Chapter II ¾ BASIC SCIENCE CONCEPTS II-i

BASIC SCIENCE CONCEPTS

 

This chapter reviews the basic principles of physics, chemistry, and mathematics that will
facilitate understanding of the course material. The review presumes that the student has a
working knowledge of elementary algebra; if not, a review of this subject may be necessary for a
complete understanding of the later chapters.

BASIC CONCEPTS OF PHYSICS

Fundamental Concepts

Length, mass, and time are fundamental concepts in physics. These concepts describe many
properties of materials and define their physical state. They are expressed in units of various
sizes. The centimeter-gram-second, or cgs system, was widely used in scientific and engineering
practice in Europe. In the United States, the cgs system is used for scientific work but the foot-
pound-second, or fps system, is commonly used in engineering.

All the countries on the metric system now use the S.I. variation (Le Systéme International d.
Unités), in which the kilogram replaces the gram as the fundamental measure of mass and the
meter replaces the centimeter as the fundamental measure of length. A table of conversion units
for frequently encountered quantities is at the end of the chapter (Table 2-5). More complete
conversion tables are in publications of the American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) and the
Metric Unit (SI) Application Guide for the American Gas Association.

Length is the distance between two points in space along a specified path. The straight-line
path between two selected points is used as a practical standard, and other distances are given as
multiples of this unit. In the fps system, the standard unit of length is the foot; in the S.I. system,
the meter (39.37 inches).

Time may be defined as the interval between the occurrences of two specified events, or as
the duration of an event. For example, the mean (average) solar day is defined as the average
interval between two successive transits of the sun. s center over the same reference line
(meridian) on the earth. s surface. For convenience, this interval is divided into hours, minutes,
and seconds. The second is the basic unit of time in the fps, cgs, and S.I. systems.

Mass. All matter, including gases, has mass; in fact, the quantity of matter in any object is its
mass. In the fps system, the standard unit of mass is the pound; in the S.I. variation, it is the
kilogram (2.2046 pounds).

It is important to distinguish between mass and weight; mass is a fundamental property of

matter, whereas weight is a force that is not a fixed quantity. It is the product of mass and the local
gravitational acceleration, which varies somewhat with location.
II-ii GAS DISTRIBUTION

0.0 0.0

1.0 0.9974

2.0 2.0

1Lbm 1Lbm

Weight = 1 LbF Weight = 0.9974 LbF

at Standard Conditions at Latitude 100

1 LbF Acceleration = 32.174 F/Sec2

1 Lbm at Standard Conditions

Fig. 2-1. Concept of Weight, Mass and Force

A force is any stimulus that tends to set a body in motion, or alter its existing motion. Thus, if a
body is in motion, a force is required to either alter the direction of the motion or make the body go
faster (accelerate) or slower (decelerate). In the United States, weight and force are measured in
force-pounds; they are designated as lbF to distinguish them from lbm (mass-pounds) (Figure 2-1).
The S.I. unit of force is the Newton (0.2248 lbF), symbol N, defined as the force to accelerate a
mass of one kilogram by one meter per second squared.

From these basic concepts and their measurements, many other physical quantities may be derived.
For example, if L designates length; t, time; and m, mass, * then dimensionally, the following are
true:

*
The S.I. symbol for its unit of length, the meter (sometimes spelled metre), is also abbreviated as m.
Chapter II ¾ BASIC SCIENCE CONCEPTS II-iii

Area has the dimension L2 (for example, square feet or square meters). This simply says
that an area is one length multiplied by another, regardless of the unit used. The area of a
circle, therefore, is p X the square of the radius; and the area of a rectangle, the length X
the width.

Speed or velocity has the dimension L/t (for example, feet per second, miles per hour, or
meters per second).

Acceleration, the rate of change of velocity with time, has the dimension (L/t)/t = L/t 2 (for
example, feet per second per second or meters per second per second).

Dimensions indicate how various quantities are related to the fundamental quantities without
indicating the units of measurement. Thus, L, m, and t can be used to indicate the dimensions of a
derived quantity. These three dimensions suffice for mechanics. Additional dimensions are used
in other branches of physics, such as electricity and optics.

Consider now the relation of force to L, m, and t. Newton. s second law of motion states that
force, F, equals mass times acceleration, a. Using consistent fundamental units only,

F = ma (Eq. 2-1)

Here the unit of force depends on the units selected for L, m, and t. A more general form of
Equation 2-1 is

F = kma (Eq. 2-2)

where k is a conversion factor that permits the use of convenient units for the values of both force
and mass. In this case, the units of mass and force may be selected independently. Indeed, this
was commonly done in U.S. engineering work. The unit quantities of mass, force, length, and time
commonly used in this system are lb M , lbF feet and seconds, respectively. (In S.I. units kg, N,
meters, and seconds). For this mixed set of units, which uses four fundamental quantities instead
of three,
k = l/gc

where gc is a dimensional constant equal numerically (only) to the acceleration due to gravity at a
specified location. To repeat, the need for k in Equation 2-2 arises because mass and force are
related, so only three units are required. If consistent units are used, k = 1 (as is the case in S.I.
where N = kg X m(meters)/s2). If the units of m (mass) and F are defined independently, a
conversion factor is needed. Using this relation,

F = (m/gc)a (Eq. 2-3)

Weight is a particular kind of force. In this case, the body of mass, m, is acted on by the
acceleration due to gravity, g. In consistent units W = mg. Otherwise, one must use W = (m/g c)g.
This is, then, an application of Equation 2-3 with a = g. At locations on the earth. s surface where
the force exerted on a one-pound mass by the action of gravity is one pound of force, the
acceleration is 32.1740 feet per second (9.80665 meters per second). Here, g c is also equal to
32.174 numerically, but its units are (lbm/lbF) X ft/s2).
II-iv GAS DISTRIBUTION

The value of acceleration due to gravity varies slightly from point to point on the earth. s
surface (Figure 2-1). When a body is weighed, the force measured is that necessary to restrain the
body from accelerating under the force of gravity toward the center of the earth. Thus, the weight
of a body will vary slightly according to its geographical location. In contrast to this, mass refers to
a quantity of matter and does not change with a different location.

Example:

Determine the weight of a one-pound mass under the standard condition of gravity
acceleration. Substitution of the value 32.174 for a in Equation 2-3 gives:
F = (1 lbm/gc) 32.174 = 1 lbm/32.174) 32.174 = 1 lbF.
In S.I. units using 1 kg,
F = (1 kg/gc) 9.80665 = (1 kg/9.80665) (.80665 = 1 kgf = 9.80665 N

In other words, one pound-mass will weigh exactly one pound-force under the standard gravity
condition. Note: gc is often rounded to 32.17 or even 32.2, depending on the accuracy desired.
Example:

Determine the weight of this same body if it is located at a point where the acceleration due to
gravity is 32.093 ft/s2.
F = (m/gc) g = (1 lbm/32.17) 32.093 = 0.9974 lbF

Thus, the same body would weigh slightly less where the acceleration due to gravity is less.

