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SSN College of Engineering

( An Autonomous Institution, Affiliated to Anna University)
Academic Year -2021-22
Department of EEE
Class : III Year /V Sem EEE
UEE 1504-Power Electronics
Course Instructor-Dr.R.Deepalaxmi, Asso.Prof/EEE, SSNCE
UNIT IV
Inverters

Module Objectives

To understand the operation of single phase voltage source inverters

Fundamentals & Classification of Inverters

Single-Phase Half-Bridge Inverter

Introduction

• Dc-to-ac converters are known as inverters.

• The function of an inverter is to change a dc input voltage to a symmetric ac output

voltage of desired magnitude and frequency.

• The output voltage could be fixed or variable at a fixed or variable frequency.

• A variable output voltage can be obtained by varying the input dc voltage and
maintaining the gain of the inverter constant.

• On the other hand, if the dc input voltage is fixed and it is not controllable, a variable
output voltage can be obtained by varying the gain of the inverter, which is normally
accomplished by pulse-width-modulation (PWM) control within the inverter.
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• The output voltage waveforms of ideal inverters should be sinusoidal. However, the
waveforms of practical inverters are nonsinusoidal and contain certain harmonics.

• For low- and medium-power applications, square-wave or quasi-square-wave

voltages may be acceptable; for high-power applications, low distorted sinusoidal
waveforms are required.

• With the availability of high-speed power semiconductor devices, the harmonic contents
of output voltage can be minimized or reduced significantly by switching techniques.

• An inverter converts electrical energy in the dc form to electrical energy in the ac form
i.e. it is a dc to ac converter.

• Gain of an Inverter
The inverter gain may be defined as the ratio of the ac output voltage to the dc input
voltage

• Inverter Gain (G)

• From (1) the ac output voltage (Vo) can be expressed as –

• Vo = G x Vdc (2)

• Varying the inverter output voltage (Vo)

• From (2) the inverter output voltage can be varied by-

• i. Vo = G x Vdc (Non-PWM)

• ii. Vo = G x Vdc (PWM)

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Applications of inverters

• Inverters are widely used in industrial applications (e.g., variable-speed ac motor drives,
renewable energy , transportation, induction heating, standby power supplies, and
uninterruptible power supplies).

• The input may be a battery, fuel cell, solar cell, or other dc source.

• The typical single-phase outputs are

(1) 120 V at 60 Hz

(2) 220 V at 50 Hz

(3) 115 V at 400 Hz.

For high-power three-phase systems, typical outputs are

(1) 220 to 380 V at 50 Hz

(2) 120 to 208 V at 60 Hz

(3) 115 to 200 V at 400 Hz.

Classification of inverters

• Inverters can be broadly classified into two types:

(1) single-phase inverters

(2) three-phase inverters.

Each type can use controlled turn-on and turn-off devices (e.g., bipolar junction transistors
[BJTs], metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors [MOSFETs], insulated-gate bipolar
transistors [IGBTs], metal oxide semiconductor- controlled thyristors [MCTs], static induction
transistors, [SITs], and gate-turn-off thyristors [GTOs]).
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These inverters generally use PWM control signals for producing an ac output voltage.

• An inverter is called a voltage-fed inverter (VFI) if the input voltage remains

constant, a current-fed inverter (CFI) if the input current is maintained constant,
and a variable dc linked inverter if the input voltage is controllable.

• If the output voltage or current of the inverter is forced to pass through zero by
creating an LC resonant circuit, this type of inverter is called resonant-pulse inverter

Performance parameters

The output power is given by

Pac = Io Vo cos (6.1)

• = Io² 2 R (6.1a)

• where Vo and Io are the rms load voltage and load current, is the angle of the load
impedance, and R is the load resistance.

• The ac input power of the inverter is

• PS = IS VS (6.2)

• where VS and IS are the average input voltage and input current.
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• The rms ripple content of the input current is

(6.3)

• where Ii and Is are the rms and average values of the dc supply current.

