I

MAGERECTI
FICATI
ON-GEOMETRI
C,RADI
OMETRI
C
CORRECTIONANDNOISEREMOVAL
I
mager
ect
if
icat
ion–

1.Rect
if
icat
ioni
sapr
ocessofgeomet
ri
cal
l
ycor
rect
ingani
magesot
hati
tcanber
epr
esent
ed
onapl
anarsur
face,
conf
ormt
oot
heri
magesorconf
ormt
oamap.

2.I
tisnecessar
ywhenaccur
atear
ea,
dist
anceanddi
rect
ionmeasur
ement
sar
erequi
redt
obe
madef
rom t
hei
mager
y.

3.I
tisachi
evedbyt
ransf
ormi
ngt
hedat
afr
om onegr
idsy
stem i
ntoanot
hergr
idsy
stem usi
ng
ageomet
ri
ctr
ansf
ormat
ion.

4.i
sthepr
ocessofpr
oject
ingoneor
igi
nal
imagei
ntoaspeci
fi
cref
erencecoor
dinat
esy
stem,
el
iminati
ngthegeometri
cdist
ort
ionsoft
heorigi
nal
imageandpr
oducinganewi
maget
hat
sat
isfi
estherequi
rementsoft
hemappr oj
ect
ionorthegr
aphi
cal
expressi
on.

GEOMETRI
CCORRECTI
ON–

1.Remot
elysenseddat
ausual
l
ycont
ainsbot
hsy
stemat
icandunsy
stemat
ic
geomet ri
cer rors.
2.Distort
ionswhoseef fectsaresy stemati
cinnatureandar econst
antandcanbe
predict
edinadv ancear ecalledsystemati
cdistort
ions.
3.Systemat i
cdi stort
ionsar eScanskew, Mirror
-scanv el
oci
typanoramicdist
ort
ions
andNon- sy stematicdistort
ionsincludeerr
orsduet oplat
form Al
ti
tudeandAtt
itude,
Platfor
mv elocity
,Earthr ot
at i
on,andperspecti
veproject
ion.

1.Ear
thRot
ati
on:
Ast
hescanni
ngmi
rr
orcompl
etessuccessi
vescans,
theear
thr
otat
es
beneatht hesensor.Thust her
eisagr adual westwardshiftoft
hegr oundswat hbeing
scanned.Thi scausesalong-scandistort
ion.
2.Spacecr aftVeloci
ty:I
fthespacecraftvelocit
ydepartsfrom nominal,thegroundtrack
coveredbyaf i
xednumberofsuccessi v
emi r
rorsweepchanges.Thi spr oducesal
ong-tr
ack
scal
edi stort
ion.
3.Scan-TimeSkew: Duri
ngthetimerequiredf orthescanningmirrortocompl etean
acti
vescan, thespacecraftmov esalongt hegroundtrack.Thus,thegr oundswathscanned
 i
snotnor mal tot hegr oundt rackbutissl i
ghtl
yskewed, whi chproducescr oss-scan
geomet r
icdi stortion.
4.SensorMi rrorSweep: Themi rr
or-
scanningr at
ev ariesnon- li
nearlyacr ossascan
Becauseofi mper fectionsint heelectr
omechani cal dr
ivingmechani sm.Si ncedat a
Sampl esar et akenatr egularinterval
soft i
me; thev aryi
ngscanr at eproducesal ong.
Scandi stortions.  
5.Panor ami cDi stor ti
ons:Forscanner susedonspacebor neandai rborneremot esensing
Platformst heangul arinst
ant aneousfieldofview( I
FOV)i sconst ant.Asar esultthe
Effectiv
epi xel sizeont hegroundi slargerattheext remi ti
esoft hescanl inet hanatt he
nadir.
6.Perspect i
v epr oject i
onForsomeappl icati
onsitisdesi r
edt hatLandsati magesr epresent
thepr oj
ectionofpoi ntsont heear t
huponapl anet angentt ot heear t
h, wit
hal lprojecti
on
l
inesnor mal tothepl ane.Thesensordat arepresentper spect iv
epr ojecti
ons, projecti
ons
whoseal ll
inesmeetatapoi ntabov ethetangentpl ane.