If one took this same mass to the moon, where the gravitational effect is very much less than on
earth, the weight would be correspondingly less. For most U.S. engineering calculations, it is
assumed that 1 lbm = 1 lbF; that is, the local acceleration due to gravity, g, is taken to be numerically
equal to gc.
Example:

Calculate the force necessary to uniformly accelerate a 10-lb (4.5359 kg) ball from rest to a
velocity of 30 ft/s (9.1441 m/s) in 5 seconds. This force is shown to be 1.86 lb F (8.2954 N) as
follows.
Initial velocity =0 ft/s; (s = second) (0 m/s)
Velocity at the end of 5 s = 30 ft/s (9.1441 m/s)
Uniform acceleration = (30 . 0)/5 = 6 ft/s2 (1.8288 m/s2)
Force = (10/32.17)6 =1.86 lbF (8.2954 N)

Mass, length, time, and force can be combined in many different ways to describe additional
physical properties and quantities used widely in engineering work. Some of the more common of
these are defined in Table 2-1. Note that mass, length, and time are the fundamental quantities in
theoretical mechanics.

 
Chapter II ¾ BASIC SCIENCE CONCEPTS II-v

Table 2-1. Definition of Some Quantities and Terms to be Used in Engineering Work

Property or Common U.S. Unit

Term Brief Definition Dimensions of Measurement S.I.

         
Volume Amount of space L3 Cubic feet; for gases, Cubic meters: for
occupied by matter CF or SCF* gases, m3*
         
Density Mass per unit m/L3 Mass-pounds per cu. kilograms per cubic
volume Ft. lbm/ft3 or meter: kg/m3
lbm/CF,lbm/SCF
         
Pressure Force per unit area F/L 3
Pounds force per kilo Pascals: kPa
square inch: lbF/in.2
         
Work Force acting through FL foot-pound: ft-lbF joule: J. MJ
a distance (megajoule)
         
Power Rate of doing work FL/t foot-pounds per joule/second: J/s =
second: ft-lbF/s Watt (W)
         
Velocity Rate of change of L/t feet per second: ft/s meters per second:
distance with time m/s
         
Acceleration Rate of change of L/t2 feet per second per meters per second
velocity with time second: ft/s2 per second m/s2
         
Force Mass X acceleration ML/t2F pound force: lbF = Newton: N = kg
lbmfts2 m/s2, also kN and
MN as multiples
         
 

*Throughout this course, 1 CF = one cubic foot of gas at prevailing temperatures and
pressures. 1 SCF = one cubic foot of gas measured at standard conditions; that is, 60ºF
and 14.73 psia, as explained later. (In S.I., the gas volumes in reference conditions are
either IGU Standard Reference conditions at 15ºC and 101.325 kPa, dry i.e., m 3 (st) dry or
IGU Normal Reference Conditions at 0ºC and 101.325 kPa, dry i.e. m 3 (n) dry.) The SCF
also should specify dry or saturated (with water vapor at 60ºF) as the latter contains some
1.7% less Btu due to the space taken up by the water vapor. However, the common
symbols for multiples neither indicate saturation nor S; i.e., CCF = 100 SCF; MCF = 1000
SCF; MMCF = 1,000,000 SCF.

 
II-vi GAS DISTRIBUTION

Energy

Energy is the capacity to do work or produce heat and is measured in the same units as work.
It appears in several forms: mechanical, chemical, electrical, and heat. These forms can be
converted from one to another, although in the case of heat, there are some restrictions. Heat as a
form of energy will be discussed in the next section of this chapter.

Mechanical Energy

When the action of a force on a body causes it to move in the direction of the force, work is
done. Work is measured as the product of the force and distance through which it moves in the
direction of the force. It represents energy converted to mechanical work.

W = Fd (Eq. 2-4)
w = work done on a body
F = Force exerted on the body
d = Distance the body moves in the direction of the force

In theoretical mechanics, w and F are derived quantities whose unit amounts are related to the
fundamental units. In engineering practice, work is a derived unit, but force is not. Common units
of work are the foot-pound in the fps system and the Joule in the S.I. system. Here, the lb is a lb F,
and the Joule is J = N m; i.e., the work done by the force of one Newton applied over one meter in
the direction of the force (1 ft-lbF = 1.356 J).

There are different forms of energy. Potential energy is energy a body possesses because of
its position or condition. Common examples of potential energy are a raised clock weight, damned
water, the wound mainspring of a clock, and compressed gas. Potential energy is available under
certain conditions, hence the name potential.

Bodies in motion have kinetic energy; this can be used to do work or produce heat. The
amount of this energy is given by the equation

KE = mv2/2 (Eq. 2-5)

KE = Kinetic energy of a body
v = Velocity of a body
m = Mass of the body. As indicated m can be calculated from weight. Thus, lb m = lbF x gc/g.

The unit of KE is the ft-poundal, if m is expressed in lb m and v is in ft/s. The engineering unit is
the ft-pound. Poundals can be converted to lb F by dividing by gc. The S.I. unit is the Joule.
Example:

Calculate the kinetic energy of a 2500 pound (lbF) (1134 kg) automobile traveling at a velocity
of 60 mph (96.6 km/h). First the velocity unit, miles per hour, is converted to feet per second to
obtain consistent units. Use the fact that 1 mass-pound weighs about 1 force-pound.
ft/s = (mph)/ft/mile)(h/s). Here, 60 X 5280 X (1/3600) = 88
ft/s = (26.8m/s)
KE = ½ (2500)(882) = 9,680,000 ft-poundals
Or KE = 9,680,000/32.174 = 300,864 ft-lbF (407,917 J or 407.9 kJ)
Chapter II ¾ BASIC SCIENCE CONCEPTS II-vii

Although similar to the kinetic energy of a moving mass, the kinetic energy of the moving parts
of a machine is sometimes referred to as mechanical energy.

Chemical Energy

In addition to mechanical forms of energy, there is chemical energy; the energy released or
absorbed during chemical reactions. In this case, energy can be considered to be stored in the
reacting substances and products by virtue of the molecular structure. The difference in this
energy content of reactants and products appears when a reaction takes place. Familiar examples
are the heat released when natural gas burns, and the electrical energy generated by the reaction
of the chemicals in batteries.

Many engineering problems involve the conversion of energy from one form to another.
For example, the chemical energy in a gaseous fuel can be used in an internal combustion
engine to drive a compressor that pumps gas through a transmission or distribution system.
In this case, the chemical energy in the fuel is converted to heat by combustion in the
internal combustion engine. A portion of this heat is converted to mechanical energy, which
is transmitted through the compressor to the gas. Thus, the sequence chemical
energy®heat®mechanical energy®energy in the flowing gas briefly describes this
conversion process.