• The ripple factor of the input current is

• RFs =Ir/Is (6.4)

• Input-output relationship of a DC_AC converter

• The power efficiency, which is the ratio of the output power to the input power, will
depend on the switching losses, which in turn depends on the switching frequency of
the inverter.
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Harmonic factor of nth harmonic (HFn)

• The harmonic factor (of the nth harmonic), which is a measure of individual harmonic
contribution, is defined as

• HFn =Von/Vo1 for n > 1 (6.5)

• where Vo1 is the rms value of the fundamental component and Von is the rms value
of the nth harmonic component.

Total harmonic distortion (THD)

• The total harmonic distortion, which is a measure of closeness in shape between a

waveform and its fundamental component, is defined as

Distortion factor (DF)

• THD gives the total harmonic content, but it does not indicate the level of each harmonic
component.

• If a filter is used at the output of inverters, the higher order harmonics would be
attenuated more effectively.

• Therefore, a knowledge of both the frequency and magnitude of each harmonic is

important.

• The DF indicates the amount of HD that remains in a particular waveform after the
harmonics of that waveform have been subjected to a second-order attenuation (i.e.,
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divided by n2).

• Thus, DF is a measure of effectiveness in reducing unwanted harmonics without

having to specify the values of a second-order load filter and is defined as

• The DF of an individual (or nth) harmonic component is defined as

Lowest order harmonic (LOH)

• The LOH is that harmonic component whose frequency is closest to the fundamental one,
and its amplitude is greater than or equal to 3% of the fundamental component.

Single Phase Half-bridge Inverter

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Principle of operation of Inverter

• The inverter circuit consists of two choppers.
• When only transistor Q1 is turned on for a time T0/2, the instantaneous voltage across
the load v0 is Vs/2.
• If only transistor Q2 is turned on for a time T0/2, -Vs/2 appears across the load.
• The logic circuit should be designed such that Q1 and Q2 are not turned on at the same
time.
• It should be noted that the phase shift is 1 = 0 for a resistive load.
• This inverter requires a three-wire dc source, and when a transistor is off, its reverse
voltage is Vs instead of Vs/2.
This inverter is known as a half-bridge inverter.
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Waveforms for the output voltage and transistor currents with a resistive load.
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The root-mean-square (rms) output voltage can be found from

• The instantaneous output voltage can be expressed in Fourier series as

Due to the quarter-wave symmetry along the x-axis, both a0 and an are zero. We get bn
as

• which gives the instantaneous output voltage vo as

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• where ω = 2f0 is the frequency of output voltage in rads per second.

• Due to the quarter wave symmetry of the output voltage along the x-axis, the even
harmonics voltages are absent.
For n = 1, Eq. (6.10) gives the rms value of fundamental component as

• For an inductive load, the load current cannot change immediately with the output
voltage.
• If Q1 is turned off at t = T0/2, the load current would continue to flow through D2, load,
and the lower half of the dc source until the current falls to zero.
• Similary, when Q2 is turned off at t = T0, the load current flows through D1, load, and
the upper half of the dc source.
• When diode D1 or D2 conducts, energy is fed back to the dc source and these diodes are
known as feedback diodes.
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Load current and conduction intervals of devices for a purely inductive load.

• It can be noticed that for a purely inductive load, a transistor conducts only for T0/4 (or
90°).
• Depending on the load impedance angle, the conduction period of a transistor would
vary from 90° to 180°.
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• Any switching devices can replace the transistors.

• If to is the turn-off time of a device, there must be a minimum delay time of td1 = to2
between the outgoing device and triggering of the next incoming device.
• Otherwise, short-circuit condition would result through the two devices.
• Therefore, the maximum conduction time of a device would be tn(max) = To/2 - td.
• All practical devices require a certain turn-on and turnoff time.
• For successful operation of inverters, the logic circuit should take these into account.
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Note:
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Analysis of output voltage

Analysis of output voltage Using Fourier Series

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Single-Phase Bridge Inverter

Operation with resistive load
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Operation with resistive load

• (The four feedback diodes are redundant with R load)
Case:1 [0 < t < To/2]
• Power BJTs Q1 , Q2 are in the ON state.
• The instantaneous output (load) voltage, vo = Vs , io = Vs/R
• Q3 , Q4 are in the OFF state.
Case:2 [To/2 < t < To]
• Power BJTs Q3 , Q4 are in the ON state.
• The instantaneous output (load) voltage, vo = - Vs , io = - Vs/R
• Q1 , Q2 are in the OFF state.

