Photonic Circuits –

Interferometers
and
Applications

Ref.

Textbook:

L. Chrostowski,
M. Hochberg,
Dr. Lukas Chrostowski “Silicon Photonics
Design”, Cambridge
University Press, 2015
Outline
• Interferometer types – Mach-Zehnder, Michelson

• Balanced vs. imbalanced interferometer

• Applications

• optical switches

• high-speed modulators

© 2014 L. Chrostowski 2
Mach-Zehnder Interferometer (MZI)
• Interferometer constructed

using two beam splitters

Phase shift: Sample

50/50%
Beam
Splitter
Input
Light

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mach-Zehnder_interferometer

© 2014 L. Chrostowski 3
Mach-Zehnder Interferometer (MZI)
• Interferometer constructed

using two beam splitters

Mirror

Phase shift: Sample

50/50%
Beam
Splitter
Input
Light Mirror

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mach-Zehnder_interferometer

© 2014 L. Chrostowski 3
Mach-Zehnder Interferometer (MZI)
• Interferometer constructed

using two beam splitters

Mirror

50/50%
Beam
Splitter
Phase shift: Sample
50/50%
Beam
Splitter
Input
Light Mirror

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mach-Zehnder_interferometer

© 2014 L. Chrostowski 3
Mach-Zehnder Interferometer (MZI)
• Interferometer constructed

using two beam splitters

Mirror
Output 1

50/50%
Beam
Splitter
Phase shift: Sample
50/50%
Beam
Splitter
Input
Light Mirror

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mach-Zehnder_interferometer

© 2014 L. Chrostowski 3
Mach-Zehnder Interferometer (MZI)
• Interferometer constructed

Output 2
using two beam splitters

Mirror
Output 1

50/50%
Beam
Splitter
Phase shift: Sample
50/50%
Beam
Splitter
Input
Light Mirror

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mach-Zehnder_interferometer

© 2014 L. Chrostowski 3
Michelson Interferometer
• Interferometer constructed

using one beam splitter

• Light does two passes Phase shift: Sample

50/50%
Beam
Splitter
Input
Light

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelson_interferometer
© 2014 L. Chrostowski 4
Michelson Interferometer
Mirror
• Interferometer constructed

using one beam splitter

• Light does two passes Phase shift: Sample

50/50%
Beam
Splitter
Input
Light
Mirror

Output

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelson_interferometer
© 2014 L. Chrostowski 4
Mach-Zehnder Interferometer – Modulator
• Two y-branches, two optical paths

Phase shifter Modulated

Laser
optical
Input Phase shifter signal

Electrical modulation

• Balanced interferometer – equal path lengths

• Results in broadband operation, namely, modulator response is the same

for all wavelengths.

• Challenge in extracting modulator parameters, and requires electrical bias

to operate at the desired operating point.

© 2014 L. Chrostowski 5
Mach-Zehnder Interferometer – Modulator
• Add an extra waveguide in one path:

Phase shifter Modulated

Laser
optical
Input Phase shifter signal

Electrical modulation

• Imbalanced interferometer – different path lengths

• The imbalance creates a sinusoidal wavelength variation.

• This is useful to extract modulator parameters

• Adjusting the wavelength is used to choose the bias point, instead of an

electrical bias

© 2014 L. Chrostowski 6
∆ne, is equal to the product of the change in the effective index with temperature, ∂ne/∂T, an
the temperature change, ∆T. The induced phase shiftR. in
Ref: P. Sun, the heated
M. Reano, arm affects
“Submilliwatt the phas
thermo-optic
interference in the output 3-dB directional switches using free-standing
coupler. silicon-on-insulator
Consequently, optical powerstrip i
waveguides”, Optics Express, Vol. 18 Issue 8, pp.
Thermo-Optic
redistributed between the twoSwitch
output ports. 8406-8411 (2010)

Fig. 1. Schematic of the MZI thermo-optic switch with free-standing SOI waveguides; the
interferometer arms consist of silicon strip waveguides embedded in silicon dioxide which are
released from the silicon substrate. Platinum heaters are deposited on top of the released arms.
The silicon waveguide core cross-sectional width and height are 450 nm and 250 nm,
respectively. The cladding width w is 2.9 µm, the cladding height h is 2.1 µm, and the gap g is
4.5 µm. The interferometer arm length L is 100 µm.