Temperature

Everyone is familiar with the general temperature terms cold, warm, and hot. Temperature is
expressed more exactly in degrees Fahrenheit (ºF) or degrees Celsius (ºC). On the Fahrenheit
scale, the freezing point of water is 32ºF, and the boiling point is 212ºF. The interval between the
freezing and boiling points at normal atmospheric pressure is uniformly divided into 180 degrees.
On the Celsius scale, formerly called centigrade, the corresponding interval is divided into 100
parts, with 0ºC as the freezing point and 100ºC as the boiling point of water at atmospheric
pressure conditions. Thus, according to size only, 1ºC = 1.8ºF.

To convert temperature readings from one of these scales to the other, the following
relationships are used.

ºF = 9/5ºC +32 (Eq. 2-6)

Alternatively, ºC = 5/9(ºF- 32) (Eq. 2-7)

This form recognizes not only the difference in size of the degrees used in the two scales, but the
arbitrary natures of the scales.
Example:

Convert a temperature of 25ºC to ºF, and a temperature of 60ºF to ºC.

From eq. 2-6: ºF = (9/5)25 + 32 = 77
From eq. 2-7: ºC = (5/9)(60-32) = (5/9)(28) = 15.6ºC

Absolute temperature scales are used in many engineering calculations. Absolute zero is
taken as the lowest temperature possible. On the Fahrenheit scale, this point is 459.67º below 0ºF;
on the Celsius scale, it is 273.15º below 0ºC.
II-viii GAS DISTRIBUTION

To determine absolute temperatures on the Fahrenheit scale, 459.67 is added to the

Fahrenheit temperature; on the Celsius scale, 273.15 is added. Therefore, paralleling the
Fahrenheit scale, absolute temperatures are expressed as degrees Rankine (ºR), so 32ºF in terms
of absolute temperature is 459.67 + 32 = 481,56ºR. Paralleling the Celsius scale, absolute
temperatures are expressed as degrees Kelvin (ºK), and 0ºC in terms of absolute temperatures is
273.15 + 0 = 273.15ºK. Thus, 491.67ºR = 273.15ºK, and 1.8ºR = 1ºK. Note that 273.15 x 1.8 =
491.67. The Kelvin temperature is used in the S.I.

The concept of temperature makes it possible to introduce the concept of heat as a form of
energy. The degree of hotness of a substance is measured by its temperature. We would say that
the piece at 300ºF is hotter than the piece at 100ºF. If we place a piece of metal whose
temperature is 300ºF, into intimate contact with another piece of metal whose temperature is
100ºF, we would observe that eventually (when thermal equilibrium is reached) the temperature of
the two pieces would be identical.

With this concept of hotness, we see that some of the energy in the piece of metal originally at
300ºF was transferred to the piece originally at 100ºF until the two pieces reached the same
temperature. Energy transferred because of temperature difference is termed heat, and the driving
force in heat transfer is the temperature difference between the bodies involved. Heat transferred
by direct contact is called conduction. It is also possible to transfer heat by other mechanisms.
convection and radiation.

Convection transfers heat through a fluid such as water or air by heating the fluid in contact
with the heat source. The . radiators. used for space heating supply heat mainly by convection.
This local heating expands the fluid thereby reducing its weight per unit volume causing it to rise. It
is replaced by cooler, heavier fluid thus circulating the heated fluid to spaces where it gives up its
heat, cools, and recirculates downward.

Radiation transfers heat like the sun, directly from source to receptor. Intervening receptors
will shade those beyond from the heat; further only the surface of a receptor facing the source will
receive heat by radiation unless a reflecting surface beyond redirects the radiation back to the non-
facing surface of the receptor. It behaves like light, which is a form of radiation.

The British thermal unit (Btu) has been widely used in engineering as a unit quantity of heat. It
was originally defined as the quantity of heat necessary to raise the temperature of one pound-
mass of water one degree Fahrenheit at or near its point of maximum density (39.1ºF). This is a
very small unit, so multiples have been used for some kinds of calculations. One such larger unit
of heat energy widely used in the gas distribution industry is the therm, which is 100,000 Btu. The
energy produced and consumed in the United States annually is measured in trillion Btu, or in
quadrillion Btu. s. In addition to the Btu related to 39ºF, there is one based on 60ºF and another
based on the average from 32ºF to 212ºF, to mention a few. Engineers generally use what is
known as the international steam table Btu. Fortunately, these different kinds of Btu. s do not differ
greatly from one another.

The unit of energy in the S.I. variation is the (absolute) joule (J). This, too, is a very small unit
(1 Btu = 1055 J). Calories have also been used (1 Btu = 252 calories) but the Joule is preferred in
S.I.
Chapter II ¾ BASIC SCIENCE CONCEPTS II-ix

One form of energy is convertible into another form of energy. For example, the mechanical
equivalent of heat is 778 ft-lb per Btu. The following illustrates the application of this conversion
factor:
Example:

Determine the number of Btu. s equivalent to a mechanical device developing one horsepower
(hp) continuously for one hour (h).
1 hp = 33,000 ft-lbF/min
1 hp-h = 33,000 x 60 = 1,980,000 ft-lbF
The number of Btu. s equivalent to 1 hp-hr = 1,980,000/778 = 2545

Similarly, one kilowatt-hour of electrical energy is equivalent to 3412 Btu. The student may be
confused when seeing slightly different numbers for these conversion factors. These differences
arise from the use of slightly different kinds of Btu. s.

MATTER

States of Matter

Matter exists in three states: solid, liquid, and gas. Unlike solids, liquids and gases (fluids)
conform to the shape of any container in which they are placed. Gases differ from liquids in that
they tend to occupy all of the space in any container in which they are placed, regardless of size or
shape.

Liquids expand or contract somewhat with change in temperature or pressure, but less so than
gases. Liquids can be compressed, but great pressure is required for even a very small
compaction. For this reason one does not completely fill a container with liquid, because a
relatively small volume change due to temperature variation can generate a large pressure and
rupture it. Because gases can be readily expanded or compressed, the mass of gas present in a
cubic foot of space depends on its temperature and pressure. To specify the quantity (mass) of
gas present, the temperature and the pressure must be specified.

