Fire Technology and Arson Investigation

Republic of the Philippines
MARINDUQUE STATE COLLEGE

SCHOOL OF GOVERNANCE
Panfilo Manguera Sr. Rd., Tanza, Boac, Marinduque 4900 (Main Campus)
Tel. No.: 332-03-23 Email Address: icje@mscmarinduque.edu.ph
Website: www.marinduquestatecollege.edu.ph
(BS - Law Enforcement Administration)

Fire Technology and Arson Investigation
(CDI 6)
MIDTERM
TOPIC 1: The Chemistry of Fire
TIME ALLOCATION: Two Weeks
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
a) Materials
 Laptop/Smart Phone
b) Reference
 Renato B. Sadaran, Ph.D. (2013) Fire Technology and Arson Investigation, PCCR
Bookstore Inc.
INTRODUCTION
The use of fire almost certainly developed in four stages. First by observation, people
pragmatic about their natural sources of fire, such as volcanoes and trees set afire by
lightning. Second, they obtained fire from natural sources and used it for warmth, light, and
protection from predators. Third, they learned to generate fire whenever they desire. Finally,
they learned to manage and control fire for use in smelting metal ore, in baking pottery, and
in numerous other ways to help create new technologies and make life mnore comfortable.
The keeping and employment of fire had an influence in ending nomadism and consequently
infuenced the development of the social and political institutions connected with members of
a society having a permanent habitat.
Fire is basically heat and light resulting from the rapid combination of oxygen, or in
some cases gaseous chlorine, with other materials. The light is in the form of flame, which is
composed of radiant particles of the burning material and certain gaseous products that are
glowing at the temperature of the burning material. The conditions essential for the existence
of fire are the presence of a combustible material, a temperature high enough to cause
combustion known as the ignition temperature and the presence of enough oxygen or chlorine
to enable rapid combustion to continue.
Fire has been produced by two primary methods, friction and percussion. In the
friction method, íriction increases the temperature of a combustible material from kindling to
ignition temperature. The percussion method generates a spark to set kindling afire. In many
cultures people have used and still use largely the friction method, in which two pieces of
wood surrounded by combustible material are rubbed together until the ignition temperature
is attained. In the stick-and-groove method, a stick is stroked in a groove in another piece of
wood. In the fire-drill method, a stick is rotated speedily in a pit in a stationary piece of
wood. The stick is revolved by rubbing it between the palms of the hands or by moving back
and forth a Wooden bow whose string is wrapped around the stick. The most simple
percussion method of producing fire is striking together two pieces of flint, or by striking flint
against pyrite or steel.
The flint-and-steel method was commonly employed throughout the civilized world
until about 1827, when matches came into use. With matches, resistance is used to heat the
tip of the match to the point at which chemicals in the match head ignite. Fire may also be
generated by using a lens or curved reflector to focus and converge the rays of the sun on
combustible material.
Arson investigation occurs in different order than the usual criminal investigation. It
is the job of the arson investigator to analyze all information and act swiftly in conducting
interviews since fire usually destroys physical evidences making witnesses much more
significant. Using a combination of interview, evidence gathering from the ashes and
background investigation they would have to determine whether a fire is a result of arson or
not.
Part investigative science and part forensic science, the entire field of arson
investigation encompasses a variety of people in various expertise such as safety
professionals, firemen, forensic chemists, investigators and criminalists. Arson investigators
sometimes see themselves as counterparts to homicide investigators.
The typical classification of fires is natural, accidental, unknown origin, suspicious
and incendiary. In the absence of the most common causes of accidental fires such as faulty
electrical and gas equipment, improper storage, smoking, Overloading and natural causes
such as lightning and Spontaneous combustion and the discovery of incendiary devices, the
unusual way the fire was started and its behavior may lead to the conclusion that fire was due
to arson.
CHAPTER I
THE CHEMISTRY OF FIRE
Fire is a fundamental chemical reaction based on oxidation; all forms of fire are subtypes of
combustion. Fire was derived form the Greek word pyra which means glowing ember is the
active principle of burning characterized by heat light and combustion. Although useful to
man, fire may be used as a means to commit crimes, bringing forth destruction of lives and
properties.
Why fires should be investigated?
 To determine the cause of the fire; and To prevent similar occurrences
What constitutes arson?
 Burning
 Malice
 Motive
 Intent
Three elements of fire of commonly known as fire triangle: The presence the following
components would result to fire:
Oxygen
Fuel Heat
Reactions take place at various rates of speed. Fire is a fairly slow reaction because
molecular change usually takes place on the Surtace of the substance that is glow not
pyrolysis which is flame and indicates irreversible molecular change. Pyrolysis only takes
place when fire has a continuous source of oxygen. Fuel-air mix determines what is called the
flammable range, and below this is the ignition range, and even further lower is the flash
point or vapor range. Conditions are right to support combustion at the flash point range,
reactions wIll sustain themselves at the ignition range, and fuel-air mix is perfect at
flammable range. How quickly reactions move through these three ranges is the speed of the
reaction. Speed can be increased by temperature; an 18 degree Fahrenheit increase in
temperature usually doubles or triples the reaction rate. Hence fire burns faster once the
environment's temperature is raised.
Most fire will extinguish itself at less than 16% Oxygen. However, it's not a simple
matter as the external supply of oxygen. Chemical reactions have their own way of extracting
oxygen they require. With a fire involving hydrocarbons such as wood, the reaction extracts
oxygen from carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and sulfur Oxide. With fires
involving plastic, the reactions rely on poisonous gases released: hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen
chloride and phosgene. Much of what chemical reactions need to supply their own oxygen is
abundantly available in the air such as carbon dioxide and nature such as potassium and
nitrogen; these readily available substances are known as oxidizers.
Fire Triangle:
FUEL + OXYGEN+ HEAT SOURCE = COMBUSTION
1. Fuel The most important part of the triangle, for fuel is what burns. The nature and
properties of the fuel are essential in combating fires. It comes in three form as solid, liquid
or gas. (Solid fuel - ignition temperature; liquid fuel- flashpoint)
Solid fuels may be characterized as materials with definite volume and shape such as
wood, paper, rugs and the like. Liquid fuels are those which have definite volume but no
shape taking the shape of its container such as gasoline, alcohol, petroleum products etc. And
gaseous fuels which have no definite volume and shape such as neon gas.
Asbestos, diamond and naphthalene balls are solids which are known to have no
ignition temperature rendering them fire proof.
The ordinary solid fuels, in order of heat potential, are coal, coke, wood, sugarcane
bagasse, and peat. Burning of these causes breakdown of the fuel and evolution of the volatile
matter as a gas that may burn with a sooty flame. The solid carbonaceous residue burn up at a
rate determined by the diffusion of oxygen to the surface. This latter combustion necessitates
a higher surface temperature, about 400° to 800° C (about 752° to 1472° F), which is
achieved by radiation of heat from the hot products or from hot surroundings. If the fuel is
burned on a grate, air is forced through a bed of solid fuel particles, and the required
temperature is maintained by inter-particle radiation. For rapid combustion, coal is commonly
powdered, mixed with air, and blown into a furnace. Air-to-fuel ratios depend mostly on the
type of fuel, 1 kg of a conventional bituminous coal requiring a minimum of 11 kg of air for
complete combustion; flame temperatures for powdered coals may be of the order of 1540° C
(2800° F). If finely powdered coal known as coal dust or any other hydrocarbon is ignited
under uncontrolled conditions, the combustion come about extremely rapidly, approaching
that of an explosion. Mine fires initiated by coal dust and household fires caused by the
combustion of floor dust are cases of rapid combustion processes.
Ordinary liquid fuels are fuel oils, gasoline, and naphthas derived from petroleum,
and, to a lesser extent, coal tar, alcohol, and benzol. In stationary heating systems, less
volatile fuel oils are sprayed through nozzles, with or without air or steam, into the
combustion chamber. In an internal-combustion engine, volatile fuels such as gasoline or a
gasoline and alcohol blend known as gasohol are evaporated and the mixture admitted into
the engine cylinder, where combustion is initiated by a spark. In these fuels, from 16 to 23 kg
of air are necessary for complete combustion of 1 kg of fuel. In diesel engines the fuel is
injected as an atomized spray into the combustion chamber, where the temperature increase
associated with the high compression ratio of diesel engines is sufficient to cause ignition.
Gaseous fuels such as natural gas, refinery gas, and manufactured gases such as
producer gas are typically mixed with air before combustion to provide a maximum amount
of oxygen to the fuel. The fuel-air mixture then issues from the burner ports at a speed greater
than the rapidity of flame propagation to prevent flame flashback into the burner, but not so
great a velocity as to blow the flame off the burner. If not premixed with air, these fuels
customarily blazes with smoky, moderately cool flames. Natural gas burned with air can
generate flame temperatures in excess of 1930° C (3500° F). Rockets employed in space
exploration may utilize liquid fuels such as kerosene and hydrazine, and carry an oxidizer
such as liquid xygen, nitric acid, or hydrogen peroxide. Military rockets such as bazookas
make use of solid fuels such as nitrocellulose and cordite, with oxygen included into the fuel;
these burn spontaneously on being heated by radiation from the products of combustion.
2. Heat- Ignition heat is a device or means to start a fire. It can be asafety match, a lighted
candle, or of more sophisticated forms such as chemical, mechanical or electrical contrivance
designed to start a blaze, In physics, heat refers to the transfer of energy from one part of a
substance to another, or from one body to another by virtue of a difference in temperature.
Heat is energy in transit; it always streams trom a material or body at a higher
temperature to the substance at a lower temperature increasing the temperature of the latter
and lowering that of the former substance, provided the volume of the bodies remains
constant. Heat does not emanate from a lower to a higher temperature unless another form of
energy transfer, work, is also present.
Until the start of the 19th century, the effect of heat on the temperature of a body was
explained by suggesting the existence of an invisible substance or form of matter termed
caloric. According to the caloric theory of heat, a body at a high temperature holds more
caloric than one at a low temperature; the former body loses some caloric to the latter body
on contact, increasing that body's temperature while lowering its own. Although the caloric
theory effectively put in plain words some phenomena and observable fact of heat transfer,
experimental evidence was presented by the American-born British physicist Benjamin
Thompson later known as Count von Rumford in 1798 and by the British chemist Sir
Humphry Davy in 1799 suggesting that heat, like work, is a form of energy in transit.
Between 1840 and 1849 the British physicist James Prescott Joule, in a series of exceedingly
accurate experiments, presented conclusive evidence that heat is a form of energy in transit
and that it can cause the same changes in a body as work.
3. Oxygen - It is a tasteless, odorless colorless gas which is generally found within the Earth's
atmosphere. Oxygen composes 21 percent by volume or 23.15 percent by weight of the
atmosphere; 85.8 percent by weight of the oceans (88.8 percent of pure water is oxygen); and,
as an element of most rocks and minerals, 46.7 percent by weight of the solid crust of the
earth. Oxygen comprises 60 percent of the human body. It is a constituent of all living
tissues; almost all plants and animals, including all humans, need oxygen, in the free or
combined state, to maintain life. It is both vital to sustain human life and fire. Oxygen,
symbol 0, is slightly magnetic gaseous element. On earth, oxygen is more plentiful than any
other element. Oxygen was discovered in 1774 by the British chemist Joseph Priestley and,
separately, by the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele; it was shown to be an elemental
gas by the French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier in his classic experiments on
combustion.
Gaseous oxygen can be reduced to a pale blue liquid that is strongly magnetic. Pale
blue solid oxygen is created by compressing the liquid, The atomic weight of oxygen is
15.9994; at atmospheric pressure, the element boils at -182.96° C (-297.33° F), melts at -
218.* C(-361.1° F), and has a density of 1.429 g/liter at 0° C (32° F). Three structural
varieties of oxygen are known: ordinary oxygen, containing two atoms per molecule, formula
On; ozone, containing three atoms per molecule, formula Og; and a pale blue, nonmagnetic
form, O4, containing four atoms per molecule, which speedily breaks down into ordinary
oxygen. Three stable isotopes of oxygen are identified; OXygen-16 (atomic mass 16) is the
most abundant. It comprises 99. 76 percent of ordinary oxygen and was draw on in
determination of atomic weights until the 1960s.
Oxygen is generated in the laboratory from salts such as potassium chlorate, barium
peroxide, and sodium peroxide. The most significant industrial methods for the preparation of
oxygen are the electrolysis of water and the fractional distillation of liquid air. In the latter
technique, air is liquefied and allowed to evaporate. The nitrogen in the liquid air is more
unstable and boils off first, leaving the oxygen. Oxygen is accumulated and shipped in either
liquid or gaseous form. Oxygen is an element of various organic and inorganic compounds. It
develops compounds known as oxides with almost all the elements, including some of the
noble gases. A chemical reaction in which an oxide forms is referred to as oxidation. The
speed of the reaction varies with different elements. Ordinary combustion, or burning, is a
very fast type of oxidation. In spontaneous combustion, the heat developed by the oxidation
reaction is adequately immense to raise the temperature of the substance to the point that
flames result. For instance, phosphorus combines so dynamically with oxygen that the heat
liberated in the reaction causes the phosphorus to melt and burn. Specific very delicately
divided powders present so much surface area to the air that they burst into flame by
spontaneous combustion; they are known as pyrophoric substances. Hydrogen, magnesium,
sulfur, and sodium, combine with oxygen less vigorously and burn only after ignition.
Elements, such as mercury and copper, develop Oxides slowly, even when heated. Inactive
metals, such as platinum, iridium, and gold, form oxides only through indirect methods.
How does a fire start?
A person who wants to start a fire should have in his possession two of the three
elements of the fire triangle, a piece of paper to act as the fuel and a safety match to act as the
ignition heat, oxygen is virtually all around hence it need not be procured. The moment the
fire setter strikes the match and lights the piece of paper. Chemically speaking it is not the
paper being burned but the chemical process talking place is pyrolysis.
Pyrolysis is the chemical process whereby fire consumes most solid. Once fuel
becomes ignited, the characteristics of the fire that follows depend upon the chemical make
up of the fuel. As the fuel becomes heated, the moisture in it starts to produce water vapors.
Immediately thereafter, the decomposition begins to produce combustible vapors known as
free radicals, it is these vapor that burn Wood and most solid organic compounds such as coal
do not burn but they pyrolyze.
Physical properties of matter related with fires:

 Specific gravity which refers to the ratio of the weight of the liquid or the solid substance
to the weight of an equal volume of water.
 Vapor density which is the weight of the volume of pure gas opposed to the weight of a
volume of dry air with the same temperature and pressure.
 Temperature refers to the measure of the degree of thermal agitation or disturbance of

molecules.
 Vapor pressure which is the force exerted by the molecules on the surface of the liquid at
equilibrium.
 Fire point which refers to the lowest temperature of a liquid in an open container at
which vapors are developed fast enough to support uninterrupted combustion.
 Flash point which refers to the heat at which a flammable liquid form a vapor-air mixture
that ignites.
 Kindling temperature which is also referred to as ignition temperature refers to the
minimum temperature to which the substance in the air must be heated in order to start a
self contained combustion without adding heat from other sourcees.
 Boiling point which is the constant heat at which vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to
the atmospheric pressure.
Chemical properties of fire:

1. Flames which are incandescent gasses which is categorized as those:
Based on color and completeness of combustibility of fuel:

 Non luminous flame - the color of the flame is blue due to the almost complete
combustion of the fuel and has relatively high temperature and forms no soot deposit.
 Luminous flame - the color is orange-red due to incomplete combustion of the fuel, has
relatively lower temperature and will deposit soot to anything being subjected to it.
Based on smoothness:
 Turbulent flames which refer to those having irregular and unsteady swirls.
 Laminar flame which refer to flames which generally follows a smooth path through a
gaseous flame.
Based on air and fuel mixture:
 Diffusion flames are manifested when fuel alone is forced through a nozzle into the
atmosphere which spread in the surrounding atmosphere forming a flammable mixture.
 Pre-mixed flames are those observed when hydrocarbon is mixed with air before
reaching the flame zone.
Flame is a glowing body of mixed gases undergoing the process of combustion. Flames
commonly consist of a mixture of oxygen (or air) and another gas, usually such combustible
substances as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, or hydrocarbon.
A normal flame is that of a burning candle. When the candle is lighted, the heat of the
match dissolves the wax, which is carried up the wick and then vaporized by the heat. The
vaporized wax is then broken down by the heat and, lastly, combines with the oxygen of the
surrounding air, producing a flame and generating heat and light. The candle flame is made
up of three zones that are easily set apart. The innermost zone, a non-luminous cone, is
composed of a gas-air mixture at a moderately low temperature. In the second or luminous
cone, hydrogen and carbon monoxide are generated by decomposition and begin to act in
response with oxygen to form water and carbon dioxide, respectively. In this cone the
temperature of the flame- is approximately 590° to 680° C (about 1090° to 1250° F-is great
enough to disconnect the gases in the flame and produce free particles of carbon, which are
heated to incandescence and then consumed. The radiant carbon produces the characteristic
yellow light of this portion of the flame. Beyond the luminous cone is a third, invisible cone
in which the remaining carbon monoxide and hydrogen are finally consumed.
If a cold object is initiated into the outer portions of a flame, the temperature of that
part of the lame will be reduced below the point of combustion, and unburned carbon and
carbon monoxide will he given off. Consequently, if a porcelain dish is passed through a
candle flame. it will receive a deposit of carbon in the form of soot. Operation of any kind of
flame-producing stove in a room that is unventilated is unsafe and hazardous because of the
production of carborn monoxide, which is poisonous.
All combustible substances necessitate an exact proportion of oxygen for complete
burning. A flame can be persistent in an atmosphere of pure chlorine, although combustion is
not complete. In the burning of a candle, or of solids such as wood or coal, this Oxygen is
provided by the proximate atmosphere. In blowpipes and diverse types of gas burners, air or
pure oxygen is mixed with the gas at the base of the burner so that the carbon is consumed
almost immediately at the mouth of the burner. For this cause such flames are non-luminous.
They also concern a smaller volume and are proportionately hotter than a regular candle
flame. The hottest segment of the flame of a Bunsen burner has a temperature of
approximately 1600° C (about 2910° F. The hottest portion of the oxygen-acetylene flames
utilized for welding metals reaches 3500° C (6330° F); such flames have a bluish-green cone
in place of the luminous cone. If the oxygen supply is condensed, such flames have four
cones: non-luminous, bluish-green, luminous, and invisible.
The blue-green cone of any flame is usually called the reducing cone, because it is
inadequately supplied with oxygen and will take up oxygen from substances placed within it.
In the same way, the outermost cone, which has a surplus of oxygen, is called the oxidizing
cone. Thorough studies of the molecular processes taking place in various regions of flames
are now achievable through the techniques of laser spectroscopy.
2. Endothermic reactions which refers to changes whereby heat is added or absorbed before
the reaction takes place. Energy is conserved in chemical reactions. If stronger bonds break
than are formed, heat must be absorbed from the surroundings, and the reaction is
endothermic. Spontaneous endothermic reactions, are also well known Such as the dissolving
of salt in water.
Endothermic reactions are always related with the diffusion, or the dissociation, of
molecules. This can be measured as an intensification in the entropy of the system. The net
effect of the tendency for strong bonds to take shape and the tendency of molecules and ions
to spread out, or disconnect, can be measured as the change in free energy of the system. All
unstructured changes at constant pressure and temperature ental an increase in free energy,
with a sizeable increase in bond strength, or a large increase in spreading out, or both.
3. Exothermic reactions are those that give off or release energy or heat which produces
substance with less energy than the reactants. stronger bonds form in the products than are
broken in the reactants, heat 1s released to the surroundings, and the reaction 1s termea
exothermic. Because strong bonds are more apt to form than weak bonds, spontaneous
exothermic reactions are common-for example, the combustion of carbon-containing fuels
with air to give CO2 and H20, both of which possess strong bonds
4. Oxidation which refers to the chemical changes which combustible materials and oxidizing
agents reacts. Some reactions, such as explosions and fire, take place swiftly. Other reactions,
such as rusting, transpire slowly.
Chemical kinetics, the study of reaction rates, demonstrates that three conditions must
be met at the molecular level if a reaction is to transpire: The molecules must have a
collision; they must be positioned so that the reacting groups are together in a conversion
state between reactants and products; and the collision must have enough energy to
materialize the transition state and convert it into products. High-speed reactions occur when
these three criteria are easy to meet. If even one is complicated, however, the reaction is
characteristically slow, even though the change in free energy allows a spontaneous reaction.
Rates of reaction intensify in the presence of catalysts, substances that make available
a new, faster reaction mechanism but are themselves regenerated so that they can continue
the process. ombinations of hydrogen and oxygen gases at room temperature do not explode.
But the introduction of powdered platinum results to an explosion as the platinum surface
becomes covered with adsorbed oxygen. The platinum atoms extend the bonds of the O2
molecules, weakening them and lowering the activation energy. The oxygen atoms then react
swiftly with hydrogen molecules, colliding with them, forming water, and stimulating the
catalyst. The steps by which a reaction occurs are known as the reaction mechanism.
Speed of reaction can be altered and modified not only by catalysts but also by
changes in temperature and by changes in concentrations. Raising the temperature increases
the speed by increasing the kinetic energy of the molecules of the reactants, thereby
increasing the possibility of transition states being achieved. Increasing the intensity can
intensify the reaction rate by increasing the rate of molecular collisions.
Combustion is a process of rapid Oxidation or burning of a substance with
simultaneous evolution of heat and, usualy, light. In the case of ordinary fuels, the process is
one of chemical combination with atmospheric oxygen to produce as the principal products
carbon dioxide carbon monoxide, and water, together with products such as sulfur dioxide
that may be produced by the minor constituents of the fuel. The term combustion, however,
also includes oxidation in the broad chemical sense, and the oxidizing agent may be nitric
acid, certain perchlorates, or even chlorine or fluorine. Most combustion processes discharge
energy, or heat, for the production of power, for use in industrial processes, and for domestic
heating and lighting. Combustion is also a process of generating a desired oxidized product,
as in the burning of sulfur to produce sulfur dioxide and ultimately sulfuric acid. In addition,
combustion is a method for disposing of wastes.
The energy released by combustion causes an increase in temperature of the products
of combustion. The temperature reached depends on the speed of release and dissipation of
the energy and the quantity of combustion products. Air is a free source of oxygen, but
because air is three-quarters nitrogen by weight, nitrogen becomes the major constituent of
the products of combustion, and the rise in temperature is considerably less than if pure
oxygen were used. Hypothetically, in any combustion, a minimum ratio of air to tuel is
necessary for complete combustion. The combustion, however, can be made more effortlessly
complete, and the energy released maximized, by increasing the amount of air. An excess of
air, conversely, reduces the critical temperature of the products and the amount of the
released energy. Therefore, an optimum air-to-fuel ratio can almost always be determined,
depending on the speed and degree of combustion and the final temperature desired. Air with
supplemented oxygen content or pure oxygen, as in the case of the oxyacetylene torch, may
be used to produce high temperatures as used in Acetylene. The speed of combustion may be
increased by finely dividing the fuel to escalate its surface area and hence its rate of reaction,
and by mixing it with the air to give the necessary amount of oxygen to the fuel If energy
must be released exceedingly fast, as in the case of rockets, the Oxidizer may be incorporated
directly into the fuel during the manufactur of the fuel.
Combustion products:
 Smoke which is made up of minute or fine solid particles a condensed vapor resulting
from combustion. It is the dispersion small liquid or solid particles, usually produced by
a combustion process, These particles are usually less than one micrometer, or one-
millionth of a meter, in size, so small as not to be individualy or observable. Larger
particles that can be seen singly are generay called dust; dust settles comparatively
rapidly compared to smoke particles.
 Black smoke with deep red litmus flames are indication that the fuel used in the fire
maybe tar, plastic, rubber or petroleum products.
 Greenish yellow flame is a result when the fuel used is manganese or chlorine.
 Bright reddish-yellow flame which indicates that calcium is used.
 Heavy brown smoke with bright red flames is indications that nitrogen products were
used in the fire. White smoke with bright red flames indicates that magnesium is used.
 Black smoke with red and blue-green flames would specify that asphalt shingles is used
in the fire.
 Lavender or purple flames would show that potassium was used in the fire as fuel.
Fire gases are gases which remain when the products of combustion are cooled to normal
temperature.
Flames are incandescent gases which accompanies rapid oxidation of any combustible
material.
Heat which is always measured as high temperature is a normal result of combustion.
Three kinds of fire:

1. Providential- caused by acts of God. This kind of fire can never be prevented as usually
hard to control. It comes in the form of lightning bolts, erupting volcanoes or as a result of
tremors.
2. Accidental- it is caused mostly by human error and negligence. Such as smoking in bed,
defective LPG containers, faulty electrical wiring, leaving plugged electrical appliances.
3. Intentional- this is known as incidiarism or classified as Arson. This kind of fire is set on
purpose either to collect insurance, cover-up another crime or personal/ business rivalry.
Three phases of fire:

1. Initial- This is the beginning of fire, The product of pyrolysis is mainly water vapor and
carbon dioxide. The base area of the fire has a temperature of 400 to 800 degrees Fahrenheit.
It is in this stage that fire fighting is easily controlled and subdued.
2. Free burning- This is the acceleration of pyrolitic process. It is during this stage that the
maximum heat and destructive capabilities of fire develop. Thus combating fire in this stage
is very difficult and requires more than one fireftighter. The thermal column of fire carries
destructive gases such as combustible vapor and carbon monoxide. The base temperature of
the fire is round 800 to 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit and ceiling temperature up to 1,600 degrees
Fahrenheit.
3. Smoldering- This stage is where the fire glows and the combustible materials smolder.
Flames would not be visible buta large amount of carbon monoxide is produced. This is the
reason why masks are essential in firefighting. At this point back draft may occur, wherein
the sudden introduction of oxygen with superheated fuel under pressure will cause an
explosion. Another threat to those at the fire scene is the presence of carbon monoxide which
at some levels may cause death to those exposed to it.
Fire behavior: Fire behavior such as thermal balance and thermal imbalance are those
activities wherein the fireman and investigators should be acquainted or familiar with.
 Thermal balance refers to the natural condition created by the fire or the normal
movement of fire, smoke and fire gases within a structure or building.
 Thermal imbalance refers to those turbulent circulations of steam and smoke which
replaces the normal flow ot the product of combustion. Hot spots may develop during the
extinguishment of the fire upsetting the thermal balance; such holes produced may
mislead the investigator to believe that fire originated at that location.
TOPIC 2: Heat
TIME ALLOCATION: Three Weeks
c) Materials
d) Reference
Bookstore Inc.
CHAPTER II
HEAT
Heat is produced from the breaking and formation of chemical bonds. In a chemical
reaction, atoms are not lost but merely restructured. Molecules absorb energy when their
chemical bonds are reformed.
All oxidation reaction give of more energy than they absorb, which is released in the
torm or neat, 1ght, no1se, shock or a combination thereof, depending upon the single or
double-bonding that takes place when the molecules reform. Most reactions are exothermic,
which means they require very ittle energy to get started hence a lower ignition or kindling
temperature is needed, and some reactions are endothermic which means they require or need
a booster or more energy to get started.
It is necessary to be familiar with the common ways which heat energy can be
produced. Fire prevention and suppression are dependent on the control of heat energy. Aside
from the sun, there are four known sources of heat, namely: Chemical, Electrical, Nuclear
and Mechanical.
Chemical Heat Energy wherein oxidation reaction is exothermic:
1. Heat of Combustion also known as calorific or fuel value, it refers to the quantity of heat
released during the complete oxidation where the organic fuel is converted to water and
carbon dioxide. Heat of combustion depends upon the kind and members of atoms in the
molecule as well as upon their arrangement; it is used in calculating fire loading.
2. Spontaneous Heating refers to the process of raising the temperature of a material by
means of slow oxidation without drawing heat from its surrounding until the ignition
temperature consequences into combustion. Air supply, rate of heat generation and insulating
properties of the immediate surrounding will determine whether or not an oxidation reaction
will cause dangerous heating.
3. Heat of solution refers to the heat released when a substance is assolved in a liquid. Many
materials release heat when dissolved but e quantity is usually not sufficient to have any
significant effect on fire protection.
4. Heat of decomposition refers to the heat released by the decaying and rotting of
compounds requiring the addition of heat for their formation. Compounds formed from
exothermic reactions are often unstable. When decomposition is started by heating these
compounds above critical temperature decomposition continues with the liberation of heat.
Electrical Heat Energy: Heat is produced when electric current flows through a conductor
or when a spark jumps on air gap. In a current flow passing through conductors, electrons are
passed along from one atom to another; metals are good conductors of electricity allowing
easy and swift movement of electrons to pass trough it.
1. Resistant heating occurs when the rate of heat generation is proportional to the resistance
and square of the current. Exposed wire conductors can carry more current than insulated
wires without heating dangerously since the temperature of the conductor consequential from
resistance heating depends on dissipation of heat to the surrounding.
2. Heat generated by lighting. The release of an electric charge on a cloud to an opposite
charge on another cloud or on the ground is called lightning. Lightning passing between the
cloud and the ground can build up very intense temperature in any material of resistance in its
path.
3. Frictional electricity, also known as static electricity it is an electrical discharge that
amasses on the surface of two materials that have been brought together and then separated.
One surface becomes negatively charged and the other positively. If the substance are not
grounded or bonded they will accumulate enough electrical charge producing a spark. Clouds
of combustible dust, flammable vapors and gases are capable of being ignited. Fuel flowing
in a pipe can produce sufficient static electricity to ignite a flammable vapor.
4. Heat from arcing. Arcing is a product of the interruption of an electrical circuit either
intentionally as by knife switch or accidentaly as when a terminal or contact becomes loose.
Temperature of arc may melt conductors, are very high and the heat released is enough to
ignite a flammable or combustible material upon contact.
5. Inductive heating. Food in microwave oven is heated by molecular friction induced by
absorbed microwave energy. This type of heating increases with frequency of alteration.
Whenever atoms are subjected to electric potential gradients from external sources, the
arrangement of the atoms is distorted with a probability for electrons to move in the direction
of opposite direction. Potential differences appear in the conductor whenever it is subjected to
the influence of an irregular or alternative magnetic field. These potential differences result in
the flow of current with attendance resistance heating in the conductor. For alternating
potentials, additional energy expended and as polarity changes it appear as heat energy
resulting from the electrical and mechanical distortion of the molecular structure.
Nuclear Heat Energy. The nucleus of an atom is composed of particles bonded together by
tremendous forces which can be released when the nucleus is bombarded by energized
particles. Nuclear energy is released in the form of pressure, nuclear radiation and heat.
Unstable radioactive atoms spontaneously emit rays or particles from the nucleus of their
atom.
1. Nuclear fusion includes all nuclear reactions in which two light nuclei combine to form
heavier nucleus with the emission of particles or gamma rays. Energy used in man made
bombs known as hydrogen bombs are from these reactions where two deuteriunm atoms
fused to form Helium.
2. Nuclear fission occurs when a sub-atomic particle called neutron bombards an appropriate
type of nucleus. The nucleus then splits into two lighter nuclei releasing a tremendous
amount of energy in the form of kinetic energy of the fission fragments, In every act of
fission, neutrons are emitted and if one of these is at least captured by another fissionable
nucleus, a fission chain nucleus, a fission chain reaction with the uninterrupted production of
energy becomes possible. The apparatus by which fission chain is initiated, maintained and
controlled I order that the accompanying energy is released at a specified rate is called a
nuclear reactor. Uraniun and thorium are basic materials which can be used for the release of
nuclear energy by fission.
Mechanical Heat Energy. Responsible for a significant number of fires, mechanical heat
which may produce ignition released by compression are due to frictional heat.
1. Frictional heat is a product of mechanical energy used in Overcoming the resistance to
motion when two solids are rubbed together. Any friction may generate heat; the danger may
depend on the amount of mechanical energy transformed to heat and the rate at which heat is
generated. Heat caused by friction is sparks from hot metal particles thrown off when a piece
of foreign metal enters a grinding mill, and the heat formed by friction of a slipping belt
against a pulley.
2. Heat of compression refers to heat released when gas is compressed also known as diesel
effect. When the temperature of gas increases the volume of the gas decreases, heat of
compression eliminates the use of spark ignition system as manifested I diesel engines.
3. Overheating of machinery may cause fires from the heat gathered from the rolling, friction
or sliding in machinery or between two hard surfaces, at least one of which is usually a metal.
Ignition sources of this kind are heated bearings, belts or rotating machinery which overheats
as a result of pulley slippage.
Heat Units:
Heat is calculated in terms of the calorie, defined as the amount of heat necessary to
raise the temperature of 1 g of water at a pressure of 1 atm from 15° to 16° C. This unit is
occasionally called the small or gram calorie to distinguish it from the large calorie, or
kilocalorie, equal to 1000 cal, which is used in nutrition studies. In mechanical engineering
application in the United States and Great Britain, heat is measured in British thermal units,
or Btu. One Btu is the magnitude of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water 1°
F and is equal to 252 cal. Mechanical energy can be transformed into heat by friction, and the
mechanical work necessary to produce 1 cal is known as the mechanical equivalent of heat. It
is equal to 4.1855 x 10' ergs/ cal or 778 ft-1b Btu. According to the law of conservation of
energy, all the mechanical energy expended to generate heat by friction appears as energy in
the objects on which the work is performed. This fact was first irrefutably proven in a classic
experinment performed by Joule, who heated water in a closed vessel by means of rotating
paddle wheels and found that the rise in water temperature was proportional to the
work expended in turning the wheels.
1. Calorie, the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water 1°C, it is
measured at 15° to 16° C. 1 BTU = 252 calories.
2. BTU, British Thermal Unit refers to the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
one pound of water 1°F.
3. Specific heat known as thermal capacity of a substance this refers to the number of BTU
needed to raise the temperature of one pound of a substance 1°F or the number of calories to
raise one gram 1° C. Except for water all substances have specific heat less than its
density.
4. Latent heat refers to the amount of heat absorbed by a substance when a substance from
solid to a liquid, and from a liquid to gas. On the other hand, heat is released during the
conversion of a gas to liquid or liquid to solid.
5. Heat of fusion is the quantity of heat necessary to convert solid to liquid.
6. Heat of vaporization is the quantity of heat absorbed when a substance is converted from
liquid to gas.
Heat Transfer is a process by which energy in the form of heat is exchanged between bodies
or parts of the same body at different temperatures. Heat is generally transferred by
convection, radiation, or conduction. Although these three processes can take place
simultaneously, it is not unusual for one mechanism to eclipse the other two. Heat, for
instance, is transferred by conduction through the brick wall of a house, the surfaces of high-
speed aircraft are heated by convection, and the earth receives heat from the sun by radiation.
Methods of heat transfer:
 Conduction - Which refers to the passage of heat energy trom particle to particle in a
substance. Heat moves by conduction through solids or between solids in contact with
each other. The speed of conduction depends upon the temperature difference and
density of the solid. Solids are better heat conductors than gases; in a perfect vacuum no
heat is conducted. Thermal conductivity which refers to the measure of the rate of flow
of heat through unit area of the material unit without temperature gradient. Unit
temperature gradient means that in the direction of the heat flow, the temperature is
falling off one degree per unit distance. This is the only mode of heat transfer in opaque