Single-Phase Bridge Inverter

Operation with inductive load
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Operation with inductive load

• to < t < t1
• Power BJTs Q1 , Q2 are in the ON state. Q3 , Q4 are in the OFF state.
• The instantaneous output (load) voltage, Vo = Vs
• The instantaneous load current, io rises and the load inductor stores energy.
• The feedback diodes D1 , D2 , D3 , and D4 do not conduct.
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• t1 < t < t2
• The feedback diodes D3 , and D4 are in the conduction state.
• The feedback diodes D1 , D2 , do not conduct.
• Power BJTs Q1 , Q2 , Q3 , and Q4 are in the OFF state.
• The instantaneous output (load) voltage, Vo = - Vs
• The load inductor releases its energy to the dc source and the instantaneous load
current, io decreases (falls).
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• t2 < t < t3
• Power BJTs Q3 , Q4 are in the ON state. Q1 , Q2 are in the OFF state.
• The instantaneous output (load) voltage, Vo=-Vs
• The instantaneous load current, io rises in the negative direction and the load inductor
stores energy.
• The feedback diodes D1 , D2 , D3 , and D4 do not conduct.
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• t3 < t < t4
• The feedback diodes D1 , and D2 are in the conduction state.
• The feedback diodes D3 , D4 do not conduct.
• Power BJTs Q1 , Q2 , Q3 , and Q4 are in the OFF state.
• The instantaneous output (load) voltage, Vo = Vs
• The load inductor releases its energy to the dc source and the instantaneous load
current, io is negative with decreasing (falling) magnitude.
Analysis of output voltage
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The instantaneous output voltage is determined from the Fourier Series -

Expression of vo Using Fourier Series

• The instantaneous output (load) voltage, vo is half-wave symmetric i.e. its half-cycles
are equal and opposite and so –
• (i) ao = an = 0 ……..(a)
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• (ii)n = 1, 3, 5, 7, …….. ∞) … .(b)

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Assessment questions:
1. Explain the operation of single-phase half bridge voltage source inverter for resistive
load.
2. Explain the operation of single-phase half bridge voltage source inverter for inductive
load.
3. Explain the operation of single-phase full bridge voltage source inverter for resistive
load.
4. Explain the operation of single-phase full bridge voltage source inverter for inductive
load.
5. Define: Gain of an Inverter
6. Mention the applications of inverters.
7. Write about pulse-width-modulation (PWM).
8. What is meant by voltage-fed inverter (VFI)?
9. What is meant by current-fed inverter (CFI)?
10. What is meant by variable dc linked inverter ?
11.What is meant by resonant-pulse inverter?
12.Classify inverters.
13.Write the expression for rms ripple content of the input current.
14. Write the expression for ac input power of the inverter.
15.Write the expression for ripple factor of the input current.
16. Write about harmonic factor of nth harmonic (HFn).
17.Write abour total harmonic distortion (THD)
18.Write about distortion factor (DF).
19.Define:Lowest order harmonic (LOH)
20.Write the expression for rms value of fundamental component of single-phase half bridge
VSI.
 1

SSN College of Engineering

( An Autonomous Institution, Affiliated to Anna University)
Academic Year -2021-22
Department of EEE
Class : III Year /V Sem EEE
UEE 1504-Power Electronics
Course Instructor-Dr.R.Deepalaxmi, Asso.Prof/EEE, SSNCE
UNIT IV
Inverters

Module Objectives

• To understand the operation of three phase inverter with 180°conduction and

120°conduction

Three-Phase Bridge Inverter

3-Phase Bridge Inverter with 180°conduction

3-Phase Bridge Inverter with 120°conduction
Introduction
• Three-phase inverters are usually used for high power applications.

