Sean Benedict P.

Preens Histography

II-10 BSSE Causation in

History

TURNING POINTS IN HISTORY

Philippine historic event: Macarthur’s return to the Philippines: The Leyte landing

Narratives
 In a study of Japanese occupation in Leyte, the Philippines, 1942-1945 by Satoshi Ara;
Historical studies about the Japanese occupation in the Philippines during
World War II often focus on events that happened in Luzon. These are namely the
declaration of Manila as an Open City, the valorous defense of Bataan, the
dehumanizing Death March of allied defenders followed by the downfall of Corregidor,
the formation of the collaborationist government led by Jose P.  Laurel under Japanese
rule, and later the Liberation of Manila in 1945. However,
there are only limited sources engaged in the
discussion about the events in the rural areas of the Philippines, particularly in Leyte,
during that momentous event that greatly affected the course of human history in the
previous century.
 Harry Benda (1958) argued that the Japanese occupation of Southeast Asia drastically
changed the postwar situation by creating a discontinuity in the rule of some local elites
in Indonesia. 
 Another scholar by the name of David Steinberg (1967) supported this “interregnum”
theory in his study of local leaders in the Philippines who collaborated with the Japanese
army. Steinberg suggested that even though the war retained the oligarchy in some
areas, it created changes in the political leadership of the country due to the treason
charges against them that weakened their political influence in the postwar period.

Socio-economic
 During the American colonization of the Philippines On Nov. 15, 1935, the
Commonwealth government was inaugurated. A transition of 10 years during the
Commonwealth period involved a path of changing policies requiring economic
adjustment as provided by the Tidings-McDuffie act.
 1936 was a good year from a trade viewpoint. The worst years of the Great Depression
1930 to 1934 were just over. The US economy that was beginning to recover brought
upliftment to the level of Philippines exports income.
 Although all the products were agriculturally based, they all involved some degree of
processing. Some amount of increasing industrialization of the processing was involved
as production groups expanded in their classification.
 On December 8, 1941, Japan invaded the Philippines for the Japanese, the Philippines
were strategically important for several reasons. Taking them would deprive the US of
an advanced base in the region. It would also provide a Japanese base for attacks on
the Dutch East Indies, and it would secure lines of supply and communication between
the Japanese home islands and their conquered territories.
Cultural
 During the American colonization, The Spanish rule finally came to an end after the
Spanish-American war concluded with America taking control over the Philippines. At
this time, the main goal of the United States in the Philippines was to turn the country
into a self-sufficient capitalistic democracy. The U.S. did this by creating infrastructure
that would improve the literacy and economy of the country. As a result, literacy doubled
to about half by the 1930s and a fourth of the educated population could speak English.
This was a massive influence on the Filipino culture, as English became the dominant
language alongside the official Filipino language of Tagalog. the main goal was to bring
democratic and capitalistic ideas to the Philippines, and they did so successfully.
 Once World War II hit, the plans for the Philippines to finally gain independence went
downhill as Japan invaded the Philippines and took control. The Japanese military
authorities immediately began organizing a new government structure in the Philippines.
Although the Japanese had promised independence for the islands after the occupation.

Political
 When Japan invaded the Philippines, Clark Air Base in Pampanga was first attacked and
also Nichols Field outside Manila was attacked, then on December 22, The Japanese
forces landed at the Lingayen Gulf and continued on to Manila. General Douglas
MacArthur declared Manila an open city on the advice of Commonwealth President
Manuel L. Quezon to avoid its destruction.
 In accordance with the instructions of President Manuel Quezon to Jorge Vargas, the
Filipino officials in Manila were told to enter into agreements and compromises with the
Japanese to mitigate the sufferings of the people under the iron-clad rule of the
Japanese. On January 23, 1942, the Philippine Executive Commission was established,
with Vargas as chairman. the following were appointed as department heads: Benigni
Aquino, Sr., interior; Antonio de las Alas, finance; Jose P. Laurel, justice; Claro M.
Recto, education, health, and public welfare; and Quintin Paredes, public works and
communication; Jose Yule was named Chief Justice of the Supreme court.
 The new constitution, which noticeably lacked a bill of rights contained 12 articles lifted
from the 1935 constitution that fitted the wishes of the Japanese. It was meant to be in
effect only temporarily, while the Philippines was still in chaos. After the war, a new
constitution would again be drafted for the new Philippine Republic.
 In 1941, with expansionist Japan posing an increasing threat, Douglas MacArthur was
recalled to active duty and named commander of U.S. Army Forces in the Far East. On
December 8, 1941, his air force was destroyed in a surprise attack by the Japanese,
who soon invaded the Philippines. MacArthur’s forces retreated to the Bataan peninsula,
where they struggled to survive. In March 1942, on orders from President Franklin
Roosevelt 1882-1945, MacArthur, his family, and members of his staff fled Corregidor
Island in PT boats and escaped to Australia. Shortly afterward, MacArthur promised, “I
shall return.” U.S.-Philippine forces fell to Japan in May 1942.