In the U.S. gas industry, quantities of gas and gas flow rates are usually expressed in terms of
standard cubic feet (SCF). This quantity refers to a cubic foot of gas at an arbitrarily selected
standard or base temperature T h and pressure Ph. The base temperature of 60ºF (520ºR) is used
in the gas industry. In the past, the base pressure was commonly taken as approximately equal to
the average atmospheric pressure in a given locality, or that plus a bonus. At one time, the
standard psia, pounds per square inch absolute pressure, was 14.65 (14.4 psia plus a bonus of
0.25 psia). However, a fixed value of 14.73 psia is now preferred. (Pressure is discussed further in
the next section, . Physical Measurements.. )

Because large quantities of gas are frequently handled in the gas industry, it is often
convenient to express gas volumes in large multiples of the cubic foot. The Roman numerals C
and M are widely used in the gas industry to express these multiples. Thus, CCF designates
hundreds of cubic feet, MCF designates thousands of cubic feet, and MMCF designates millions of
cubic feet. TCF is used for trillions of cubic feet. When volumes are expressed in standard cubic
feet, S is added to the designation. Thus, 1000 standard cubic feet is designated 1MSCF Note
that the multiples C & M are used differently in the S.I. system. Thus a megawatt (MW) is a million
watts, not a thousand. This is an unfortunate conflict in symbol usage.
II-x GAS DISTRIBUTION

Structure of Matter

All matter is composed of exceedingly tiny unit particles called molecules. A molecule is
defined as the smallest particle of a particular kind of matter that can exist in a free and
undecomposed state. Molecules consist of one or more tightly joined atoms, which are the
smallest particles of the elements of which all matter is composed. As of 1997, the periodic table of
elements lists 110 elements of which 92 exist in nature and 18 are man-made. Among those that
can exist as single atoms (monatomic) are helium (He), argon (A), carbon (C), sulfur (S), and iron
(Fe). Some exist in pairs (diatomic), under ordinary conditions, as pure elements; among them are
hydrogen (H2), oxygen (O2), and nitrogen (N2). Pure substances whose molecules contain more
than one kind of atom, such as carbon dioxide (CO 2), are called compounds.

Most of the molecules found in natural gas are compounds of a type called paraffin
hydrocarbons: methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), and butane (C4H10). The subscript
numbers indicate the number of atoms of each element bound together in a molecule of the
compound: CH4 has one atom of carbon linked with four atoms of hydrogen, C 2H6 has two atoms
of carbon linked tightly with six of hydrogen, and so on. Also found in natural gas are N 2 and CO2.
These formulas do not indicate the arrangement of the atoms within the molecule; that is, they are
not structural. It is a duty of chemists and physicists to determine how atoms are linked in
molecules.

Atomic and Molecular Weights

Atoms and molecules have such minute masses that it would be cumbersome to handle these
small numbers in engineering calculations. To avoid this difficulty, the atomic weight of carbon is
arbitrarily considered to be exactly 12 units. The atomic weight of other elements is then
determined relative to this selected atomic weight of carbon. On this basis, oxygen has an atomic
weight of 16. As there are two atoms of oxygen in each molecule, the molecular weight of oxygen
is 32 units.

This weight equivalency is illustrated for several gases in Table 2-2. Under the approximate
molecular weights in Column 3, the atomic weight of hydrogen is
2.016/2 = 1.008

In these calculations, ordinary carbon has a molecular weight a little greater than 12 because it
contains a small amount of carbon of atomic weight 13 (an isotope), which is not used in the
standard. That is, the standard of atomic weights is based on the carbon isotope with weight 12
rather than on the mixture of carbon isotopes found in nature.

By procedures involving density measurements or chemical reactions, atomic weights have

been determined for all the elements. Those required for this course are listed in Table 2-3. The
molecular weight of compounds containing these elements are readily calculated. For example,
the molecular weight of propane (C3H8) is
(3 x 12.01) +(8 x 1.008) = 44.09

To maintain consistency in units, it is frequently necessary to use the molecular weight of a

given material in pounds. This unit quantity is called the pound-mole. A pound-mole of hydrogen
is 2.016 lb. of hydrogen, and a pound-mole of propane is 44.09 lb. of propane.
Chapter II ¾ BASIC SCIENCE CONCEPTS II-xi

The molar-volume, in cubic feet, is the volume at standard conditions of temperature and
pressure occupied by a pound-mole of gas; it is determined by dividing the molecular weight in
pounds by the density in pounds per SCF.
 

Table 2-2. Molecular Weights of Some Common Gases

    (3)
(1) (2) ACCURATELY
GAS CHEMICAL FORMULA DETERMINED MOLECULAR
WEIGHT
Hydrogen H2 2.016
Helium He 4.003
Methane CH4 16.04
Nitrogen N2 28.02
Oxygen O2 32.00
Carbon Dioxide CO2 44.01

Table 2-3. Atomic Weights of Some Common Elementary Substances

SUBSTANCE ATOMIC FORMULA ATOMIC WEIGHT

Hydrogen H 1.008
Carbon C 12.01
Nitrogen N 14.01
Oxygen O 16.00

Ideally, the molar-volume at standard conditions is a fixed quantity independent of the nature of
the gas. This is in accordance with the theoretical law of Avogadro, which states that equal
standard volumes of different gases contain the same number of molecules. In the case of the
volume of a pound-mole, it can be shown that it contains 2.75 x 10 26 molecules. In very accurate
calculations, one must allow for deviations from ideal behavior that depend on the nature of the
gas, the temperature, and the pressure. This is especially true for high pressure situations such
as those encountered in reservoirs and transmission lines.
II-xii GAS DISTRIBUTION

Physical Measurements

Some of the instruments and means for making physical measurements in the gas industry are
discussed in this section.

Fig. 2-2. Simple Devices for Measuring Gas Pressure

Measuring Pressure

Pressure is defined as the force per unit area of a surface. It is measured by balancing the
unknown pressure against a known substance resulting from the pressure applied, or by measuring
the distortion of a body subjected to the pressure.

For gases, most pressure measurements are gage (or gauge) pressure and represent the
pressure above or below the prevailing atmospheric pressure. A familiar laboratory-type
instrument is the U-tube manometer, open to the atmosphere on one side (Figure 2-2). For
pressure up to 0.5 psig (3.447kPa), water or oil is used; and for pressures up to 25 psig (psi gauge
or lbF per square inch above atmospheric) (172.4 kPa), the much denser mercury. This device has
a wide range of application, because of its usefulness in accurate measurement of low pressure. It
indicates even slight changes in pressure and ranges of only a few ounces per square inch (a
couple of kPa).
Chapter II ¾ BASIC SCIENCE CONCEPTS II-xiii

For high pressure applications other devices are used. In Figure 2-2, the pressure differences
between the two points to which the manometer legs are connected is balanced by the pressure
exerted by a column of fluid of height. This pressure difference is equal to the height (h) times the
density (r) of the liquid in the tube (pressure = hr).* The kind of liquid used and its temperature
must be known to determine its density. The height h is usually expressed in inches of water
column (in. wc), or inches of mercury (in. Hg) or kPa in S.I. or, more traditionally mm H 2O or Hg P1,
and P2 can also be connected to different points in a system to measure pressure difference. Or P 2
can be the atmospheric pressure. In this case, the pressure measured is that above or below
atmospheric and is referred to as a gage pressure to distinguish it from absolute pressure or from
pressure difference in a system.