solids. f the temperature at one end of a metal rod is increased by heating, heat is
conducted to the colder end, but the exact mechanism of heat conduction in solids is not
completely understood. It is assumed, motion of free however, to be partially due to the
electrons in the solid matter, which transport energy if a temperature difference is
applied. This hypothesis helps to clarify why good electrical conductors also tend to be
good heat conductors. Although the occurrence of heat conduction had been observed for
centuries, it was not until 1882 that the French mathematician Jean Baptiste Joseph
Fourier gave it accurate mathematical expression in what is now regarded as Fourier's
law of heat conduction. This physical law states that the rate at which heat is conducted
through a body per unit cross-sectional area is relative to the negative of the temperature
gradient existing in the body. The proportionality factor is known as thermal conductivity
of the material. Materials such as gold, silver, and copper have high thermal
conductivities and conduct heat readily, but materials such as glass and asbestos have
values of thermal conductivity hundreds and thousands of times smaller, conduct heat
poorly, and are referred to as insulators.
 Convection - Usually generated by intense fire it refers to heat travel in an upward
movement. Heat moves by convection by moving from one molecule to another creating
a thermal column called convection currents which circulates and rise. Convection is a
means by which heat is transformed by a circulating medium either gas or a liquid.
Convection currents also carry combustible and heated pyrolytic products upward in a
structure to the highest point available. The gases produced by strong heat then
mushroom out across the bottom art of the roof until the horizontal movement is blocked.
At this stage, it begins to bank down along the sides of the walls of the structure leaving
the inverted cone burnt patters referred to as the fingerprint of fire. When the ignition
temperature of these gases is attained they flash and ignite into what is known as flash-
over which produces the dreaded fireballs which could be shot by at a very intense fire to
hundred yards distance. Conduction transpire not only within a body but also between
two bodies if they are brought into contact, and if one of the substances is a liquid or a
gas, then fluid motion will almost certainly take place. This process of conduction
between a solid surface and a moving liquid or gas is known as convection. The motion
of the fluid may be natural or artificial. If a liquid or gas is heated, its mass per unit
volume normally decreases. If the liquid or gas is in a gravitational field, the hotter,
lighter fluid rises while the colder, heavier fluid descends. This kind of motion, due
solely to non-uniformity of fluid temperature in the presence of a gravitational field, is
referred to as natural convection. Forced or artificial convection is attained by subjecting
the fiuid to a pressure gradient and thereby forcing motion to take place according to the
law of fluid mechanics. If, for instance, water in a pan is heated from below, the liquid
closest to the bottom expands and its density decreases; the hot water as a result rises to
the top and some of the cooler fluid move down toward the bottom, thus setting up a
circulatory motion. Likewise, in a vertical gas-filled chamber, such as the air space
between two window panes in a double-glazed, or Thermopane, window, the air near the
cold outer pane will descend and the air near the inner, warmer pane will rise, leading to
a circulatory motion. The warmth of a room by a radiator depends less on radiation than
on natural convection currents, the hot air rising upward along the wall and cooler air
coming back to the radiator from the side of the bottom. Because of the inclination of hot
air to rise cool air to sink, radiators should be placed and of near the floor and air-
conditioning outlets near the ceiling for maximum efficiency. Natural convection is also
responsible for the ascending of the hot water and steam in natural-convection boilers
and for the draft in a chimney. Convection also establishes the movement of large air
masses above the earth, the action of the winds, rainfall, ocean currents, and the transfer
of heat from the interior of the sun to its surface.
 Radiation - This process is basically different from both conduction and convection in
that the substances exchanging heat need not be in contact with each other. They can
transfer heat even when separated by a vacuum. Radiation is a term commonly applied to
all kinds of electromagnetic-wave phenomena. The process in which energy such as heat
and rays of ight is sent out from atoms and molecules as they undergo internal alteration.
Radiation energy travels in a straight line with the speed of light. Thus, heat absorbed
from the pin point source would be very much less than the same quantity of heat
absorbed from a large radiating surface provided that the absorbing body also has an
appreciable area. Heat energy travels or is radiated from a hot body to a cold body. The
radiation is absorbed by the combustible surfaces of exposed or nearby structure. As the
heat builds up, pyrolytic decomposition starts. When the ignition temperature is reached,
the materials bombarded by radiation will flash into flames. Some radiation occurrence
can be described in terms of wave theory, and others can be explained in terms of
quantum theory. Neither theory, however, completely give details all experimental
observations. The German-born American physicist Albert Einstein quantized
categorically demonstrated (1905) the behavior of radiant energy in his classical
photoelectric experiments. Prior to Einstein's experiments the quantized nature of radiant
energy had been assumed, and the German physicist Max Planck used quantum theory
and the mathematical formalism of statistical mechanics to derive (1900) a fundamental
law of radiation. The mathematical expression of this law, called Planck's distribution,
correlates the intensity or strength of radiant energy given off by a body to the
temperature of the body and the wavelength of radiation. This is the maximum amount of
radiant energy that can be produced by a body at a particular temperature. Only an ideal
body known as blackbody, emits such radiation according to Planck's law. Real bodies
emit at a rather reduced intensity. The input of all frequencies to the radiant energy
emitted by a body is called the emissive power of the body, the amount of energy emitted
by a unit surface area of a body per unit of time. As can be manifested from Planck's law,
the emissive power of a surface is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute
temperature. The proportionality factor is referred to as the Stefan-Boltzmann constant
after two Austrian physicists, Joseph Stefan and Ludwig Boltzmann, who, in 1879 and
1884, correspondingly, discovered the fourth power relationship for the emissive power.
According to Planck's law, all substances emit radiant energy merely by benefit of
having a positive absolute temperature. The higher the temperature, the larger the amount
of energy emitted. In addition to emitting, all matter are capable of absorbing radiation.
Thus, although an ice cube is incessantly emitting radiant energy, it will melt if a
luminescent lamp is focused on it because it will be absorbing a greater amount of heat
than it is emitting. Dense and solid surfaces can absorb or reflect incident radiation.
Normally, dull, rough surfaces absorb more heat than bright, polished surfaces, and
bright surfaces reflect more radiant energy than dull surfaces. Good absorbers are also
good emitters; good reflectors, or poor absorbers, are poor emitters. Some substances,
such as gases and glass, have the ability to transmit large amounts of radiation. It is
experimentally observed that the absorbing, reflecting, and transmitting characteristics of
a substance depend upon the wavelength of the incident radiation. Glass, for example,
transmits large amounts of short wavelength (ultraviolet) radiation, but is a poor
transmitter of long wavelength (infrared) radiation. An outcome of Planck's distribution
is that the wavelength at which the maximum amount of radiant energy is emitted by a
body decreases as the temperature increases. Wien's displacement law, named after the
German physicist Wilhelm Wien, is a mathematical expression of this observation and
states that the wavelength of maxinmum energy, expressed in micrometers (millionths of
a meter), multiplied by the Kelvin temperature of the body is equivalent to a constant,
2878. The majority of the energy radiated by the sun, therefore, is characterized by small
wavelengths. This fact, together with the transmitting properties of glass mentioned
above, give explanation to the greenhouse effect. Radiant energy from the sun is diffused
through the glass and enters the greenhouse. The energy emitted by the contents of the
greenhouse, however, which give off primarily at infrared wavelengths, is not
transmitted out through the glass. Therefore, although the air temperature outside the
greenhouse may be low, the temperature inside the greenhouse will be much higher
because there is a sizable net heat transfer into it.
Heat Measurement
The sensation of warmth or coldness of a matter on contact is determined by the
property known as temperature. While it is easy to compare the relative temperatures of two
substances by the sense of touch, it is impracticable to evaluate the absolute magnitude of the
temperatures by subjective reactions. Adding heat to a body, however, not only raises its
temperature, causing it to impart a more sharp sensation of warmth, but also produces
alterations in several physical properties, which may be measured with precision. As the
temperature fluctuates, a substance expands or contracts, its electrical resistivity changes, and
in the gaseous form, it exerts varying pressure. The variation in a standard property usually
serves as a basis for an accurate numerical temperature scale
Temperature depends on the arithmetiC mean kinetic energy of the molecules of a
substance, and according to kinetic theory, energy may exist in rotational, vibrational and
translational motions of the particles of a substance Temperature, nonetheless, depends only
on the translational molecular motion. Theoretically, the molecules of a substance would
demonstrate no activity at the temperature termed absolute zero.
Heat of any material is measured by temperature; said temperature refers to the
condition which determines whether it will transfer heat to or from other materials. The most
common device which measures temperature is the thermometer.
A thermometer consists of a tube filled partially with liquid measures the expansion
and contraction of the liquid with changes on temperature. The tube is calibrated to allow the
reading of the level of the liquid in degrees of a temperature scale.
Fahrenheit degree °F is 1/180 the difference between the melting point of ice and the
boiling point of water. In the Fahrenheit scale, used in English-speaking countries for
purposes other than scientific work and based on the mercury thermometer the melting point
of ice is 32° F while boiling point of water is 212° F.
Centigrade also known as Celsius degree °C is 1/100 the difference between the
temperature of meting ice and boiling water at one atmospheric pressure. On the centigrade
scale the boiling point of water is 100° C and the melting point of ice is at 0° C. Celcius scale
is widely used throughout the world, particularly for scientific work, although it was
superseded officially in 1950 by the international temperature scale.
Absolute or Kelvin °A or °K is the same scale as Celsius degree but the boiling point
of water is 373 and the melting point of ice is at 273. . In the Kelvin scale, the most commony
used thermodynamic temperature scale, zero is defined as the absolute zero of temperature,
that is, -273.15° C, or -459.67 P.
Another scale employing absolute zero as its lowest point is the Rankine scale, in
which each degree of temperature is equivalent to one degree on the Fahrenheit scale. The
freezing point of water on the Rankine scale is 492° R, and the bollls point is 672° R.
In 1933 scientists of 31 nations adopted a new international temperature scale with additional
fixed temperature points, based on the Kelvin scale and thermodynamic principles. The
international scale is based on the property of electrical resistance, with platinum wire as the
standard for temperature between -190° and 660° C. Above 660° C, to the melting point of
gold, 1063° C, a standard thermocouple, which is a gadget that measures temperature by the
amount of voltage produced between two wires of different metals, is used; beyond this point
temperatures are measured by the so-called optical pyrometer, which uses the intensity of
light of a wavelength emitted by a hot body for the purpose.
TOPIC 3: Combustible Materials