Synthesis/Critic:

Following the Spanish-American War, the Philippines were transferred from Spain to the United
States. After ending his stint as chief of staff, MacArthur was tasked with forming an armed
force for the Philippines, which became a United States commonwealth that year and earned
independence in 1946. MacArthur resigned from the military in 1937 after learning that he would
be returning to the United States for duty, claiming that his mission had not been completed. He
stayed in the Philippines, serving as a civilian counselor to President Manuel Quezon, who had
appointed him field marshal of the Philippines, from 1878 to 1944. Years later, during World War
II, Japan took control and occupied the Philippines from 1941 until 1945. Japan initiated an
imperial expansion drive in the western Pacific in the 1930s. They desired to establish authority
over their neighbors as well as to drive out American and European influences from the area.
The western powers began to pay notice to the situation in early 1941. The United States has
sent troops to the Philippines. Despite their efforts to gain independence for the Philippines, the
Japanese danger was too big to ignore. The air force was decimated in a surprise strike by the
Japanese on December 8, 1941, and the Philippines were shortly occupied. Fortunately,
General MacArthur and his American troops fled and promised to return to the Philippines to
rescue the country from the Japanese. However, in March 1942, President Franklin D.
Roosevelt ordered MacArthur to surrender the Philippine island bastion of Corregidor.
fortunately, he was ready to begin an assault of the Philippines by September 1944. He spent
the next two and a half years commanding an island after another in the Pacific campaign until
famously returning to liberate the Philippines in October 1944. "I have returned," he proclaimed
as he waded ashore at Leyte. “Our forces stand again on Philippine land by the grace of
Almighty God." In December 1944, he was appointed to the rank of general of the Army and
given command of all Army forces in the Pacific. On the surface, these events depict the
Philippines' awful fate and the number of people who died as warfare lasted until Japan's formal
surrender on September 2, 1945. By the end of the war, the Philippines had experienced a
massive loss of life and physical destruction, with an estimated 1 million Filipinos murdered in all
causes.

Asian history event: The Marco Polo Bridge Incident

Narratives:
 Most historians date the beginning of World War II to September 1, 1939, when Nazi
Germany invaded Poland. Others claim the war began on July 7, 1937, when the
Japanese Empire invaded China. From the Marco Polo Bridge Incident of July 7 to the
eventual surrender of Japan on August 15, 1945, the Second World War ravaged Asia
and Europe alike, with bloodshed and bombardment spreading as far as Hawaii.

Socio-economic:
 China in the 1920s was a new republic confronting great challenges—economic,
political, and social. One of the most devastating was the early 1920s North China
famine. Because this region of China was densely populated, the effects of this crisis
affected millions. Triggered by a severe drought, the famine killed crops and devastated
the livelihood of farmers in the northern plains of China. But dying crops was only one
consequence.
 The areas decimated were largely governed by warlords, which further aggravated the
situation since they used the crisis for their own political and economic gain. Thus By
1921, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was formally established.
 Despite the lack of political stability, modernization efforts during Taisho period in the
1920s it continued. A greater openness and desire for representative democracy took
hold. Literary societies, mass-audience magazines, and new publications flourished.
 University cities like Tokyo witnessed a burgeoning culture of European-style cafés, with
young people donning Western clothing. A thriving music, film, and theater culture grew,
with some calling this period “Japan’s roaring '20s.”
 One of the most widespread political protests occurred in 1918 with Japan’s rice riots.
Like the rest of the world, Japan was experiencing wartime inflation and low wages.
Much of this social unrest, political uprising, and cultural experimentation came to a halt
on September 1, 1923. On this day a powerful earthquake struck Japan Martial law was
immediately instituted, but it couldn’t prevent mob violence and the targeting of ethnic
minorities.