The conversion of one set of U.S. pressure units to another may be accompanied as follows:
Example:

At 60°F, water has a density (r) of 62.4 lbm/ft3. Assume it is in a container with a square cross-
sectional area of 1 ft2. If the water level is 1 ft., then the container holds 1 ft 3, which
corresponds to a mass of 62.4 lbm of water. The bottom of the container supports this mass of
water, which, under standard acceleration of gravity, will exert a force of approximately 62.4
lbF/ft2. Because 1 ft2 = 144in.2, the pressure can also be calculated as .
62.4/144 = 0.433 psi

Because the height of the water column is 1 foot, and pressure depends only on depth, it is
evident that
1 ft wc = 0.433 psi (lbF per sq. in.)
1 in. wc = 0.433/12 = 0.0361 psi
1 psi = 1/0.0361 = 27.7 in. wc

In S.I., the unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa) defined as the force of 1 Newton applied to 1
square meter, i.e., Pa = N/m2. It is a very small unit hence is more commonly applied in ordinary
pressure ranges as kilo Pascals (kPa) where 100 kPa = 14.50 psi.

In a similar manner, it may be shown that 1 psi = 2.036 in. mercury column. The nature of the
liquid must be indicated as well as its height to be able to evaluate the pressure.

The distinction between gage and absolute pressure should be understood. As noted above,
gage pressure is relative to the atmospheric pressure. Absolute pressure is the pressure that
exists above zero pressure (a perfect vacuum). A barometer measures the absolute pressure of
the earth. s atmosphere. It is essentially a hollow glass tube, evacuated and sealed at the top, and
placed upright with the open lower end in a cup of liquid such as mercury. The liquid rises in the
tube until the atmospheric pressure on the top of the mercury in the cup balances the weight of the
column of mercury in the tube equivalent to the atmospheric pressure (Figure 2-2).

*
More accurately, it is the height multiplied by the specific weight (a force) expressed, for example, in
force-pounds per unit of volume. So pressure = hрg/gc. At the standard condition of gravity, g = gc
numerically, so pressure = hp. Pressure depends only on depth of the fluid and not on the size or shape
of the container. Note that h is the true vertical height.
II-xiv GAS DISTRIBUTION

At sea level, the average atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi, (101.325 kPa), which is equivalent
to 29.92 in Hg or 33.9 ft. wc. Barometric, or atmospheric, pressure is a measure of the weight of
the earth. s atmosphere per unit area at a given place and time. Thus, barometric pressure varies
somewhat with weather conditions and location of the measuring instrument. Barometric pressure
decreases approximately 1 in. Hg for every 1000 feet of elevation above sea level. The relation
between increasing elevation and decreasing density of the atmosphere is illustrated in Table 2-4.
From Figure 2-2, it is evident that ¾
Absolute Pressure = Prevailing Barometric
(Atmospheric) Pressure + Gage Pressure

When pressure is expressed in pounds per square inch absolute, it is usually abbreviated psia;
gage pressure is expressed as psig, or sometimes less precisely as just psi.

The Bourdon Tube Gage (Figure 2-3) is another widely used device for measuring pressure. It
is an oval-shaped hollow tube of bronze or stainless steel bent into a circular curve. One end is
closed; the other is fitted with a threaded section for attachment to the vessel whose pressure is to
be measured. Application of pressure at the open end tends to straighten the tube to a degree
depending on the pressure applied. The motion of the free closed end is transmitted to an indicator
dial. Because the outside of the tube is subjected to atmospheric pressure, the readings are gage
readings. Bourdon gages cover ranges of from several psi to a few thousand psi.

Table 2-4. Effect of Attitude on Pressure

Altitude, ft above sea level   Pressure, In. of mercury*

Sea Level   29.92
1,000   28.86
2,000   27.82
3,000   26.81
4,000   25.84
5,000   24.89
6,000   23.98
7,000   23.09
8,000   22.22
9,000   21.38
10,000   20.53
15,000   16.88
20,000   13.75
     
*(1. Hg = 3.37685 kPa at 60°F in S.I. or 25.4 mm Hg in cgs)
 
Chapter II ¾ BASIC SCIENCE CONCEPTS II-xv

Fig. 2-3. Bourdon Gage

The deadweight piston gage (Figure 2-4) measures pressure up to 10,000 psi (69,000 kPa) or
higher and is also used to calibrate other pressure gages. With this instrument, the pressure to be
measured is balanced hydraulically against a known pressure. A characteristic feature of this
instrument is a small rod or piston in a closely fitted vertical chamber containing oil or glycerin.
Weights are placed on the top end of the rod, which is fitted with a tray, until the opposing pressure
is balanced. From the weight on the tray and the cross-sectional area of the piston, the pressure
can be calculated. For practical use, the weights can be marked in pressure units. The
deadweight gage, like the Bourdon tube, measures gage rather than absolute pressure.

Fig. 2-4. Deadweight Piston Gage

(By permission from . Industrial Instruments for Measurement and Control. by T. J. Rhodes, McGraw-Hill.)
 
II-xvi GAS DISTRIBUTION

MeasuringTemperature

No one thermometer can be used throughout the entire temperature range encountered in
engineering work; and so there are many temperature-sensitive devices. The common mercury-
in-glass thermometer covers the range from -40° to 1000°F (-40° to +538°C). For temperatures
down to the freezing point of alcohol, a colored alcohol-in-glass thermometer indicates -169.6°F
(-112°C = 161.2°K),

Other devices measure higher temperatures. The pressure thermometer is commonly used. It
consists of a bulb containing a liquid or gas connected to a tube of fine bore. When the
temperature is raised, the fluid expands, increasing the pressure in the bulb. This pressure is
communicated to a Bourdon tube attached to the end of the tubing. The pressure generated
reflects the temperature level, and the scale of the instrument is marked in temperature units.
Such devices are sometimes used as thermostats in oven temperature-control systems in which
the pressure is utilized to operate valves controlling the fuel flow. Designs vary. Some types use a
bellows to measure pressure and, by the known relationship, temperature.
For temperatures from well below 0° to +2500°F (-18° + 1370°C), thermocouples may be used,
and for very low temperatures, resistance thermometers are useful and accurate. Other devices,
such as radiation pyrometers, are available for high-temperature measurement.

Measuring Density

The density of a gas may be experimentally determined by weighing a vessel when filled with
gas at a desired pressure and temperature, and then when the vessel is evacuated. This
determines the mass of fluid in the vessel. Because density is the ratio of mass to volume, the
volume of the container must also be known.