• The three-phase topology that is most deployed is the three-phase bridge inverter that
comprises six power transistors and six power diodes.

• A three-phase output can be obtained from a configuration of six transistors and six
diodes.

• Two types of control signals can be applied to the transistors:

• 180° conduction or 120° conduction.

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• The 180° conduction has better utilization of the switches and is the preferred
method.

• This circuit topology is often known as a three-phase bridge inverter and is used in
many applications, including renewable energy systems.

• The rectifier converts the ac voltage of the wind generator to a dc voltage and the
voltage source inverter (VSI) converts the dc voltage into three-phase ac voltages to
match with ac grid voltage and frequency.

Wind Generator connected to the AC grid through a rectifier and an inverter

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Three-phase bridge inverter

3-phase bridge inverter – 180-degree conduction mode

Gate Signals of the six power BJTs
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180° conduction mode

180° conduction mode – In this type of control, each transistor conducts for 180° and at any
given instant three transistors are conducting.

Waveforms of the line voltages Vab , Vbc , and Vca

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3-phase bridge inverter feeding Y-connected R load

Equivalent circuits – for Y-connected R load

During Mode 1 for 0 ≤ ωt ≤ π/3, Conducting switches Q5 , Q6 , Q1

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During Mode 1 for 0 ≤ ωt ≤ π/3,

Conducting switches Q5 , Q6 , Q1

During Mode 2 for π/3 ≤ ωt ≤ 2π/3,

Conducting switches Q6 , Q1 , Q2

T6,T1,T2
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During Mode 3 for 2π/3 ≤ ωt ≤ π,

Conducting switches Q1 , Q2 ,
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T1,T2,T3
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Note:
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(ii) Phase voltages / Line-to-neutral voltages

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Equivalent circuits of 3 phase 6 step 180º mode inverter with a balanced star connected
load
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3-phase bridge inverter

120-degree conduction mode
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Gate Signals of the six power BJTs

120° conduction mode – In this type of control, each transistor conducts for 120° and at any
given instant two transistors are conducting.
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3-phase bridge inverter feeding Y-connected R load

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During Mode 1 for 0 ≤ ωt ≤ π/3,

Conducting switches Q6 , Q1

Equivalent circuit

During Mode 1 for 0 ≤ ωt ≤ π/3,

Conducting switches Q6 , Q1
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During Mode 2 for π/3 ≤ ωt ≤ 2π/3,

Conducting switches Q1 , Q2

During Mode 3 for 2π/3 ≤ ωt ≤ π,

Conducting switches Q2 , Q3

(ii) Waveforms of the phase voltages Van ,Vbn , and Vcn

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Phase voltages/Line-to-neutral voltages van , vbn , vcn

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Assessment questions:
1. Explain the operation of three phase inverter for 180° conduction mode with necessary
circuit diagram, equivalent circuit and waveforms.
2. Explain the operation of three phase inverter for 120° conduction mode with necessary
circuit diagram, equivalent circuits and waveforms.
3. Compare 180° conduction mode and 120° conduction mode.
4. Write the expressions for RMS value of fundamental phase voltage and RMS value of
phase voltage for 120° conduction mode.
5. Write the expressions for RMS value of fundamental line voltage and RMS value of line
voltage for 120° conduction mode.
 1

SSN College of Engineering

( An Autonomous Institution, Affiliated to Anna University)
Academic Year -2021-22
Department of EEE
Class : III Year /V Sem EEE
UEE 1504-Power Electronics
Course Instructor-Dr.R.Deepalaxmi, Asso.Prof/EEE, SSNCE
UNIT IV
INVERTERS

Tutorial Problems
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 UEE1504 POWER ELECTRONICS

Course Instructor. Dr.R.DEEPALAXMI

ASSP/ EEE
SSNCE
 Unit-IV
Inverters
Single-Phase Current-Source Inverter (CSI)
 Module Objectives

• To understand the operation of Single-Phase Current-Source Inverter

(CSI)
Introduction
Current source Inverter
Applications of CSI
Single phase CSI with ideal switches
Waveforms in Ideal CSI
Single-Phase Current-Source Inverter (CSI)
 Operation
• 0 < ωt < α1 and (π + α2) < ωt < 2π

• Power BJTs Q4 , Q1 are in the ON state.