Cultural:
 The historic Marco Polo Bridge crosses the Yongding River, about 10 miles southwest of
Beijing. For centuries, this bridge has stood strong and has welcomed many travelers,
including the Venetian Marco Polo, who praised its beauty in his book Travels of Marco
Polo.
 Centuries later, the bridge became the site of another historic moment, the beginning of
the Sino-Japanese War, or World War II in East Asia. By the 1930s a strategic railway
link at the junction town of Wanping had been constructed adjacent to the bridge.
Whoever controlled Wanping would have greater access to most of the railroad lines in
resource-rich northern China.

Political:
 For decades China endured the presence of military troops on her soil in accordance
with the provisions of Article IX of the Boxer Protocol of 1901 allowing military guards to
be posted and military maneuvers to be conducted at 12 specific points along this rail
line. Chinese authorities were not required to be notified when such maneuvers took
place. However, in the summer of 1937 Japan’s military presence had grown
exceedingly large, causing alarm by the Chinese government.
 The ongoing political discord between China’s two main political parties throughout the
early 1930s the progressive rise of Communist party (CCP) against the Nationalist party
undermined the stability of the country. These vulnerabilities appeared increasingly
attractive to ultranationalists, particularly in Japan, who desired parts of China to fall
under their spheres of influence.
 With the death of Emperor Meiji in 1912 a great deal of uncertainty about Japan’s future
followed. Many believed that Meiji Japan had flourished under the steadfast rule of the
emperor who reigned for more than 40 years. Now his first son, Yoshihito, ascended to
the throne and took the name Taisho, ushering in the next era. Those deeply loyal to
Emperor Meiji and resistant to modernization efforts were particularly vulnerable. Some
would hold fast to the centuries of Japanese tradition, rejecting any shifts in gender roles
or education and military reforms, while other reformers embraced change.
 With the Taisho era of 1920s has also been called Taisho democracy as Japan enjoyed
a climate of political liberalism unforeseen after decades of Meiji authoritarianism. With
such ideas openly circulating, Japan also saw the rise of mass movements advocating
political change.
 The transition in the emperor’s role to one of greater power began with the death of
Emperor Taisho on December 18, 1926. Following tradition, his son Hirohito ascended
to the throne and chose the name Showa, mean- ing “peace and enlightenment.” Over
time as the political climate within Japan shifted to a more militaristic stance, so did the
role of the emperor.
Synthesis/Critic:

On the events leading up to what appears to be the beginning of the war, both countries
progress and are challenged by the ongoing changes of political movements, with china fighting
over which political party will rule its country the ongoing political discord between China’s two
main political parties throughout the early 1930s undermined the stability of the country. These
vulnerabilities appeared increasingly attractive to ultranationalists, particularly in Japan, who
desired parts of China to fall under their spheres of influence. But japan also faced changes as
the transition in the emperor’s role to one of greater power began with the death of Emperor
Taisho on December 18, 1926. Following tradition, his son Hirohito ascended to the throne and
chose the name Showa, meaning “peace and enlightenment.” While the emperor was the
country’s leader, actual power was divided among his advisers, the police, and the military. By
the 1930s many military officers held legislative and executive power and formed an
independent body that was answerable to only the emperor. A formative figure in this shift was
General Araki Sadao, appointed as Army Minister in 1931. He was a staunch, outspoken
proponent of a policy known as Kōdōha, or the “Imperial Way,” which advocated expansionism,
totalitarianism, and greater militarism. General Araki retired from this post in 1936 and one year
later was appointed minister of education where he used propaganda to promote patriotism and
loyalty. Throughout the 1920s and early 1930s Japanese students were taught about their
nation’s new status as a world power and the responsibility they held in sustaining this status.
Seeking raw materials to fuel its growing industries, Japan invaded the Chinese province of
Manchuria in 1931. For decades, military personnel were stationed on Chinese soil in
accordance with Article IX of the Boxer Protocol of 1901, which allowed military guards to be
stationed and military maneuvers to be conducted at 12 particular places along the train line.
When such operations took place, Chinese officials were not obligated to be alerted. However,
by the summer of 1937, Japan's military presence had expanded to alarming proportions,
causing the Chinese leadership to be concerned. Despite diplomatic pressure and assistance, a
Japanese Lieutenant named Oyama Isao was shot by a member of the Chinese Peace
Preservation Corps in Shanghai on August 9, 1937. Historians are still debating whether the
incident was organized by forces connected with Mao Zedong and the Communists in order to
weaken Chiang Kai-shek and the Chinese Nationalists. Nonetheless, the final conflict
heightened tensions, with the Japanese demanding the Peace Preservation Corps' ultimate
evacuation from the city's perimeter. The Japanese Imperial Army further stated that the
shooting of a Japanese soldier was regarded a humiliating crime that required retaliation. In
Shanghai, more Imperial Japanese forces and Chinese Nationalist troops were deployed. China
was on the verge of war. According to the research of historians, the soldier's disappearance
may not be planned in advance, but an accident. But this is not important. What is important is
that when the soldier disappeared, Japanese officers immediately used this as an excuse to
seize the opportunity to provoke China. The disappearance of the soldier became their long-
awaited opportunity.