Measuring Specific Gravity

The density of one gas relative to another (reference gas) is known as specific gravity,
determined by means of a gas balance (Figure 2-5). The device consists of a sealed bulb or
balloon with a pointer attached that is counterbalanced, in a condition of a near-balance, by
weights on a lever arm. The entire assembly is housed in a gas-tight chamber and water-jacketed
for temperature control. The balloon is buoyed by a force equal to the weight of the gas it
displaces. A reference gas, normally dry air, may first be added to the chamber until balance is
achieved. It is then pumped out and a different gas admitted until balance is regained. The
process is normally carried out at less than atmospheric pressure, and
 
Density of gas (Pair) (Tgas)
  Specific Gravity = =
  Density of air (Pair) (Tgas)

where Pgas and Pair are the absolute pressures required for balance, and T gas and Tair are the
absolute temperatures at which pressure measurements were taken. T gas and Tair are normally
equal. Instruments commonly used are the Edwards and Ac-Me balances, and the recording
instruments such as the Ac-Me, Ranarex, and Arco.

 
Chapter II ¾ BASIC SCIENCE CONCEPTS II-xvii

Fig. 2-5. Specific Gravity Balance

(By permission from . Oil and Gas Production,. compiled by the Engineering Committee, Interstate Oil
Compact Commission, U. of Oklahoma Press)

Measuring Heating Value

The heating, or calorific, value of a gas is the heat released when a unit volume of the gas is
burned. The unit used in the American gas industry is the British thermal unit (Btu) per SCF, and
the S.I. unit is M Joules per M3. It is expressed on two different bases. The lower or net heating
value is the heat released when one standard unit volume of gas is burned; the water vapor and
carbon dioxide formed are cooled to 60°F (15°C) and remain in the vapor state. The higher,
gross, or total heating value includes the heat recovered by condensing the water vapor to liquid
water at to 60°F (15°C). The gross heating value for natural gas will vary according to the
components of the mixture. Generally, the gross heating value of natural gas delivered to
customers will be in a range between 950 and 1060 Btu/SCF.

In the past, the heating value of gaseous fuels was determined by calorimeters. The two most
commonly used were the Junkers manual water flow calorimeter and the Thomas recording
calorimeter. Calorimeters are slow to respond. The calorimeter exhibits a lag in its response to
fast changing BTU values. Often referred to as a . dead-band,. this lag is responsible for an
average deviation between instruments of +-1 BTU/SCF.

On-Line Gas Chromatography

While calorimeters may still be in use today, the usual instrument for measuring heating value
is a gas chromatograph, which determines the quantity of each component of a gas mixture.
These data are supplied to a computer that calculates the heating value by determining the
contribution of each component to the gas mixture.

Measuring the energy content or heating valve of natural gas on-line requires a self-contained
instrument that is programmable and rugged. The unit needs to run stand-alone, collecting and
analyzing data unattended. Ruggedness allows it to operate on location whether outdoors or in a
control room
II-xviii GAS DISTRIBUTION

Basic Chromatography

The basic chromatograph consists of several valves and tubes called columns. Pure helium
flows continuously through the columns. A sample of natural gas is injected into the helium stream
and is carried through the columns. The constituents in the natural gas sample have an affinity for
the material used in the micropacked columns. The degree of affinity is proportional to the
molecular weight of the constituent.

The constituents of the natural gas are carried through the columns at different rates, based
upon their affinity for the packing material. They are therefore separated, emerging from the end of
the column at different times. As they elute, the constituents are detected by means of a Thermal
Conductivity Detector (TCD). A TCD is basically a thermistor or wire that carries sufficient
electrical current to cause self-heating. As helium flows over the detector elements, heat is carried
away by conduction. As the concentration of eluted gases changes, more of less heat is carried
away resulting in a detectable change in the temperature of the element.

Each constituent is eluted onto the detector for analysis. The time at which elution occurs
allows the microprocessor controlling to identify the constituent while the amplitude is used in
calculating its MOL%.

As a microprocessor-based instrument, the on-line gas chromatograph can be operated

remotely by modem. Data collection is handled by a hardcopy printout, analog outputs, or a host
computer communications link.

A major disadvantage of the on-line gas chromatograph is its inability to do continuous

analysis. Analysis occurs every fifteen minutes whereas the calorimeter is a continuous
instrument. Second, the chromatograph bases its analysis on theoretical calculations made from
the measurement while the calorimeter actually measures the BTU content by burning a sample of
the gas. Room for error exists and great care should be taken when specifying calibration gas for
use with a gas chromatograph, especially with respect to the C6+ composition.

FUNDAMENTAL GAS LAWS

The fundamental gas laws express an algebraic relation between the pressure, temperature,
and mass of a gas. Thus, these laws are useful in calculating the effect of changes in pressure or
temperature on the volume that a given mass of gas occupies.

The Ideal Gas Laws

Relatively complex equations are needed for accurate calculations involving gases at high
pressures; but the simple ideal gas law is adequate for low-pressure work. The equation ¾

PV = (m/M)RT, or PV = NRT (Eq. 2-8)

where
P = absolute pressure of the gas
V = volume of the gas
m = mass of the gas
M = molecular weight of the gas
N = number of moles of gas = m/M
Chapter II ¾ BASIC SCIENCE CONCEPTS II-xix

R = a constant of proportionality called the universal gas constant

T = absolute temperature of the gas

All terms in the equation must be expressed in a consistent set of units. The set of units
chosen will determine the units and numerical value of R.

  Quantity Units Units

  P lbF/ft2 absolute lbF/ft2 absolute (psia)

  V CF CF+

  N no. of lb-moles no. of lb-moles

  T °R (°F absolute) °R (°F absolute)

  R 1545 ft-lbF 10.73ft-lbF

  lb-mole°R in.2lb-moleºR

   

The terms in the ideal gas law may also be expressed in the S.I.

  Quantity S.I. Units

  P kPa

  V m3**

  n* no. of moles

  T ºK (ºC absolute)

  R 8.314 J /(mol·K)

  *Shown lower case to avoid confusion with S.I.

symbol N for Newton.

  **m in S.I. stands for meter, the unit of length.

  In S.I. units J = N·m

 
II-xx GAS DISTRIBUTION

 
Example:

To illustrate an application of the ideal gas law, determine the mass rate of flow of methane,
expressed in lbm/min (kg/min). It is being compressed by a compressor delivering 1000 CF
(28.3m3) of methane per minute at 10.0 psig (69.0 kPa) pressure and a temperature of 85ºF
(29ºC). The barometric pressure is 14.3 psia (98.6 kPa). To simplify the calculation, base it on
the amount of methane flowing in one minute.
P = 14.3 + 10.0 = 24.3 psia (168 kPa)
V = 1000 CF/min. The volume of flow in one minute = 100 CF.(28.3m 3)
T = 460 +85 = 545ºR (303ºK)
R = 10.73 ft3-lbF/in.2lb-moleºR (8.314 J/mol·K)**
N = PV/RT = (24.3x1000)/(10.73x545) = 4.16 lb-mole of CH 4
In S.I.:
[n* = (168x28.3)/(8.314x303) = 1.89 kg mol of CH4]

* Shown lower case to avoid confusion with S.I. symbol N for Newton.

