 2 +
x + 4p x + 9p }
x − x3 + 1 ⋅ 3x5 − 1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 x 7 + , | x| < 1
2⋅3 2⋅4⋅5 2⋅4⋅6⋅7
sinh −1 x =
(
± ln 2 x + 1 + 1 ⋅ 3 + 1 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 −
2 ⋅ 2 x2 2 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 4 x4 2 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 6 x6 ), + αν x ≥ 1,
- αν x ≤ −1
+ αν coshx > 0
{
cosh −1 x = ± ln(2 x) − ( 1 + 1⋅ 3 + 1⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 +
2 ⋅ 2 x2 2 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 4 x4 2 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 6 x6 )} , − αν coshx < 0
(x ≥ 1)
3 5 7
tanh −1 x = x + x + x + x + , x <1
3 5 7
coth −1 x = 1 + 1 3 + 1 5 + 1 7 + , x >1
x 3x 5x 7x
∆ιάφορες σειρές
2 4 5
esin x = 1 + x + x − x − x + , −∞< x<∞
2 8 15
10 SECTION
( 2 4 6
ecos x = e 1 − x + x − 31x +
2 6 720 ), −∞ < x < ∞
2 3 4
e tan x = 1 + x + x + x + 3 x + , x<p
2 2 8 2
3 5 6 2n / 2 sin(np / 4) x n
e x sin x = x + x 2 + 2 x − x − x + + + , −∞ < x < ∞
3 30 90 n!
3 4 2n / 2 cos(np / 4) x n
e x cos x = 1 + x − x − x + + + , −∞ < x < ∞
3 6 n!
2 4 6 22 n −1 Bn x 2 n
ln sin x = ln x − x − x − x − − + , 0< x <p
6 180 2835 n(2n)!
2 4 6 8 22 n −1 (22 n − 1) Bn x 2 n
ln cos x = − x − x − x − 17 x − − + , x<p
2 12 45 2520 n(2n)! 2
2 4 6 22 n (22 n −1 − 1) Bn x 2 n
ln tan x = ln x + x + 7 x + 62 x + + + , 0< x < p
3 90 2835 n(2n)! 2
ln(1 + x)
1+ x ( ) (
= x − 1 + 1 x 2 + 1 + 1 + 1 x3 −
2 2 3 ) , x
Αντίστροφη σειρά
Αν y = c1 x + c2 x 2 + c3 x 3 + c4 x 4 + c5x 5 + c6 x 6 + …
τότε x = C 1 y + C 2 y 2 + C3 y 3 + C4 y 4 + C5 y 5 + C6 y 6 + …
όπου
c1C1 = 1
c13C2 = − c2
c15C3 = 2c22 − c1 c3
c17C4 = 5c1 c2 c3 − 5c23 − c12c4
c19C5 = 6c12c2 c4 + 3c12c32 − c13c5 + 14c24 − 21c1c22c3
c111C6 = 7c13c2 c5 + 84c1 c23c3 + 7c13c3 c4 − 28c12c2c32 − c14c6 − 28c12c22c4 − 42c25