3. Fabrication
© 2014 L. Chrostowski 7
 from the substrate, isRef:measured. The unreleased switch
P. Sun, R. M. Reano, “Submilliwatt thermo-optic
extinction ratio as the switches
released switch.
using Thesilicon-on-insulator
free-standing measured switchi strip
waveguides”, Optics Express, Vol. 18 Issue 8, pp.
Thermo-Optic
which is Switch
more than one order (2010)
8406-8411 of magnitude higher than the
rise time of the unreleased version of the switch is 39 µs.

Switching power

Extinction
Ratio

Fig. 4. Characterization measurements of thermo-optic 8 sw

© 2014 L. Chrostowski
switch is an MZI with 3-dB directional couplers (DCs) and thermo-optic phase shifters in the
arms, as shown in Fig. 1(c). Output ports ofRef: theY.first element switches (SW1, SW2) are
Shoji, K. Kintaka, S. Suda, H. Kawashima, T.
connected to input ports of the second element Hasama,
switchesH.(SW3, SW4)
Ishikawa, through an2 intersection
“Low-crosstalk × 2 thermo-

2 x 2 Optical Switch
or straight path. This switch connection can optic
beswitch
Express,
implemented in Ref. [1]. In the present study, we assumeVol.
with silicon
regarded
18,the
that
as awire
No.top
9, pp.
waveguides”, Optics
generalization
and9071 (2010)
bottom
of that
ports are for
Input-1 SW1 SW3 Output-1 Input-1 SW1 SW3 Output-1

-x1
SW2 SW4 SW2 SW4
-x1 -x3
Input-2 Output-2 Input-2 -x2 -x2 Output-2
(a) (b)

In-A Out-A
In-A 3-dB DC Out-A

Heater
0-dB DC

In-B Out-B
In-B Out-B
(c) (d)

Fig. 1. Schematic configurations of low-crosstalk 2 × 2 optical switch with MZI array as (a)
‘bar’ and (b) ‘cross’ states. Solid arrows show the ideal path of optical signals and dashed
arrows show incident crosstalk in each component with a level of –x1 (dB), –x2 (dB), or –x3
(dB) below the power on the main path. (c) Element switch of MZI with thermo-optic phase
shifter. (d) Intersection of vertically aligned directional coupler (DC).

© 2014 L. Chrostowski 9
 Ref: D. Patel, V. Veerasubramanian, S. Ghosh, W. Shi, A.
Samani, Q. Zhong, D. V. Plant, “A 4x4 fully non-blocking

4 x 4 Optical Switch switch on SOI based on interferometric thermo-optic phase

shifters”, Optical Interconnects Conference, 2014

MZI Switch

Inputs: 4 x 4 Switch

Outputs: 1 2 3 4
© 2014 L. Chrostowski 10
showswaveguides,
the p-n junction
and 70 nm geometry
etch steps and Fig. 2(b)
for focused shows
grating the p-i-n junction cross-section. Higher
couplers. “High-speed compact silicon photonic Michelson interferometric modulator”,
concentration dopants
Modulating diodes(p++ and n++)inare
were developed bothused for p-i-n
p-n and ohmic contacts
junction and
configurations.
David Patel, the
Venkat lower
Figureconcentration
Veerasubramanian, 2(a)
Samir Ghosh, Alireza Samani,
Qiuhang Zhong, and David V. Plant. Optics Express, Vol. 22, Issue 22, pp.
dopants
shows(p the
andp-n
n) junction
are usedgeometry
in the region
and Fig.of2(b)
the waveguide where
shows the p-i-n the cross-section.
junction optical
26788-26802 field Higher
is most concen-
(2014) http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/OE.22.026788

rated. PN Depletion Modulator

concentration
Similar to dopants (p++
[7, 9], an and n++)
offset are nm
of 100 usedrelative
for ohmictocontacts and the
the center of thelower concentration
waveguide
dopants (p and n) are used in the region of the waveguide where the optical field is most concen-
he p-n junctions to increase the mode overlap with the p-type semiconductor. This
was used in
trated. Similar to [7, 9], an offset of 100 nm relative to the for greater
center of thebandwidth.
waveguide was Weused alsoinoffset
observed was a good ag
expected
the p-ntojunctions
improveto the modulation
increase the mode efficiency
overlap withbecause device
the p-type the plasma
and data dispersion
semiconductor. obtained
This offset effect
from is more using
was simulations
sensitive to changes
• Reverse-biased
expected to improvein free holejunction

PN concentration
the modulation [4]. Ittheisplasma
efficiency because dispersion
important to noteeffectthat is more because of the non-li
sensitive to changes in free hole concentration [4].
2 μm of voltage, the Vp Lp figure-of-merit does not allo
modulator length or Lp for a given voltage.