TIME ALLOCATION: Three Weeks
e) Materials
f) Reference
Bookstore Inc.
CHAPTER III
COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS
Known as fuel in the fire triangle, combustible materials must be heated to its ignition
temperature before it burns. It is categorized as solid, liquid and gas.
Common solid combustible materials.
1. Wood and wood based products. A very adaptable material which is usually utilized in
construction, furniture, interior decoration and the like. Given the sufficient thermal
environment, wood is conducive to a given reaction it will char, smolder, ignite and burn.
The principal components of wood are carbon, oxygen and hydrogen with minute
quantities of nitrogen and sulfur. The other chemical components are nitro cellulose, resin,
sugar, lignin, gums, and esters of alcohol and mineral matters which forms ash when wood is
burned. In live wood the cells retains available moisture in forms of water, when dead and
dried air replaces most of the water in the cellulose structure.
The factors influencing ignition and burning are physical form wherein smaller pieces
speeds up the burning process; moisture content wherein dead wood burns faster than live
wood due the absence of water; heat of conductivity wherein wood is a poor conductor thus
having a high insulating value; the rate and period of heating which infuence the
susceptibility of wood to ignition; the rate of combustion which is markedly infiuenced by the
physical form of the combustible material, the air supply present, the moisture content, and
other factors where complete combustion to proceed there must progressive vaporization of
the solid; and the Ignition temperature which vary widely depending on the specific gravity
sample, and the aforementioned factors.
1. Textiles and Fibers. Amost all textile and fibers are combustibles. The factors that
influence the burning of textile are chemical composition of the textile fiber, the finish of the
fabric, the fabric weight, the tightness of the weave and the flame retardant treatment.
Fibers may be classified according to its composition as natural fibers such as mineral
or inorganic such as asbestos, Vegetable or cellulosic such as cotton, coconut, corn and pulp
and animal or protein as wool from sheep and silk from worm; and Artificial or synthetic
such as inorganic like steel and fiber glass and organic which imitates vegetable fibers such
as rayon.
Fiber finish ifsufficient combustible coating or decorative materials are placed on
fabric will sustain continued flaming. A number of synthetic fabrics when exposed to
temperature approaching their decomposition or melting temperatures shrink. When
shrinkage brought the fabric into contact with the skin, the insulating layer of air is reduced
and the amount of heat transferred to the skin is significantly increased.
Fabric weight affects the rate of combustion at which the textile fiber undergoes, the
heavier the fabric of the same composition, the more resistance to ignition. Tightness of
weave is a factor in burning since the closer the fibers are in the weaving of fabrics the more
it will minimize the air spaces between them delaying the speed of burning.
The effect of chemical treatments in reducing the flammability of combustible fabrics
is complex and varied. Chemical or mixture produces non combustible gases that tend to
prevent oxygen from burning surfaces. Radicals and molecules from degradation of the flame
retardant chemical reaction are endothermic and interface with the chain reaction in the
flame. A non-volatile char or liquid is formed by the chemical which lowers the quantity of
oxygen and heat that can reach the fabric. And divided particles are formed that change the
combustion reaction.
3. Plastics are classified as ordinary combustible; it consists of materials mainly of organic or
high molecular weight substances. Plastics are solid in finished state, with more than 30
classes of polymer groupings.
Liquid combustible materials.
1. Flammable liquids have a flash point below 37.8° C and having a vapor pressure not
exceeding 40 psi. Combustible liquids are those with a flash point of above 37.8° C. It is the
vapor from these liquids which are used as fuels from the evaporation of the liquids when
exposed to air and under influence of heat which will explode or burn. The most widely used
flammable liquid is gasoline.
2. Burning characteristics of liquids. Liquids having vapors in the flammable range above the
liquid surface at the stored temperature will have a rapid rate of flame propagation.
Flammable and combustible liquids having flash points of above stored temperature have a
slower rate of flame propagation since it is necessary for the fire to heat adequately the liquid
surface to produce a flammable vapor-air mixture before the flame will spread through the
vapor.
Wind velocity, temperature, heat of combustion, barometric pressure and latent heat
of vaporization are variables affecting the speed or rate of propagation and burning. Fire and
explosion from combustible and flammable liquids may be prevented by the following
measures: Exclusion of sources of ignition; exclusion of air; keeping liquids in closes system
or container; ample ventilation to prevent the accumulation of vapor within the flammable
range and the use of inert gas instead of air.
Gases. Gas is a state of matter which has no definite shape and volume. Composed of minute
particles called molecules which are at constant random motion in a straight line.
Gases as to its Physical Properties:
1. Compressed gas in which at all normal atmospheric temperature 1nside its container exist
exclusively in the gaseous state under pressure which depends on the pressure to which the
container is originally charged, temperature affects the volume and pressure of the gas.
2. Liquefied gas is one which at normal atmospheric temperature inside its container exists
partly in liquid and solid state and under pressure as long as the liquid remains in the
container. The pressure depends upon the temperature of the liquid, the amount of liquid.
Safeguards to be considered in the installation of LPG in the kitchen:

a. Cylinders should be installed on a firm level foundation such as brick, reinforced
concrete, and slabs, mortar and brick base.
b. Regulator and manifold should be firmly supported on brackets from the wall of the
building to prevent strain on house piping connection.
c. Connection between the cylinder and regulator on house piping to reduce the
pressure of the gas to proper appliance operating pressure.
d. When containers are not connected to the system the outlet valves should be tightly
closed even though the cylinders are considered empty.
e. When installation are made in public places, such as school grounds, cylinder
valve, regulators and equipment must be protected by properly floored and ventilated
cabinets to prevent tampering and damage. Should there be leaks, the following procedure is
advised:
a. Do not turn on electric lights or motors in that part of the premises where gas may
have escaped.
b. Turn off gas at cylinders.
c. Extinguish all flames or pilot lights which might ignite escaped gas.
d. Open windows, doors and vents for aeration.
e, Allow sufficient time for complete ventilation.
f. Do not strike a match or light so long as gas odor is present.

g. Do not use any pipeline of appliance until leak is corrected.
3. Cryogenic gas refers to a liquefied gas which exists in its container at temperature way
below normal atmospheric temperature typicauly slightly above its boiling point and
correspondingly low to moderate pressure, A cryogenic gas cannot be retained exclusively in
a container design because heat from atmosphere cannot be prevented from entering the
container which continually raises the pressure to a level which if allowed to persist would
exceed the feasible container strength.
Gases according to its use:

1. Medical gases refer to those used for treatment such as for anesthesia (nitrous
oxide, chloroform) and respiratory therapy (oxygen).
2. Industrial gases includes a number of gases used in welding and cutting (oxygen,
acetylene); refrigeration (sulfur dioxide, ammonia, Freon); water treatment (fuorine,
chlorine); chemical processing (nitrogen, hydrogen), and the like.
3. Fuel gases are flammable gases used for burning with air to produce heat for
power, light, comfort and process. Liquefied petroleum gases, butane, propane and natural
gases are the most commonly used as fuel gases.
Chemicals: Hazardous properties of chemicals are classifies into: combustibility,