• The instantaneous output (load) current, io = 0

• Q2 , Q3 are in the OFF state.

• α1 < ωt < α2

• Power BJTs Q1 , Q2 are in the ON state.

• The instantaneous output (load) voltage, io = IL

• Q3 , Q4 are in the OFF state.

Equivalent circuit for the intervals
0 < ωt < α1 and (π + α2) < ωt < 2π
• α2 < ωt < (π + α1)

• Power BJTs Q2 , Q3 are in the ON state.

• The instantaneous output (load) current, io = 0

• Q1 , Q4 are in the OFF state.

• (π + α1) < ωt < (π + α2)

• Power BJTs Q3 , Q4 are in the ON state.

• The instantaneous output (load) voltage, io = - IL

• Q1 , Q2 are in the OFF state.

Equivalent circuit for the interval
(π + α1) < ωt < (π + α2)
Load current waveform
 Advantages of Current-Source Inverters

• since the input direct current (dc) is controlled and limited, misfiring of
switching devices, or a short circuit would not be serious problems.

• the peak current of the power devices is limited.

• commutation circuits for thyristors are simpler.

• it has the ability to handle reactive or regenerative load without

freewheeling diodes.
 Limitations of Current-Source Inverters

• a CSI requires a relatively larger reactor (inductor) to exhibit current-

source characteristics and an extra converter to control the current.

• the dynamic response is slower

• due to current transfer from one pair of switches to another, an output

filter is required to suppress the voltage spikes.
 Module Outcomes
After completing this module, the students will be able to

- explain the operation of Single-Phase Current-Source Inverter

(CSI)
THANK YOU
 UEE1504 POWER ELECTRONICS

Course Instructor. Dr.R.DEEPALAXMI

ASSP/ EEE
SSNCE
 Unit-IV
Voltage & harmonic control
--PWM techniques:
Multiple PWM, Sinusoidal PWM, selective harmonic elimination
 Module Objectives
* To know about the voltage & harmonic control

* To know about the PWM techniques such as Multiple PWM,

Sinusoidal PWM, selective harmonic elimination
Introduction
 Methods for the control of output voltage of inverters
are

1. External control of ac output voltage

2. External control of dc input voltage

3. Internal control of inverter

Note:

* First two methods require the use of peripheral components

* Third method does not need peripheral components

1. External control of ac output voltage
2. External control of dc input voltage
3. Internal control of inverter
PWM Inverters
 Voltage Control of Single-Phase Inverters
• In many industrial applications, the control of the output voltage of inverters is
often necessary

(1) to cope with the variations of dc input voltage,

(2) to regulate voltage of inverters, and

(3) to satisfy the constant volts and frequency control requirement.

• There are various techniques to vary the inverter gain.

• The most efficient method of controlling the gain (and output voltage) is to
incorporate PWM control within the inverters.
 The commonly used techniques are:

1. Single-pulse-width modulation

2. Multiple-pulse-width modulation

3. Sinusoidal pulse-width modulation

4. Modified sinusoidal pulse-width modulation

5. Phase-displacement control
• Among all these techniques, the sinusoidal pulse-width modulation (SPWM)
is commonly used for a voltage control.

• However, the multiple-pulse-width modulation provides a foundation for

better understanding of the PWM modulation techniques.

• The modified SPWM gives limited ac output voltage control.

• The phase-displacement control is normally used for high-voltage

applications, especially phase displacement by transformer connections.
• The SPWM, which is most commonly used, suffers from drawbacks (e.g., low
fundamental output voltage).