DI
STORTI
ONEVALUATEDFROM GROUNDCONTROL

1.Al
ti
tude:
Depar
tur
esoft
hespacecr
aftal
ti
tudef
rom nomi
nal
producesscal
edi
stor
ti
onsi
n
thesensordat a.ForMSS, t
hedi st
ortioni salong-scanonl yandv ari
eswi t
htime.The
magni tudeofcor recti
onisupto1. 5km f orMSS.
2.At t
it
ude: Normal ly,thi
ssensorax issy st
em ismai ntainedwi thoneaxi snormal t
othe
Earth'
ssur f
aceandanot herparall
el t
ot hespacecr aftvelocityvect
or .Asthesensordeparts
from thisatt
itude, geomet r
icer
r orresults.Rollandpi tcher rorsshif
tt hei
magel i
nearl
y.
3.Yawer r
orrotateseachi magelineabouti tscenter.Maxi mum shi ftoccurstotheedgepi xel
s
undery aw.ForLI SS-II
,arol
lerr
orof0. 1degr eewi l
l shif
tthei magel i
neby1. 57km across
thetrack.Forpi tcher r
orofsamemagni tude, t
hel i
neget sshi f
tedalongthetrackby1.57
km.
NOI
SEREMOVAL
1.Digit
alimagesarepronetovari
oustypesofnoise.Noi
seistheresul
toferr
ors
i
nt heimageacquisi
tionpr
ocessthatresul
tinpixel
val
uesthatdonotrefl
ect
thetrueint
ensi
ti
esoft her
ealscene.

2.YoucanuseLI NEARFI LTERINGt oremov ecer t

aint
y pesofnoise.Cer
tai
n
fi
lt
ers,suchasav eragingorGaussianfil
ters,areappropri
ateforthi
spurpose.
Forexampl e,anaveragingfil
teri
susefulforr emovi
nggr ai
nnoisefrom a
photograph.Becauseeachpi xelgetssettot heaverageofthepixelsi
nits
nei
ghbor hood,l
ocal vari
ati
onscausedbygr ainarer
educed.

3.Thisshowshowt oremov esal

tandpeppernoi
sefr
om animageusingan
AVERAGI NGFILTERandaMEDI ANFILTERtoal
lowcompari
sonofthe
resul
ts.Theset
woty pesoffi
lt
eri
ngbothsett
heval
ueoftheoutputpi
xel
to
 t
heaverageoft
hepi
xel
val
uesi
nthenei
ghbor
hoodar
oundt
hecor
respondi
ng
i
nputpi
xel.

4.Howev
er,wi
thmedi
anfi
lt
ering,
thevalueofanout
putpi
xeli
sdet
ermi
nedby
t
hemedianoft
henei
ghborhoodpixel
s,rat
hert
hanthemean.

5.Themedianismuchlesssensit
ivet
hanthemeant oext
remeval
ues(
call
ed
out
li
ers)
.Medianf
il
teri
ngisther
efor
ebetterabl
etoremovet
heseout
li
ers
wit
houtreduci
ngt
hesharpnessofthei
mage.

RESAMPLI
NG

1.Resampl
ingisthetechni
queofmani
pul
ati
ngadigi
tali
mageandtransf
ormingi
t
i
ntoanotherf
orm si
mpl y
,changi
ngt
hepi
xeldi
mensionsf
orbet
terenhancement
ofanimage.

2.Resampl
i
ngist
hemat hemati
cal
techni
queusedtocreat
eanewv
ersi
onoft
he
i
magewithadi
ff
erentwidt
hand/orhei
ghti
npixel
s.

3.Theresampl i
ngProcesscalcul
atethenewpixelvaluesfrom theorigi
naldigit
al
pi
x el
valuesintheuncorrect
edimage.Whenr emotesensi nghasbeenusedt o
creat
eani mage,itneedstoundergosomefor m ofval
idationprocedureusing
observati
onaland/orsampli
ngtechni
ques.

Nearestneighbor 
isaresamplingmet hodusedi nremot esensing.Theappr oach
assi
gnsav aluet
oeach“corrected”pixel
f r
om t henearest“uncorrect
ed”pixel.The
advantagesofnearestnei
ghbori ncl
udesi mpli
ci t
yandt heabil
itytopreserveoriginal
val
uesi ntheunalt
eredscene.Thedi sadvantagesi ncl
udenot i
ceablepositi
oner rors,
especi
allyalongli
nearf
eatureswher etherealignmentofpi xel
si sobvious.
 Bili
nearcanref ert
o bil
inearfi
lt
ering 
or 
bil
inearint
erpol
ati
on.Bi
li
nearfil
teri
ngisan
i
magesmoot hingmet hodwhent heimagei sdispl
ayedlar
gerorsmal l
erthanit
actuall
yis.Thisresampl i
ngmet hodassignstheav er
agedigi
tal
number( DN)oft he
fourpixel
sclosesttot heinputpixel(
ina2×2wi ndow)tothecorrespondingoutput
pixel
.Themat hematicalfunct
ionisbil
inear.

Cubicconvolut
ion i
samethodusedtodeter
minet hegrayl
evel
sinanimage
throughaweightedaver
ageofthe16cl
osestpixel
st othei
nputcoor
dinat
es.The
result
ingv
alueisthenassi
gnedtot
heoutputcoordinat
es.