** Revised 1/92.
Because:

N = m/M and M = [12.01 + (4x 1.008)] = 16.042, m = NM = 4.16 x 16.042 = 66.7 lb m per minute
(30.3 kg/min. or in the preferred S.I. units of mass flow rate, 1.818 Mg/h) of CH 4, the amount
flowing.
The ideal gas law may be used to calculate gas density, rg = m/V = PM/RT.

The specific gravity of a gas is the ratio of the density of the gas rg at a particular pressure
and temperature, to the density of air ra at the same temperature and pressure. * With the gas law,
this may be expressed algebraically:

pg/pa = G = Mq/Ma (Eq. 2.9)

Thus, specific gravity may be calculated as the ratio of the molecular weight of the gas to the
molecular weight of air. Conversely, the molecular weight of a mixture can be calculated from the
measured value of its specific gravity. In this application, the molecular weight of air M a may be
taken as 28.97 or 29.0, so M g = 29.0 G; thus, the specific gravity of a pure gas may be multiplied by
29.0 to determine its molecular weight.

*
To avoid problems introduced by nonideal behavior, the temperature pressure levels are those
normally occurring in the laboratory.
Chapter II ¾ BASIC SCIENCE CONCEPTS II-xxi

The average molecular weight of an ideal gas mixture can be calculated by proration, i.e.,
multiplying the mole fraction of each component by its molecular weight and summing the
products.** This molecular weight can then be used to calculate the specific gravity of the mixture.
Example:

Calculate the specific gravity of a gas mixture that contains 90% methane, 5% ethane, and 5%
nitrogen.
 
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Compotent Mole Fraction Molecular Weight Product (2) x (3)
CH4 0.90 16.04 14.44
C2H6 0.05 30.07 1.50
N2 0.05 28.02 1.40

Average molecular weight of the Mixture, M g = 17.34

From Eq. 2-9:

G = = 17.34/29.0 = 0.60

In many gas engineering problems, what happens to the volume of gas needs to be determined as
the temperature and pressure change. This may be determined by the gas law.
Example:

Let P1, V1, and T1 be one set of conditions for a given mass of a gas with a molecular weight M.
Also, let P2, V2, and T2 be a second set of for the same mass of the same gas. Then, from the
gas law,
P1, V1, = (m/M)RT1 ; P2, V2, = (m/M)RT2

Dividing the second equation by the first, and solving for V 2//V1,
V2/V1, = (P1/P2)(T2/T1)

The latter equation shows that if the temperature is constant (T 1 = T2), the volume of a given
mass of gas is inversely proportional to the absolute pressure; in other words, V 2/V1 = P1/P2. This
is a statement of Boyle. s law (Figure 2-6)., ). On the other hand, if the pressure is held constant,
the volume of a given mass of gas varies directly as the absolute temperature; in other words,
V2/V1 = T2/T1. This is a statement of Charles. law (Figure 2-7). The application of these equations
is illustrated below:
Example:

A cylinder with a capacity of 500 ft3 (q4.16 m3), contains methane at 100 psig (689 kPa), and a
temperature of 40ºF (4.4ºc). If the barometric pressure is exactly 29.8 in. Hg (100.9 kPa), what

This procedure is in accord with Avogadro. s law. Gas analysis is determined by volume percent,
**

which is the same as mole percent.

II-xxii GAS DISTRIBUTION

would be the volume of gas if all the gas were withdrawn from the cylinder and measured at
60ºF (15.6ºC) and an absolute pressure of 29.92 inc. Hg (101.3 kPa)?

Fig. 2-6. Boyle. s Law (Constant Temperature Assumed)

Fig. 2-7. Charles' Law (Constant Temperature Assumed)

 
Barometric pressure = 29.80 in. Hg
= 29.80/2.036 = 14.64 psia
P1 = 100 + 14.64 = 114.64 psia (790.41 kPa)
V1 = 500 ft3 (14.16 m3)
T1 = 460 + 40 = 500ºR (278ºK)
P2 = 29.92 in. Hg = 29.92/2.036 = 14.70 psia (101.3 kPa)
V2 = ?
T2 = 460 + 60 = 520ºR (289ºK)
V2 = V1 (P1/P2)(T2/T1) = 500(114.64/14.7) (520/500)
= 4055.29 CF at 60ºF and 14.70 psia
Chapter II ¾ BASIC SCIENCE CONCEPTS II-xxiii

In S.I. V2 = 14.16 (790/101.3)(289/278) = 114.8m3 at 15.6ºC and 101.3 kPa.

The ideal gas law and Archimedes. principle explain the relationship for determining gas
gravity by use of specific gravity balances. Archimedes. principle states that the force of buoyancy
on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body, and is thus
proportional to the density of the medium in which it is immersed. In a density balance, it is not
necessary to know the volume of the bulb, as this is constant, and the same buoyant force is
required each time to balance the indicating system. The bulb volume can therefore be eliminated
from the relationship. The buoyant force of air in the chamber is Krair. That is, it is proportional to
the density of air, while the buoyant force of the gas being measured is Krgas, where K is the same
proportionality factor, and r is the density. To bring a given system to the same mechanical
balance, the force terms must be equal, so that
Krair = Krgas
Or rair = rgas

These density terms correspond to different gas pressures, and also to different temperatures,
if a thermostat is not used. What is desired is the specific gravity at some relatively low pressure.
This can be calculated in the following form based on the ideal gas law
r = m/V = (MP/RT) = mass per unit volume

At the point of mechanical balance, the densities are equal, so that

(MP/RT)air = (MP/RT)gas

The R terms cancel, and equation can be rearranged:

G = M gas/Mair = (P air /Tgas) (Pgas /Tair)

If the temperature is held constant during the test,

G = M gas/Mair = P air/Pgas

Accordingly, from just the pressure reading for the condition of balance, the molecular weight
ratio or specific gravity can be calculated.

Behavior of Gases at High Pressure

The dependence of the volume of a given mass of gaseous materials on its pressure and
temperature is not expressed accurately by the ideal gas law when the density is much greater
than that corresponding to the standard condition. The difference between the actual volume of a
given mass of gas and that calculated with the ideal gas law depends on the temperature,
pressure, and composition of the gas. The more complex the molecular structure of the gas, the
greater the deviation. Thus, propane behaves less ideally than methane.
II-xxiv GAS DISTRIBUTION

Deviations from ideal gas law behavior can be correlated with certain characteristics of the gas
or vapor, notably its composition, critical temperature, and pressure. There is a definite
temperature level above which a gas or vapor cannot be liquefied by an increase in pressure; this
is known as its critical temperature (Tc). The pressure at which a vapor liquefies at this point is
the critical pressure (Pc). Tc and Pc are definite characteristics of each gas.

