Methods for Accelerating Consolidation of

Settlement(preloading/precompression)

By Dumesa Gudissa (Assistant Professor)

March 2022

1
 1. Introduction
❖ The basic concept of preloading technology is to reduce void ratio
(i.e., compressibility) of geomaterial through consolidation (i.e.,
dissipation of excess pore water pressure) by applying loads on
ground surface for a certain time period and then removing it for
construction of a permanent structure.

Figure 1 illustrates fill preloading followed by permanent structure construction.

2
 Introduction
❖ During the preloading, settlement develops with loading and time.

❖ When the fill is removed at the end of preloading, there is a rebound.

❖Construction of the permanent structure induces new settlement due to

the increase of the load.

❖ It is important in design to determine the time for the end of

preloading.

❖For soft clays, the consolidation may take longer time to complete due
to their low permeability.

❖If the time for preloading and construction of the structure exceeds
the available time, vertical drains can be installed to shorten
drainage distance thus accelerating the rate of consolidation
and reducing the time for soil consolidation and settlement
3
 Introduction
❖ The applied load in preloading can be fill, vacuum pressure, or a
combination of fill and vacuum pressure.

Figure 2 Vacuum preloading

❖ The maximum pressure applied by vacuum preloading is limited by

the atmosphere pressure.
4
 Introduction
❖ Preloading is often cost effective to improve saturated, low
strength, and highly compressible clays and silts when time is not a
major concern.

❖Vertical drains can be used to shorten the time for preloading if time
is a major concern.

❖Preloading is effective when the loading is higher than soil

preconsolidation stress.

❖ Fill preloading is more suitable if fill material is inexpensive and

readily available and/or part of the permanent structure (such as
embankments).

❖ Vacuum preloading is more suitable for the areas where soils are
too weak to support construction equipment and fill, and/or fill
material is expensive and not readily available. 5
 Principle of Pre - compression

• Due to the densification of geomaterials

after precompression, the shear strength
of the geomaterials increases point A to
C.
• Shear strength increase referred to
strength gained, is important for
stability.

Figure 3 principles of pre-compression

❖ Reducing void ratio by consolidation, thus reducing the compressibility and

increasing the strength
6
 Principle of Pre - compression
❑ The principles of precompression are best explained by reference to
figure (4) below

Figure 4: principle of pre-compression

7
 Principle of Pre - compression
❑ The proposed structural load per unit area is ∆𝝈′𝒑 , and the thickness
of the clay layer undergoing consolidation is 𝑯𝒄 .

❑The maximum primary consolidation settlement caused by the

structural load is then

𝑪𝒄 𝑯 𝒄 𝝈′𝒐 + ∆𝝈′𝒑
𝑺𝒄 𝒑 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 ′ −−− −Eqn (1)
𝟏+𝒆 𝝈𝒐
❑Hence, if a surcharge of ∆𝝈′𝒑 + ∆𝝈′𝒇 is placed on the ground, the
primary consolidation settlement will Be

𝑪𝒄 𝑯𝒄 𝝈′𝒐 + [∆𝝈′𝒑 + ∆𝝈′𝒇 ]

𝑺𝒄 𝒑+𝒇 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈 −−− −𝐄𝐪𝐧 (𝟐)
𝟏+𝒆 𝝈′𝒐
8
 Principle of Pre - compression
❑The settlement–time relationship under a surcharge of ∆𝝈′𝒑 + ∆𝝈′𝒇 is
shown in figure 4(b).

❑Note that a total settlement of 𝑺𝒄(𝒑) would occur at 𝒕𝟐 , which is

much shorter than 𝒕𝟏 . (refer figure 4(b) again)

❑ So, if a temporary total surcharge of ∆𝝈′𝒑 + ∆𝝈′𝒇 is applied on the

ground surface for time 𝑡2 , the settlement will equal 𝑺𝒄 𝒑 .

❑At that time, if the total surcharge is removed and a structure with a
permanent load per unit area of ∆𝜎𝑝′ is built, no appreciable
settlement will occur.

❑This procedure is called precompression.

❑The total surcharge ∆𝜎𝑝′ + ∆𝜎𝑓′ can be applied by means of temporary

fills. 9
 Principle of Pre - compression

❑Precompression has been commonly used and not limited to the

following applications:
1. highways 4. storage tanks
2. airports 5. buildings.
3. land reclamation

Advantages
➢It is often cost effective if fill material is readily available or
part of a permanent structure.