• The following advanced modulation techniques that offer improved performances

are also often used.

• Trapezoidal modulation

• Staircase modulation

• Stepped modulation

• Harmonic injection modulation

• Delta modulation
Single Pulse Modulation (SPM)
Single Pulse Modulation (SPM)
Harmonic content in SPM
Multiple Pulse modulation (MPM)
Symmetrical two pulse modulation pertaining to MPM
Multiple Pulse width modulation
• Several pulses in each half-cycle of the output voltage are generally produced to
reduce the harmonic contents and to increase harmonic frequencies for reducing
the size and costs of filtering.

• The generation of gating signals (in Figure 6.12b) for turning on and off
transistors is shown in Figure 6.12a by comparing a reference signal with a
triangular carrier wave.

• The gate signals are shown in Figure 6.12b.

• The frequency of reference signal sets the output frequency fo, and the carrier
frequency fc determines the number of pulses per half-cycle p.
• The modulation index controls the output voltage.

• This type of modulation is also known as uniform pulse-width modulation

(UPWM).

• The number of pulses per half-cycle is found from

• P =fc/2fo=mf/2 (6.30)

• where mf = fc/fo is defined as the frequency modulation ratio.

Performance of Multiple Pulse width modulation
Harmonic Profile of Multiple Pulse width modulation
Sinusoidal Pulse modulation ( Sin M)
Sinusoidal Pulse width modulation
Sinusoidal Pulse width modulation
Harmonic Profile of Sinusoidal Pulse width modulation
Reduction of harmonics in inverter output voltage
Harmonic reduction by PWM
Harmonic reduction by transformer connections
Harmonic reduction by stepped wave inverters
 Module Outcomes
After completing this module, the students will be able to
* Explain the voltage & harmonic control

* Explain the PWM techniques such as Multiple PWM, Sinusoidal PWM,

selective harmonic elimination
THANK YOU
 UEE1504 POWER ELECTRONICS

Course Instructor. Dr.R.DEEPALAXMI

ASSP/ EEE
SSNCE
 Unit-IV Inverters
Introduction to space vector modulation
 Module Objectives

• To know about the space vector modulation

 Introduction
• Space vector modulation (SVM) is quite different from the PWM methods.

• With PWMs, the inverter can be thought of as three separate push–pull

driver stages, which create each phase waveform independently.

• SVM, however, treats the inverter as a single unit; specifically, the inverter
can be driven to eight unique states, as shown in Table 6.2.

• Modulation is accomplished by switching the state of the inverter .

• The control strategies are implemented in digital systems.

• SVM is a digital modulating technique where the objective is to generate PWM

load line voltages that are in average equal to a given (or reference) load line
voltage.

• This is done in each sampling period by properly selecting the switch states of
the inverter and the calculation of the appropriate time period for each
state.

• The selection of the states and their time periods are accomplished by the
space vector (SV) transformation .
• Space transformation. Any three functions of time that satisfy

ua(t) + u b(t) + u c(t) = 0 (6.56)

can be represented in a two-dimensional stationary space .

Since v c(t) = -v a(t) –vb(t), the third voltage can be readily calculated if any two
phase voltages are given.

• Therefore, it is possible to transform the three-phase variables to two-phase

variables through the a–b–c/x–y transformation

• The coordinates are similar to those of three-phase voltages such that the vector
[ua 0 0]T is placed along the x-axis, the vector [0 ub 0]T is phase shifted by
120°, and the vector [0 0 uc]T is phase shifted by 240°.
A rotating space vector(s) u(t) in complex notation is then given by
Three phase coordinate vectors and space vector u (t)
Space vector representation
Determination of state times
Pattern of SVM
Three phase waveforms of
space vector modulation
(M=0.8; fsn=18)
Overmodulation
Block diagram of digital implementation of SVM
algorithm
 Module Outcomes
After completing this module, the students will be able to explain
the space vector modulation
THANK YOU