World history event: The Battle of Midway

Narratives
 The Battle of Midway was a clash between two of one the most powerful countries
during the time; the U.S. Navy and the Imperial Japanese after the attack on Pearl
Harbor. The U.S. Navy’s decisive victory in the air-sea battle and its successful defense
of the major base located at Midway Island dashed Japan’s hopes of neutralizing the
 United States as a naval power and effectively turned the tide of World War II in the
Pacific.
 It brought the Pacific naval forces of Japan and the United States to approximate parity
and marked a turning point in the military struggle between the two countries. It was also
the most decisive naval defeat suffered by Japan since 1592 when Korean admiral Yi
Sun-shin destroyed Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s invasion fleet. For the Allies it was a great
strategic victory: the Japanese were prompted to cancel their plans to invade New
Caledonia, Fiji, and Samoa and lost all but the last vestiges of their earlier strategic
initiative.

Socio-economic
 Before the Americans participated in the 2nd world war they were recovering from the
Great Depression which was the worst economic downturn in the history of the
industrialized world, lasting from 1929 to 1939. when the Great Depression reached its
lowest point, some 15 million Americans were unemployed and nearly half the country’s
banks had failed.
 During the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor crippled or
destroyed nearly 20 American ships and more than 300 airplanes. Dry docks and
airfields were likewise destroyed. Most important, 2,403 sailors, soldiers, and civilians
were killed and about 1,000 people were wounded.
 As a result, there were more jobs available, and more Americans went back to work.
Immediately following the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, millions of men were called to
duty. When these men joined the armed forces, they left behind millions of jobs.
Instantly, the nation faced a labor shortage that was filled by workers who had previously
been denied many employment opportunities.
 The notion that expansion through military conquest would solve Japan’s economic
problems gained currency during the Great Depression of the 1930s.
 To sustain such imports, Japan had to be able to export. Western tariffs limited exports,
while discriminatory legislation in many countries and anti-Japanese racism served as
barriers to emigration. Chinese and Japanese efforts to secure racial equality in the
League of Nations covenant had been rejected by Western statesmen. Thus, it was
argued, that Japan had no recourse but to use force.
 On September 18, 1931, came the Mukden or Manchurian Incident, which launched
Japanese aggression in East Asia. Thereafter, Japan poured technicians and capital into
Manchukuo, exploiting its rich resources to establish the base for the heavy-industry
complex that was to undergird its “new order” in East Asia to spread all across the rest of
the regions.