1.73 μm
Al
SiO2 500 nm
1 μm 220 nm
p n

90 nm
p++ n++
2 μm

BOX 350 nm

Phase Shift [rad]

Si Substrate 1
(a)
(a) (b) (b)
0.5
measured
simulated
0
(c) 0(d) 2
6 4 8
(c) (d)
Reverse Bias Voltage [V]
Fig. 2. Cross-section of the fabricated (a) p-n, and (b) p-i-n MIM. Simulated depletion
region (delineated by white lines), and doping density (positive for n-type) of the (c) p-n
Fig. and
2. Cross-section ofatthe
(d) p-i-n junctions 0 V.fabricated (a) p-n, and (b) p-i-n MIM. Simulated (a) depletion
region (delineated by white lines), and doping density (positive for n-type) of the (c) p-n
and
The (d) p-i-nconcentration
dopant junctions at and Fig. 4.
0 V.distribution, specific to this process, Derived
was from
simulated measurement
using the and simulat
foundry implant and annealing conditions with the Synopsys Sentaurus MIM with reverse
Process bias The
software. voltage.
process
The dopantsimulation used Synopsys’s
concentration advanced calibration
and distribution, specific parameters. The simulations
to this19process, was showed using the
simulated
17 18 11
peak p++, p, n, and n++ dopant active concentrations of 3.9⇥10 , 7.8⇥10 , 2.1⇥10 , and
© 2014 L. Chrostowski
 Polarization
Band-pass filter DUT with
performance of the silicon modulator.
traveling-wave electrodes”, Optics Express, Vol. 21, No. 10,
Ref: X. Tu, et al., “50-Gb/s controller
silicon optical modulator

pp. 12776
Fig. (2013)
4. The AC measurement system of the silicon MZI opti
Mach-Zehnder Modulator
50.1Gbps, ER=5.56d
0

OE S21 (dB)
-6

-12
0v
-18 1v
3V
-24 5V
(a)
rimental results and discussion -30
0 10 20 30 40
measurement and working point chosen Frequency (GHz)
Normalized Transmission (dB)

0 50.0Gbps, ER=6.19dB, VπLπ=22.0Vmm

Phase shift (degree)

V π =7.0 V @ 4mm
180
long phase shift
-10
120
-20
60
-30

(a)
V=0V -4V -8V 0 (b)
-40
1530 1540 1550 1560 1570 0 2 4 6 8 (c)
Wavelength (nm) Applied Reversed Voltage (V)
Phase Shifter L

Fig. 1 Schematic 1.20

diagrams of the MZI silicon1.5 optical modulator. Phase Shifter L
Length (mm)

10
32
Fig. 5. The electro-optic bandwidth of silicon modulator with doping p
V·mm (a),
High eye
speed diagram 1.4
doping of the silicon modulator with the doping pr
ic diagram and doping profile of the asymmetric MZI silicon optical mo
30 1.15 9
V·mm (b) and eye diagram
profile of the modulator with doping profile under
Vmm)

1.3
28 1.10 8 1.2 12
© 2014 L. Chrostowski Low loss doping
a compact Y-branch and bent channel waveguides. The c “High-speed compact silicon photonic Michelson interferometric modulator”,
David Patel, Venkat Veerasubramanian, Samir Ghosh, Alireza Samani,
Qiuhang Zhong, and David V. Plant. Optics Express, Vol. 22, Issue 22, pp.

from the parameters provided in [14]. Vertical surface co

26788-26802 (2014) http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/OE.22.026788

Michelson interferometric modulator

designs from [15], is used to couple light in and out of th
• Very compact modulator

• Lumped element. Frequency response limited by RC time constant.