➢Easily implemented in an open land

10
 Principle of Pre - compression

❑Derivation of equations for obtaining ∆𝜎𝑓′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡2

➢From the figure 4(b), under a surcharge of ∆𝜎𝑝′ + ∆𝜎𝑓′ the degree
of consolidation at time 𝑡2 after the application of load is

𝑺𝒄 𝒑
𝑼= −− −𝑬𝒒𝒏 (𝟑)
𝑺𝒄 𝒑+𝒇
Substituting eqn (1) and (2) in eqn (3) we get

----Eqn. 4

11
Principle of Pre - compression

12
 Principle of Pre - compression

❑The degree of consolidation from Eqn (4) is actually the average

degree of consolidation at time 𝑡2 as shown in figure 4(b).

❑But due to the removal of surcharge and placement of structural

load, the portion of clay close to the drainage surface will continue to
swell, and the soil close to the midplane will continue to settle. (see
Figure 6)

Figure 6.
13
 Cont. . .
In some cases, net continuous settlement might result.

❑A conservative approach may solve the problem; that

is, assume that U in Eq.4 is the midplane degree of consolidation,
which is smaller.

❑By underestimating U, we conservatively overestimate the required

preload ∆𝜎𝑓′ .

𝟐 −𝑴𝟐 𝑻
now from eqn. 𝑼 = 𝟏 − σ∞
𝒎=𝟎 𝟐 𝒆 𝒗
𝑴

𝐔 = 𝐟 𝐓𝐯

𝐂𝐯 𝐭 𝟐
𝐖𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝐔 = 𝐦𝐢𝐝𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐞 𝐝𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐞𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐝𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 , 𝐓𝐯 = 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 =
𝐇𝟐
𝐂𝐯 = 𝐜𝐨𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐢𝐝𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 , 𝐭 𝟐 = 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞, 𝐇 = 𝐦𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐠𝐞

𝐇𝐂
𝐩𝐚𝐭𝐡 ( = 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐭𝐰𝐨 − 𝐰𝐚𝐲 𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐇𝐂 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐨𝐧𝐞 𝐰𝐚𝐲 𝐝𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐠𝐞)
𝟐 14
 Cont. . .

Figure 6 Plot of midplane degree of consolidation against 𝑇𝑣 15

 Procedure for obtaining precompression parameters

❑Two problems may be encountered by engineers during

precompression work in the field:

1. The value of ∆𝝈′𝒇 is known, but 𝒕𝟐 must be obtained

(To determine the length of time required to achieve a given amount

of settlement under a given surcharge load).

• In such a case, obtain 𝝈′𝒐 , ∆𝝈′𝒑 and solve for U, using Eq. (4)
or Fig. 3.
• For this value of U, obtain 𝑻𝒗 from Figure 5. Then

𝑻𝒗 𝑯𝟐
𝒕𝟐 =
𝑪𝒗
16
Procedure for obtaining precompression parameters
2. For a specified value of 𝑡2 , ∆𝜎𝑓′ must be obtained.

▪ To determine the surcharge pressure required to ensure that the

total anticipated settlement under permanent load will be
completed in a given length of time.

▪ In such a case, calculate 𝑇𝑣 . Then use Figure 5 to obtain the

midplane degree of consolidation, U.

➢With the estimated value of U, go to Figure 3 to get the required

∆𝜎𝑓′
value of , and then calculate ∆𝜎𝑓′ .
∆𝜎𝑝′

17
 Example
1. During the construction of a highways bridge, the average
permanent load on the clay layer is expected to increase by about
115𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 . The average effective overburden pressure at the middle
of the clay layer is 𝟐𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐 .

Here, 𝑯𝒄 = 𝟔𝒎, 𝑪𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖, 𝒆𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟗 and 𝑪𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝒎𝟐 /𝒎𝒐

The clay is normally consolidated. Determine

a. The total primary consolidation settlement of the bridge without

precompression.

b. The surcharge, ∆𝜎𝑓′ , needed to eliminate the entire primary

consolidation settlement in nine months by precompression.

Solution

18
 vertical sand drains

Figure 6 Pre-compression with sand drain

❑ To accelerate consolidation of soft soil, vertical drains

can be installed in soft soil to provide another and short
drainage path.