Cultural 
 The Russo-Japanese War influenced much of the development of how Japanese naval
leaders interpreted what role the Japanese Navy would play in foreign policy and
national security concerns. Two such naval leaders and veterans of the Russo-Japanese
War, Vice Admiral Akiyama Saneyuki and Vice Admiral Sato Tetsutaro played a
significant role in codifying these influences that would serve as a foundation in the
establishment of the Japanese naval culture that existed in the Pacific War.
 During World War II, the U.S. Navy fought in every ocean of the world, but it was the war
in the Pacific against the Empire of Japan that would have the greatest impact on
shaping the future of the U.S. Navy.  The impact was so profound, that in many ways the
U.S. Navy of today has more in common with the Navy in 1945 than the Navy at the end
of World War II had with the Navy in December 1941. 
Political
 The U.S. avoided involvement in WWII before December 1941 because Congress and
the President wanted to believe that the war did not affect the U.S. This was called
"isolationism" the idea that a country could isolate itself from others.
 In the 1930s, events transpired that challenged all of these policies. On September 18,
1931, an explosion destroyed a section of railway track near the city of Mukden. The
Japanese, who owned the railway, blamed Chinese nationalists for the incident and
used the opportunity to retaliate and invade Manchuria. However, others speculated that
the bomb may have been planted by mid-level officers in the Japanese Army to provide
a pretext for the subsequent military action. Within a few short months, the Japanese
Army had overrun the region, having encountered next to no resistance from an
untrained Chinese Army, and it went about consolidating its control of the resource-rich
area. The Japanese declared the area to be the new autonomous state of Manchukuo,
though the new nation was in fact under the control of the local Japanese Army.
 The U.S. declared war on Japan the day after Pearl Harbor was attacked. Hawaii
immediately came under martial law, and even more military members came to the
island. The war interrupted regular commercial shipping, and all government operations
were turned over to the military.

Synthesis/Critic:

Tensions between Japan and the United States boiled over in the 1930s as Japan pushed to
invade China, even attacking civilians. China and Japan went to war in 1937. By 1940, the
United States had determined that Japanese expansion into China posed a sufficient threat to
American interests, and it had begun to send military aid to China as well as impose sanctions
on Japan. The United States froze Japanese assets and prohibited all exports to Japan after
Japan signed mutual defense pacts with Nazi Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union in 1940 and
1941. However, as Japan's war with China progressed, a battle with the United States appeared
all but unavoidable, forcing Japanese authorities to reconsider their options. The United States
Navy was formidable, and Japan lacked the means to defeat the American challenge to its
imperial ambitions. The Japanese launched their attack on December 7, 1941 after months of
planning and practice. Japanese war planes began to flood the sky over Pearl Harbor. The
vessels moored below were bombarded with bombs and bullets. Nearly 2,400 Americans died
in the end. The Arizona, which suffered a direct blow to its hull, was responsible for over half of
the casualties. Only one of the thirty-eight sets of brothers that served aboard the ship survived,
including numerous sets of three brothers. After the event, later on the Yamamoto a Japanese
battleship chose to search out and demolish the rest of the United States in order to repeat the
success of the Pearl Harbor strike. A surprise attack by the Pacific fleet on the Allied base at
Midway Island. Midway Island is practically squarely between the United States and Japan in
the Pacific Ocean. The Battle of Midway rightly stands as the most important naval battle of the
Pacific war. In the course of a single day, 4 th of June in 1942, the U.S. Navy sank Japan’s four
finest aircraft carriers while losing only one of their own. In the process, Japan’s ability to take
offensive actions in the wider war it had initiated. It would stand to reason that a battle as
momentous as Midway and a defeat as calamitous as the one the Japanese suffered would
have led to a major re-evaluation of their naval practices and, most likely, to lessons learned
that would have improved Japanese performance in future battles. After that, Japanese industry
was unable to build enough new Couriers to replenish the fleet, while American industry was
laying the keels for the seventeen-ship Essex class of carriers, among other things. After
Midway, Japanese naval aviation never fully recovered. A tactical setback with such significant
strategic ramifications is a high price to pay for avoiding debate over competing courses of
action. In a larger strategic sense, the Japanese offensive in the Pacific was derailed and their
plans to advance on New Caledonia, Fiji, and Samoa postponed. The balance of sea power in
the Pacific had begun to shift to the Americans. Although Japan never recovered from the
defeat at Midway, it still possessed a powerful navy, and many more tough naval battles would
be fought before Japan released its grip on the countries it had conquered in the South-West
Pacific.

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