• Recycle light twice. Imbalance

500 μm phase shifter
the presence of the parallel resistor reduces the voltage drop across the depletion capacitance.
It is observed that the ER at low bitrates is smaller than the case without the parallel resistor.
In The ER is, however, slightly larger for higher bitrates. This happens because at higher bitrates
the RF signal is more attenuated for the case without the parallel resistor due to the limited
Out bandwidth.
The sensitivity curves for the MIM with the p-n junction and a 50 W resistor in parallel is
Adiabatic directional coupler
shown in Fig. 9(b). The link operates error-free at 25 Gbps with a received power of -9.8 dBm, at
30 Gbps with a received power of -7.8 dBm, and at 40 Gbps with a received power of 0.6 dBm. Loop mirror

(a) ER: 5.2 dB, Q: 8.0 (b) ER: 4.5 dB, Q: 5.4 (c) ER: 3.9 dB, Q: 4.2
30 Gbps
(a) 36 Gbps 40 Gbps
13
Fig. ©
11.2014 L. Chrostowski
Optical eye diagrams at different bitrates for the modulator driven with a 50 W
Photonic Circuits –
Interferometer
Equations

Ref.

Textbook:

L. Chrostowski,
M. Hochberg,
Dr. Lukas Chrostowski “Silicon Photonics
Design”, Cambridge
University Press, 2015
Outline
• Y-Branch equations

• Laser light propagation

• Construction of the Mach-Zehnder Interferometer

• Equations for the interferometer

• Imbalanced interferometer spectrum

© 2014 L. Chrostowski 15
2-input, 2-output system. In the case of an input waveguide,
there are two modes that must be considered: the fundamental
Y Branch
mode of the– Splitter
waveguide, and either the 2nd order mode or
radiation modes.
For the splitter, we begin with an input intensity, Ii , with
electric field, Ei . The light is split equally into the two
branches. Thus each output hasp intensity I1 = I2 = Ii /2,
and electric field, E1 = E2 = Ei / 2 (since I / |E|2 ).
Silicon Photonics Design, c 2012 Lukas Chrostowski, Draft: September 20, 2012

Ii Ei
I 1 = , E1 = p
2 2
I i , Ei
Ii Ei
I 2 = , E2 = p
2 2

© 2014 L. Chrostowski 16
Y Branch – Combiner
For the combiner, the same equations apply, namely
that light input in one waveguide, Ei , is split equally
between the fundamental mode of the waveguide, and
the higher order modes (or radiation modes). Thuspthe
light at the combiner port output will be Eo = E1 / 2.

E1
E1
Eo = p
2

© 2014 L. Chrostowski 17
Y Branch – Combiner

With two inputs, E1 and E2 , the output field is ap

vector summation of the input fields, divided by 2.

E1
E1 + E 2
Eo = p
2
E2

© 2014 L. Chrostowski 18
Monochromatic Laser Light Propagation
• Plane wave:
i(!t z)
E = E0 e
• Propagation constant of light


 2⇡n

 =


where n is the index of refraction.

• The E-field (real part) is sinusoidally varying, both with time and space:

© 2014 L. Chrostowski 19
SEM image of a circuit – Y-Branch

Y-Branch

© 2014 L. Chrostowski 20
.3.1 Analytic model Th
Mach
nundamental
this section, Zehnder
we describe
Building BlocksInterferometer
a simple model for the interferom-
er based on the E1plane-wave free-space beam splitter. This Eo1
Ei applies to waveguides, where we consider the total in-
odel
nsity within the E2waveguides, and disregard the field distri-
ution inside the waveguides. Fo
Figure 4.15: Mach-Zehnder Interferometer, layout example. Eo2
Let• the input intensity be I , with electric
Light is split into the two arms.i Propagation in the arms:
i field E . At the (if lo
p
utput of the y-branch, the top branch has field E = E / 2, direc
Analytic model 2⇡n p The 2⇡n 1
intensity ati
the output is
nd the bottom branch has E = 1
E / 2. The 2
propagation of Eq.
section, we describe a simple model 1 =for the interferom- 2 = 2⇡n1 Io = Ii e i L L + e
2 i
1 1
↵1
2 1
ght
ased on inthethe waveguides
plane-wave free-space is beam
described by 1 =
splitter. This and 4 2 =
⇡n 2
, and
applies the waveguides
to waveguides, have lengths
where we consider the total in- L1 andForL2simplicity,
= L1 +we L, assume that t
within the waveguides, and disregard the field distri- same in two branches. In this case, a
nd propagation
• At the end
inside the waveguides. of loss
the ↵ and
waveguides:
1 ↵ 2 (for intensity, Eqn. ↵/2
4.13 for electric
simplifies to:
eld),
the input forintensity
the top be and
Ii , withbottom waveguides
electric field E . ↵At the respectively.
E ↵ At 
the ✓
i 1 L1 i 21 L p1 i i 1 L1 21 LI1i 1 L1
of the y-branch, the top Ebranch
o1 =E 1 efield E1 = Ei / 2,= p e
has Io = 2 cos
nd of the two waveguides p (at the input to the 2 2nd y-branch), 4