19
Cont. . .

PVDs

20
 Sand Drains
❑The use of sand drains is another way to accelerate
the consolidation settlement of soft, normally
consolidated clay layers and achieve pre-compression
before the construction of a desired foundation,
thus reducing the post-construction settlement.

❑ Sand drains are constructed by drilling holes

through the clay layer(s) in the field at regular
intervals.

❑ The holes are then backfilled with sand.

21
 Assignment 1

• A 5 m thick doubly drained normally consolidated clay layer at a site has 𝒆𝒐 =

𝟎. 𝟗𝟓, 𝑪𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒗 =4.0𝒎𝟐 /year.

The effective overburden pressure at the middle of the clay layer is 𝟕𝟎. 𝟎 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐 .
Some proposed construction work is expected to impose a 𝟔𝟎. 𝟎 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐 load at the
ground level.

a. Determine the primary consolidation settlement.

b. Noting that the expected primary consolidation settlement is high, it is proposed

to apply a surcharge over a period of one year. What should the magnitude of this
temporary surcharge be so there will be no post construction consolidation
settlement?

c. the client sees the one-year duration of the preload as too long and wants to limit
this to 6 months. What should the total surcharge be during this period?

Note. Please solve this problem, submit assignment no.1 22

 cont. . .
❑This can be achieved by several means, such as
a. rotary drilling and then backfilling with sand;
b. drilling by continuous-flight auger with a hollow stem
and backfilling with sand (through the hollow steam);
and
c. driving hollow steel piles.

❑The soil inside the pile is then jetted out, after which
backfilling with sand is done.

❑After backfilling the drill holes with sand, a surcharge is

applied at the ground surface. The surcharge will increase the
pore water pressure in the clay.
23
 Cont. . .

Figure 7, shows a schematic diagram of sand drains

24
 Cont. . . .
❑ The excess pore water pressure in the clay will be
dissipated by drainage—both vertically and radially to
the sand drains—thereby accelerating settlement of the
clay layer.

❑The effective zone from which the radial drainage will

be directed toward a given sand drain is approximately
cylindrical, with a diameter of 𝒅𝒆

❑ Both radial and vertical drainage contribute to the

average degree of consolidation.

25
 Cont. . .
❑For a given surcharge and duration, 𝑡2 , the average
degree of consolidation due to drainage in the vertical
and radial directions (Carillo,1942) is
𝑼𝒗𝒓 = 𝟏 − 𝟏 − 𝑼𝒓 𝟏 − 𝑼𝒗
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑼𝒗𝒓 = 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑼𝒓 = 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒏𝒍𝒚
𝑼𝒗 = 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒏𝒍𝒚

26
 Consolidation Due to Vertical Flow
• The degree of soil consolidation due to vertical flow can be
calculated using the Terzaghi one-dimensional consolidation
theory (Terzaghi,1943)

∞
𝟐 −𝑴𝟐 𝑻
𝑼𝒗 = 𝟏 − ෍ 𝟐 𝒆 𝒗 𝐦 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, …
𝑴
𝒎=𝟎

𝟐𝒎 + 𝟏 𝝅
𝑴=
𝟐

𝑪𝒗 𝒕
𝑻𝒗 = 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 =
𝑯𝟐
𝑪𝒗 = 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 , 𝒕 = 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝒉𝒅𝒓 = 𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘
27
 Cont. . .
❑ The average degree of consolidation with the time
factor under a uniform distribution of initial excess pore
water pressure can also be present by approximation
relation relationship

❑ for 𝑼𝒗 = 𝟎 − 𝟓𝟐. 𝟔%

𝟐
𝝅 𝑼𝒗
𝑻𝒗 =
𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝟎

❑ for 𝑼𝒗 > 𝟓𝟐. 𝟔%

𝑻𝒗 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟖𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟗𝟑𝟑 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝑼𝒗

28
 Consolidation Due to Radial Flow
❑Barron (1948) proposed a solution for an average
degree of consolidation due to horizontal (radial) flow
toward a free-draining sand drain:

𝟖
𝑼𝒓 = 𝟏 − 𝒆𝒙𝒑 − 𝑻𝒓 ,
𝑭 𝑵𝑫

𝑵𝟐𝑫 𝟑𝑵𝟐𝑫 − 𝟏
𝑭 𝑵𝑫 = 𝟐 𝒍𝒏 𝑵𝑫 −
𝑵𝑫 − 𝟏 𝟒𝑵𝟐𝑫
𝑼𝒓 = 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘

𝒅𝒆
𝑵𝑫 = 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 𝒊. 𝒆. , 𝑵𝑫 =
𝒅𝒄
29
 Cont. . .
𝒅𝒆 = 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍
𝒅𝒄 = 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒔𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏

𝑪𝒓 𝒕
𝑻𝒓 = 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒊. 𝒆. , 𝑻𝒓 = 𝟐
𝒅𝒆

❑ During installation of vertical drains, the surrounding soil

around the drains is often disturbed.