Natural Gas Compressibility Factors

One way to account for nonideal behavior is to use a multiplier type of correction factor known
as the compressibility factor (Figure 2-8) in the ideal gas law:

PV = ZNRT (Eq. 2-10)

The compressibility factor, Z, can be determined experimentally for a given gas, temperature,
and pressure, but this can be tedious and expensive. It is common practice to calculate Z based
on a generalized correlation in which Z is determined by two quantities, T/T c and P/Pc. These
ratios are called the reduced temperature and the reduced pressure.

Values of Tc and Pc are in tables for pure substances such as methane (CH 4), ethane (C2H6),
and nitrogen (N2), but not for variable mixtures such as natural gas. In the latter case, it is
satisfactory to use an average T c and Pc based on mole fraction. Gas analysis is determined by
volume percent, which is the same as mole percent; thus, once the composition is known, one can
calculate the average Tc, Pc, and reduced temperature and pressure, as shown in the following
example. Note that T, P, Tc, and Pc must be expressed as the absolute temperatures (ºR) and
pressures (psia). mole fraction of a substance equals the number of moles of the substance
divided by the total number of moles in the mixture.

Fig. 2-8. Schematic Compressibility Factor Chart

Chapter II ¾ BASIC SCIENCE CONCEPTS II-xxv

 
Example:

Calculate the compressibility factor of a gas that contains 85% CH 4, 10% C2H6, and 5% C3H8,
at 500 psia (3447 kPa) and 130ºF (130 + 460 = 590ºR) (328ºK)*
 
           
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Component Mole Critical Critical Product Product
Fraction Temperature, Pressure, (2) x (3) (2) x (4)
ºR psia

           
CH4 0.85 343 673 292 572
C2H6 0.10 550 708 55 71

C3H8 0.05 666 617 33 31

        380ºR 674 psia
           
        (211ºK) (4647 kPa)**
 
*These values relate as ºK to ºR for temperature, i.e., ºK = 5/9ºR and as kPa to psia for pressure
is 6.894 kPa = 1 psi, or, more conveniently, 100 kPa = 14.5 psi.
 
**Although Mpa, i.e., mega Pascals, seem more in order than 4 or 5 digit kPa, AGA's publication,
"Metric Unit (S.I.) Application Guide" recommends using MPa for mechanical stress only and
kPa for fluid pressures.
 

The sum of the products in Column 5 gives an estimated value of 380ºR for the critical
temperature of the mixture. The reduced temperature of the gas at 130ºF will be (130 + 460)/380,
or 1.55. This is called the pseudo-reduced temperature, because an estimate of critical
temperature is used in the calculation.

Similarly, the pseudo-reduced pressure may be calculated from the estimated critical
pressure (sum of the products in Column 6) of 674 psia. For this mixture at 500 psia the pseudo-
reduced pressure equals 500/674 or 0.74. The compressibility factor chart (Figure 2-8) gives a
value of z = 0.935 based on the values of the pseudo-reduced temperature and pressure just
calculated.

The above explanation works equally well if S.I. units are used as both the pseudo-reduced
temperature and pressure are ratios resulting from the use of consistent units. Hence the
compressibility chart (Figure 2-11) is usable for any consistent system of units.
II-xxvi GAS DISTRIBUTION

When the ideal gas law is used, one assumes that Z = 1.000, so the error in using the ideal gas
law in this case is(1.000 . 0.935) x 100, or 6.5%. Hence, the actual measured volume is 6.5% less
than the ideal value. The gas is thus said to be . supercompressible.. This accounts for the term
supercompressibility in the older natural gas literature. Note that the reduced quantities are
dimensionless ratios, and the units used in their calculation can be selected arbitrarily as long as
consistency is observed. A less accurate, but often adequate, procedure was worked out by G. G.
Brown et al in 1948. In this method, given only the specific gravity of the gas, the pseudo-reduced
quantities are determined graphically. Very detailed tables for natural gas have been prepared by
the American Gas Association.

Examination of the Z chart shows that gases may occupy more or less space than indicated by
the ideal gas law, depending on the magnitude of the reduced temperature and pressure. In most
high-pressure natural gas operations, the gas is denser than ideal. In the storage of natural gas in
high-pressure bottles, about 40% advantage is obtained at 40ºF and 2240 psi (4.4ºC and 15,444
kPa)(4) Some advantage also is gained in pipeline transmission, particularly when pressures are in
excess of, say, 400 psi. Allowance must be made for the nonideal behavior of gases in reservoir,
pipeline flow, storage, and metering calculations. The American Gas Association has published
procedures for accurate metering taking nonideal behavior into account (American Gas
Association: . Compressibility and Supercompressibility for Natural Gas and Other Hydrocarbon
Gases,. Transmission Measurement Report No. 8, Arlington, VA 1994).

Although for most operating conditions in the natural gas industry the compressibility factor can
be estimated within a few percent by means of pseudo-critical pressure and temperature method, it
is sometimes desirable to make more accurate, direct experimental measurements. Two types of
instruments are available for this purpose: The Bean and the Burnett. The Institute of Gas
Technology conducted a study of their comparative performances and issued a publication on the
subject (Bloomer, O.T., . Measurement of Gas Law Deviations with Bean and Burnett Apparatus..
Institute of Gas Technology Research Bulletin No. 13, 1952).

Both devices are capable of high accuracy. It should be noted that nonideal behavior is
seldom is seldom of significance in distribution systems, although it is significant in lbs. pressure-
metering systems such as pipelines, and gas storage.
Chapter II ¾ BASIC SCIENCE CONCEPTS II-xxvii

Equivalence of Some Units

 
Table 2-5. Table of Equivalents
    LENGTH
1 meter (m) = 39.37 in.
1 centimeter (cm) = 0.3937 in.
  = MASS
1 kilogram = 1000 grams (g); 2.2046 pounds
1 pound (lb) = 453.6 g
1 short ton = 2000 lb
1 metric ton (Mg) = 1000 kg = 2204.6 lb = 1.1023 U.S. (short ton)
    ENERGY
1 Btu = 25.0 calories = 1055 joules (J)*
1 Btu = 778 ft-lb (mechanical equivalent)
1 horsepower hour (hp-h) = 2545 Btu
1 kilowatt hour (kWh) = 3412 British Thermal Unit (Btu)
1 therm = 100,000 Btu
1 quad = 1015 (quintillion) Btu
     
*The energy unit in the S.I. variation of units is the joule. For many more
conversion factors, see American Gas Association, . Metric Unit (SI) Application
Guide for the A.G.A.. Metrication Task Committee, 1980, Arlington, VA.