2
e bottom branch has E2 = Ei / 2. The propagation of
he fields are: 2⇡n ↵ E ↵ 2 1 L1 2L
n the waveguides is described by 1 = i 2 L2and2 L 1 2 2 2= i i 2 L2 2 =I 2 L2i cos
nd the waveguides have lengths Eo2 =E e L = L + L,= p e
L12and 2
2E 1 ↵1 2
i L ↵ L i i L L1 Ii
opagation Eo1 =E
loss ↵ 1 1e 2
and ↵ 1 1 intensity,
(for 1 1
=p e
↵/2 for 1 1
electric 2 (4.11a)
= [1 + cos( 1 L1
for the top and bottom waveguides respectively.
© 2014 L. Chrostowski 2 At the 2 21
 and propagation loss ↵1 and ↵2 (for intensity, ↵/2 for electric
field), for the top and bottom waveguides respectively. At the
Mach
end ofZehnder Interferometer
the two waveguides (at the input to the 2nd y-branch),
Blocks
the fields are:
↵1 E i
E o1 ↵1
Eo1 =E1 e i 1 L1 2 L1 = p e i 1 L1 2 L1 E(4.11a)
o
2
er,Figure
layout example. ↵
i 2 L2 22 L2
Eo2 =E2Interferometer,
4.15: Mach-Zehnder e layout=
E i i 2 L 2 ↵2 L 2
p e Eo2 2
example. (4.11b)
2
• Light is combined in the y-branch.

The output of theThe intensity atisthe output is

y-branch
I 2
Io =⇣ e ⌘
i ↵1 ↵2
mple model for the interferom- i L L
+ e i L L
(4.13)
1 E i 4 i 1 L1 ↵ 1L
1 1 2 1
↵ 2L
2 2 2 2

ntensity at the output is

Eo = p (Eo1 + EFor
ee-space beam splitter. This
2 in-
here we consider the total
) =
2
e 2 1
+ e i 2 L 2 2
o2 simplicity, we assume that the total losses are the
2

and disregard the field distri- same in two branches. In this case, after some trigonometry,
Eqn. 4.13 simplifies to:
(4.12)
72 field Ei. At pthe
with electric I
 ✓
L L
◆ 2
• Intensity is:
I
i 1 1 2 2
branch p has field E1 = Ei /i 2,
Io =
↵ 1L
4
2 cos
2 ↵2 (4.14a)2
i 1 L1 iL 2 L2 L
I = e
= Ei / 2. The propagation of
ibed by 1 =o 2⇡n1 and 2 =
2 1
=Ii cos 2

+e
1 L1 2 2 2 2
(4.14b)
4
engths L1 and L2 = L1 + L,
Ii
2
22
(for intensity, ↵/2 for electric
© 2014 L. Chrostowski
 For simplicity, we assume that the total losses are negligible
e (if losses are to be accounted for, Eq. 4.13 can be evaluated
directly numerically). In this case, after some trigonometry,
, Mach Zehnder Interferometer
Eq. 4.13 simplifies to:
f
= • For the lossless case:
 ✓ ◆ 2
, Ii 1 L1 2 L2
c Io = 2 cos (4.14a)
4 2
e 
2 1 L1 2 L2
, =Ii cos (4.14b)
2
Ii
= [1 + cos( 1 L1 2 L2 )] (4.14c)
) 2
• Balanced interferometer:

) Ii
The output of Ithe
o =interferometer
2 [1 + cos ( is L)]
thus a sinusoidally-
• varying function
Imbalanced of wavelength
interferometer, with identical(via 1 and
waveguides: 2 ) for an im-
balanced interferometerIi (L 1 6
= L 2 ). It also varies sinusoidally
I =
with the waveguide
o [1 + cos ( L)]
e↵ective index (n1 and n2 ), which can
2
be changed by the thermo-optic e↵ect (Section 3.1.1), plasma
) dispersion e↵ect (Section 7.1.1), etc.
© 2014 L. Chrostowski 23
Transmission vs. wavelength
• Imbalanced interferometer
1
∆T = 0 K

0.8 Free
Transfer function (Io/Ii)

Spectral
Range
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
1.54 1.545 1.55 1.555 1.56
Wavelength [µm]
© 2014 L. Chrostowski 24