❑ The disturbed zone with a certain thickness is often referred as

the smeared zone, which has lower permeability than the
original soil.

❑In addition, vertical drains may have limited discharge

capacities; therefore, water flow in the vertical drains may
encounter resistance
30
 Cont. . .
❑Hansbo (1981) proposed an average degree of consolidation
of a sand drain due to radial flow considering smear and well
resistance:

𝟖
𝑼𝒓 = 𝟏 − 𝐞𝐱𝐩 − 𝑻𝒓
𝑭𝒎 𝑵𝑫

𝑵𝑫 𝒌𝒓 𝟑 𝒌𝒓
𝑭𝒎 𝑵𝑫 = 𝒍𝒏 + 𝒍𝒏 𝑵𝒔 − + 𝝅𝒛 𝟐𝒉𝒅𝒓 − 𝒛
𝑵𝒔 𝒌𝒔 𝟒 𝑸𝑪
𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆

𝒅𝒔
𝑵𝒔 = 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒛𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒊. 𝒆, 𝑵𝒔 = ,
𝒅𝒄
𝒅𝒔 = 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒛𝒐𝒏𝒆,

31
 Cont. . .
𝒌𝒓
= 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍,
𝒌𝒔 = 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒍
𝒛
= 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 𝒂𝒕 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒉𝒅𝒓 = 𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘,
𝑄𝑐 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝝅𝒅𝟐𝒄
𝑸𝒄 = 𝒌𝒄
𝟒
𝑘𝑐 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙

32
 Cont. . .
❑The diameter of the smeared zone depends on the shape
and size of the mandrel to install vertical drains and the
type and sensitivity of soil.

❑The commonly used correlation was proposed by Hansbo

(1981, 1997):

𝒅𝒔 = 𝟏. 𝟓 𝒕𝒐 𝟑. 𝟎 𝒅𝒄

33
 Prefabricated Vertical Drains
❑ Prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs), also referred to as
wick or strip drains, were originally developed as a
substitute for the commonly used sand drain.

❑ Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVD) are prefabricated

geotextile filter-wrapped plastic strips with molded
channels.

❑These act as drainage paths to take pore water out of

soft compressible soil so it consolidates faster, often from
decades to months.

34
 Advantages of PVDs over sand drains
❑The main advantage of PVDs over sand drains is that they do
not require drilling; thus, installation is much faster.

❑ The installation rate of PVDs is typically 5,000 linear meters

per day, which results in a significantly lower project cost.

❑ There is no risk of PVDs breaking installation, while sand

drains may have discontinuities if the mandril is withdrawn too
fast.

❑There is no risk of shear failure of PVDs during settlement,

while sand drains are vulnerable to shear failure during
settlement.

35
 Potential advantage of vertical drains
The advantages of vertical drains are threefold:

1. Increased rate of gain of shear strength of clay

• Enable the load to be applied more rapidly,
thus better use of construction plant
• In case of embankments, steeper slopes and
provision of berms can be avoided
• Lower amount of fill required
• Increased rate of consolidation
• Consequent savings in construction cost

36
 cont. . .
2. Increased rate of consolidation
➢Reduction in time required for primary settlement.
➢Structure or embankments can put into commission
and use far earlier
➢Reduction in cost of maintenance

3. Stability to embankments
➢Many soft clay strata contain thin band, or parting,
of sand or silt
➢Excess horizontal spread of pore pressure along these
partings take place
➢Vertical drains installed can relieve these excess pore
pressure
37
 Application of PVDs
❑Airport Runways

❑Golf Courses

❑Dredge Consolidation

❑Mine Tailings Consolidation

❑Tailing Ponds

❑Swampland/Wetland Development

❑Building Foundations

❑Retaining Walls

❑Parking Lots

❑Landfills

Please refer this book on this portion 38