radioactivity, instability, ability to oxidize other materials, reaction to air and water,
corrosiveness and toxicity.
I. The following are common combustible chemicals: Carbon Black formed by the
incomplete combustion of acetylene or natural cracking of hydrogen in the absence of air;
Lampblack formed by the burning of low grade heavy oils or tarry and resinous materials;
Lead thiocyanate which when burned slowly decomposes to form carbon disulfide which is
highly toxic and has an obnoxious odor; Peroxides which are combustibles by themselves and
are widely used in the plastic industries; Sulfides such as antimony pentasulfide used in
safety matches, phosphorus pentasulfide which burns spontaneously in the presence of
moisture, phosphorus sequisulfide which is easily ignited and highly flammable, potassium
sulfide and sodium sulfide which are moderately flammable liquids which when oxidized
produces toxic sulfur dioxide; Sulfur a yellow solid, odorless and insoluble in water and
Naphthalene used as an insecticide is a white solid with aromatic odor and sublimes at
ordinary temperature.
II. Radioactive materials. Elements and compounds which are radioactive have fire and
explosion hazards identical with those of the materials that are not radioactive. They may
cause damage to the tissues and other genetic damage, When fire is produced, dust, smoke
and vapors may contaminate areas within the fallout range.
III. Unstable chemicals refers to those which undergo chemical change very willingly on
exposure to air, heat, water shock or pressure and may be self reactive. It includes
Acetaldehyde which undergoes addition reaction with other compounds making it hazardous
in the presence of certain catalysts at elevated temperature; Ethyl oxide which undergoes
violent exothermic polymerization by action of heat or shock or when catalyzed by
anhydrous chlorides by aluminum, tin or iron the vapor produced may cause detonation;
Hydrogen cyanide which is a colorless gas that is toxic and flammable.
IV. Oxidizing Chemicals. Known as sources of oxygen for combustion, the following are
common substances which are used to increase ignition and intensity of burning: Nitrate a
fire hazard widely useed as fertilizers, preservatives, gunpowder and salt baths when heated it
melts and releases oxygen; Nitrites a more active Oxidizing agent since it melts and boosts
oxygen at lower temperatures; Inorganic Peroxides such as Barium, sodium, potassium and
strontium peroxides which by nature are non combustibles but when mixed with water and
reacts exothermically forms heat and oxygen, it also includes hydrogen peroxides which are
white powders and usually stored in dark colored bottles and kept at cool places since it
decomposes to form water, oxygen and heat; Chlorates such as potassium chlorate which is a
white odorless crystal that is soluble in water when heated it forms oxygen and potassium
chloride which may either ignite or explode; Dichromate often used as sodium, potassium
and ammonium dichromate which are non combustibles but in the presence of oxidizable
materials may cause them to ignite; Hypochlorite called bleaching agents such as sodium
hypochlorite and calcium hypochlorite which when heated release Oxygen and when it comes
in contact with acid forms chlorine, chlorine monoxide aside from oxygen; Perchlorates
which are stable but when added with sulfur, carbonaceous materials and metal powders may
cause an explosion; and Permanganese which when mixed with combustible materials are
subject to ignition by friction.
V. Air and water-reactive chemicals such as: Alkalis which when mixed with water reacts
with the evolution of heat sufficient to ignite nearby combustible materials; Anhydrides when
added to water forms acid with a generation of heat they are considered as combustibles and
hazardous; Charcoal which is capable to heat spontaneously when there is lack of insufficient
cooling; Coal in forms of anthracite used for fuel and burns with a blue flame and bituminous
coal used for the production of industrial chemicals; Hydroxides which are compounds of
metals and hydrogen the exothermic reaction of hydroxides with water when exposed to air
may cause ignition; Oxides reacts with water non metallic ones produces base, while metallic
oxides produces acid its reaction may generate enough heat to ignite wood, paper and other
combustible materials; Phosphorus which rapidly oxidizes in air and spontaneous
combustion; and Sodium which is a silvery waxy white solid with low density which
explodes as a result of reaction with water forming caustic soda and hydrogen.
VI. Corrosive Chemicals which are highly irritant to tissues it comes it contact with and have
noxious effects when inhaled such as: Inorganic acids; Hydrochloric acids commonly known
as muriatic acid; nitric acid which are used as etching solution; perchloric acid which in
greater concentration than 72% is a strong oxidizing and dehydrating agent when heated
increasing the rate of burning; sulfuric acid which is a colorless, oily liquid known as oil of
vitriol which when mixed with organic substances may release heat and cause ignition; and
The non-combustible Halogens which are salt producing electromagnetic elements fuorine is
the most reactive, while iodine is the least reactive they support combustion.
VII. Toxic chemicals are usually released in fires and explosions, protection against its
effects may be undertaken by: using the most practical method available of controlling and
confining the chemical to avoid contact and safety precautions and warning signals with steps
to be taken in case of contact with toxic chemicals.
------------------------------------------------MIDTERM--------------------------------------------------
(BS - Law Enforcement Administration)

Fire Technology and Arson Investigation
(CDI 6)
FINALS
TOPIC 4: Arson Investigation
TIME ALLOCATION: Four Weeks
g) Materials
h) Reference
Bookstore Inc.
CHAPTER IV
ARSON INVESTIGATION
The Fire
Arson investigation starts with the fire itself and the observation of the frst responders
usually the firemen. To create a fire three elements must co-exist, commonly referred to as
the fire triangle composed of oxygen, a fuel source and ignition heat. In most cases the
percentage of oxygen concentration must be above 16% to sustain the fire. The heat source
needs only a match the ignition temperature of the fuel.
In a fire involving arson, the fire-setter will have altered with one or more of the
factors in the fire triangle. The arsonist may increase the fuel load by introducing flammable
material or by adding accelerants such as kerosene, alcohol or gasoline which may be easily
accessible. The arsonist may increase the oxygen content of a structure by opening the
windows or punching holes in the walls and ceilings. Fire will follow the highest
concentration of oxygen to its source. By circulating air, a structure at the top and starting a
fire at the bottom of the structure a fire setter can cause the fire to race upward through the
structure. The fire will rapidly engross the entire structure rather than the confined area.
An arson fire necessitates the introduction of heat source that can be as simple as a
match or as complex as chemicals with very low ignition temperatures. By description a fire
is considered an arson fire when all other providential and accidental cause has been ruled
out. To state that the cause of the fire was arson and therefore deliberate, the investigator
must have adequate evidence that one of the factors in the fire triangle was tampered.
Classes of fire:
Class A - In a class A fires, the fuel is comprised of normal Combustible materials such as
wood, paper, fibers, draperies and trash. It requires saturation by water or water fog.
Class B - In class B fires, the fuel is flammable liquid such as gasoline, kerosene, cleaning
fluids, grease and alcohol. In combating Such fires, the flammable liquids must be smothered
to deprive them of oxygen, hence foam extinguishers and C02 may be utilized.
Class C - Class C fires are those which start with live electrical Wires, equipment, electrical
appliances. It is commonly known as electrical fires. It is easily extinguished by a non-
conducing agent such as CO2 and dry chemicals.
Class D - this type of fire are rare, and usually OCcurring in the manufacturing facilities,
since the combustible material are certain metals such as potassium and magnesium. It can
be extinguished by using dry powder ABC chemical, baking soda or sand.
Proof in arson cases: Since physical evidence 1s hard to obtain by the fact that most if not all
of the evidence is destroyed or burned the corpus delicti or the fact that a crime was
committed as well as the identity of the fire setter or arsonist must be established. Corpus
delicti is established by: Burning, Criminal design may be proved by the presence of
incendiary devices to show the fire was not accidental., and Evidence of intent
Motives of arsonists:
1. Economic gain : To profit by committing insurance fraud, Desire on the part of a
businessman to dispose merchandise; To cover up business failure; To increase rentals; or To
avoid settlements and impending liquidation.
2. Concealment of a crime is usually done to hide the corpus delicti in cases involving
robbery, homicide and murder in an attempt to mislead police investigators.
3. Punitive measures to inflict injury and damage to property even death due to revenge, hate
or jealousy.
4. Intimidation it is done by saboteurs and racketeers to coerce and threaten persons and
business establishments.
5. Economic disabling is undertaken to eliminate business rivals.
6. Pyromania refers to the uncontrollable impulse or desire of a perso to burn anything
without any motivation. Such persons usually do not Tun away from the scene of the crime
because they love watching fires and conflagration.
Procedures in tracing the origin of fire and searching for evidence:

1st step: The conduct of careful inspection of the burned building from the outside which
may reveal any external origin of the fire through burn patterns.
2nd step: Internal survey and inspection of the burned structure from the inside to determine
the origin of the fire. At this stage the investigator has to locate the area where there is the
heaviest charring and destruction.
3rd step: Location of the point of origin of the fire by finding out where there is most severe
destruction may indicate the area of origin. The ceiling area is usually the first location to be
inspected.
4 th step: Locating the inverted cone pattern where the ashes and traces under it would reveal
the kind of fuel used in the fire. Another useful indicator to the area of origin of the fire is
locations with partially melted glass or electric light bulb. The inverted cone pattern is
referred to as the fingerprint of the fire.
Basic Lines of inquiry: The questioning must be focused to determine the following: Origin
of the fire, Motive, Identification of the fire setter. And Identification of the other suspects.
In the investigation of a fire scene, the Bureau of Fire Protection operative and units
has sole jurisdiction over cases involving fire. The person who called the alarm, the residents
and the firemen who first responded to the scene are the most valuable witness who may shed
light as to the origin of the fire and its causes. The BFP was created by virtue of RA 6975
primarily to perform the following functions:
1. Be responsible for the prevention and suppression of all destructive fires on: buildings,
houses, forests, land transportation vehicles, ships or vessels docked at piers, petroleum
industry installation, plane crashes and other similar activities;
2. Be responsible for the enforcement of the Fire Code of the Philippines, otherwise known as
PD 1185 and other related laws;
3. Shall have the power to investigate all causes of fires and if necessary, file the proper
complaint with the city or provincial prosecutor who has jurisdiction of the case;
4. ln time of national emergency, all elements of the BFP shall upon direction of the
President, assist the AFP in meeting the national emergency; and
5. Shall establish at least one (1) fire station with adequate personnel, firefighting facilities
and equipment in every provincial capital, city and municipality subject to standard rules and
regulations as may be promulgated by the D.I.L.G.
Tell tale signs of incendiary fires - The presence of any of the following in the crime scene
are an indication that the fire 1s neither providential nor accidental:
 Plants- refers to the preparation ot materials used as fuel to start fires such as rags,
newspapers, plastic, clothing, fabrics wood shavings and other combustible materials
which is easily acquired.
 Trailers - A device used to spread the fire throughout the structure. The most common
trailers used are fuel oil, gasoline, and paint thinner and lighter fluids.
 Accelerants - Refers to any combustible liquid which is used to speed up or hasten the
start of the fire.
COLLECTION OF EVIDENCE
Kinds of physical evidences which should be gathered:
Corpus delicti - Also known as the body of a crime, this would establish that a crime was
committed. E.g. The dead body in cases involving homicide, murder, parricide and
infanticide; the proof that an object was stolen or lost in case of theft and robbery; the burned
materials in arson cases and the likes.
Associative evidences - This would refer to evidences which may link The suspect to the
crime scene. E.g. fingerprint impressions, blood stains, seminal fluids, fibers, hair and the
like.
Tracing evidences - This would include items which tend to establish the identity of the
suspect such as wallet, identification cards, recelpiy and other personal items.
The following are the various methods for searching evidences at the crime scene:
a. The Quadrant Method - Also known as the zone method this method of search is
conducted wherein the crime scene is divided into four quadrants with one searcher assigned
to each area.
b. The Strip Method - Also known as the Grid method is conducted when searchers proceed
simultaneously along the trail parallel to one side of a rectangle. At the end area, the
searchers turn and proceed back along new trail but parallel to the first movement.
c. The Spiral Method - This method is undertaken when the searchers follow each other in
the trail of a spiral which starts on the outside and moving towards the center.
d. The Wheel Method - This method is ideal for crime scene areas which are oval or circular
in form. Wherein the searchers gather at the center and move along the spokes or radi.
Techniques in the collection of physical evidence:

1. Fingerprint impressions: If found in small articles and items such as pieces of paper they
should be handled with tongs and stored in envelops. If found on bottles and glass they
should be placed on boxes with pegs so as not to destroy the impression. In found in
immovable objects the marking should be carefully dusted and lifted by an expert fingerprint
examiner.
2. Blood: If it is in fluid state, it may be taken out of the crime scene by using a medicine
dropper and placing it in a clean vial where saline solution is added so as to preserve it. If
found as stain or dried, the blood stain is cut along with the cloth and placed in an envelop.
4. Fire arms, Tools and Knives. Such articles may be handled and lifted out of the crime
scene by using a piece of string. The items may be placed in either a box or a large envelop.
5. Hairs and Fibers. They may be lifted by using small forceps and placed or store in
pillboxes or small envelops.
6. Soil, Dirt, Filings and Fragments. Such materials are to be placed separately in containers
such as envelop, small boxes or pill boxes. For paint specifically found on vehicles in hit and
run cases, it is to be removed from the vehicle by means scraping it using a scalpel and
placing it in an envelop.
7. Fired cartridges and bullets. If recovered in the crime scene, it is to be stored in small
boxes with a piece of cotton inside.
Several things looked for when examining the scene for sign of accelerants used, the
most obvious sign would be the presence of containers in areas where accelerants would not
normally be found, a hydrocarbon vapor detector can be used. Liquid when poured on carpet
will soak into the carpet creating a concentrated char pattern on the sub floor below, samples
should be collected for laboratory analysis.
When samples are taken they are placed in air tight containers with a strip of activated
charcoal to trap the vaporized hydrocarbon residue when the container is heated, this will
allow the forensic chemist to test smaller concentrations of residue concentrated in the
charcoal.
Incendiary timed devices such as candles, lit cigarettes attached to a box of matches,
electric current rigged, cell phones, computers and thermostat rigged to set ignition of a fire
when activated, the key is for the investigator to determine if they were likely to cause a fire
and the location is reasonable. The point of origin must match the ignition source and the
ignition source must be in a place in which it would normally occur to prove arson has been
committed.
Methods of Preserving Evidence:

Photography and Sound recording The use of camera and tape recorder are very
valuable tools to preserve the evidence. In photography, the position, size and the relation
identitying marks to the main object should be considered while the declaration in the tape
recorder can be erased so that it is then necessary to transcribed in writing the statements of a
dying person.
The following photographs are necessary to be taken at the crime Scene:
Environmental photograph - This is intended to show the relative location and distances at
the crime scene.
Overall photograph - This should contain at least four general view or the scene executed in
a clockwise direction.
Photograph of the body - In homicide cases is necessary to show the relative position,
relation of the body with the surrounding. After removal of the body from the crime scene,
another setoff photograph intended for identification purposes and close up picture of the
wounds are taken.
Photograph of evidences - Before removal at the crime scene each item and evidences
should be individually photographed to establish the relation of such materials with the place
where the crime was committed.
Photograph of the search and collection of evidence - The significant portions wherein
evidence was discovered as well as the special techniques employed in locating them should
also be taken.
A sketch is a rough diagram or drawing or krokis of the object, person or place of issue in a
paper. An estimate representation of the position, location, size and the relation of the
identifying marks and the adhere to the object maybe written in a paper. The person who
makes the sketch must include the following elements:
 Measurements even to the most minute detail;
 Scale showing the actual proportion of the drawing with that of the crime scene;
 Legend which would explain the symbols and marks used to identify objects included in
the sketch;
 Title which would include case, scene portrayed, victim, location, date and hour made
and the identity of the sketcher.
The following sketches must be made by the police investigator handling the case:
Sketch of locality or area where the crime was committed including its immediate
environment.
Sketch of ground would depict the crime scene and its adjacent surroundings.
Sketch of details which would depict the immediate crime scene revealing the details
as to how the crime was committed, the location where evidences were manifested and
discovered and its impact on the surroundings.
Kinds of Sketch:
a. Rough sketch - this rough draft or outline is made by the investigator at the crime scene
where no scale and proportion 1s required and approximation is resorted to. This would serve
as the basis of the finished diagram.
b. Finished sketch this draft is made for courtroom presentation where proper scale and
proportion should be detailed.
How to conduct interviews? Several stages and preparations should be undertaken to ensure
that smooth, free flow and voluntary facts and information may be drawn from witnesses.
1st phase: An investigator assigned to conduct the interview must as a general rule review
the circumstances surrounding the case; he must also consider and acquaint himself with the
subject. As to the time element, interviews must be conducted as soon as practicable during
the initial stages of investigation at a time when the facts concerning the case is still fresh in
the mind of the witness. In reference to the place where interviews are to be conducted, the
venue chosen should be able to create an atmosphere where a psychological advantage would
be given to the interviewer.
2nd phase: The approach or first meeting with the subject should cover a brief and truthful
introduction. The investigator should reveal his identity as well as his authority in conducting
the interview so as to avoid confusion, misrepresentation and misunderstanding. This stage
would create in the mind of the subject that his/her time and effort is not in vain and that
revealing the truth concerning the circumstances surrounding the case of which he has
witnessed would shed light and aid in the administration of justice.
3d phase: Initial conversation should be conducted to develop an atmosphere of trust and
confidence between the interviewer and his subject. It should be cordial and warm and that
the witness should not be interrupted in stating the facts known to him/her.
4 phase: After the brief narrative, the investigator must make it clear to the subject the
matters and facts which are of value or material to the case at hand. When questioning the
interviewer must be able to easily determine conflicting details as to the narrative and that or
the question and answer part of the interview. It is a sound idea that conversations that take
place should be recorded for future references In addition, the investigator should take notes
on material aspects which concern the elements of the crime the participation of the suspect
as seen by the witness to draw a useful conclusion.
At this point the arson investigator deviates from the procedures used in normal
criminal investigation since it is essential for the investigator to interview the first responders
and firefighter to know the color of the smoke and determine what material was burned.
Other material facts are: a) were there inoperative hydrants, standpipes, alarm system; b) the
condition of doors and windows indicating signs of force entry, if it is blocked to hinder
ventilation or an attempt to conceal the fire until fully evolved; c) was there anything unusual
about the fire was burning? Rapid spread would tend to indicate the use of accelerants,
multiple points of origin, fiashes and explosions indicates the presence of incendiary devices;
d) where there any familiar faces at the scene? It is possible for firefighters to have seen
persons in the crowd who are familiar at several fire, since some arsonists like to watch the
fire; e) The absence of normal household items or business equipment, sentimental item such
as baby picture, family portrait, school records can indicate that they were removed before
the fire started hence the fire was planned. Evidence of pre-planning a fire gives the arson
investigator excellent proof of intent to commit arson.
Basic Guidelines in the conduct of the interview:

 To avoid confusion, multiple questions should not be asked one after the other.
 In questioning the subject, the questions directed to them should be devised in such away
as to avoid giving queries with implied answers. Such questions impede the free flow of
perception as witnessed by the subject.
 Qualified answers should be answered and the interviewer should not be contented with
yes or no answers to fully givean account of the circumstances surrounding the case.
 As a rule, simple questions must be asked.
 The investigator conducting the interview should not embarrass or ridicule the subject on
account of poor judgment, stupidity or any inadequacy to avoid creating resentment,
Motives for arson cases may range from attempts to collect insurance money to
revenge or intimidation, attempts to cover up a crime, destruction of questionable business
record, pyromania, and ne most common is to collect insurance money. The investigator may
Choose to hire a forensic accountant to study bank, business records and check the financial
records of thee owner of the burned structure.
Fires and Explosions Distinguished.

All forms of fire and explosion are subtypes of a larger term combustion. Fire is a
basic chemical reaction based on oxidation. Explosion on the other hand, is a two-tiered
chemical reaction based on the volatility of mixing at least two substances. The fire triangle
consists of fuel, oxygen and heat source, while the explosion triangle is composed of fuel,
oxidizer and ignition.
Explosives may be used in arson or in itself detonated for some other purpose such as
terrorism, it can be made from very simple to sophisticated materials depending on the
amount of damage is desired Classified as low explosives (gun powder) 2,300 meters per
second or high explosives with 6,900 meters per second the speed of detonation.
High explosives are available commercially or militarily. Dynamite has been around
since 1890 when discovered by Alfred Nobel using nitro glycerin methods. In recent years
ammonium based or emulsion based is used, modern dynamite is a gel that mixes Oxygen-
Tich ammonium nitrate with guar gum in a hydro-carbon base with micron-sized resin, glass
or ceramics, Nobel's dynamite of 78% sodium nitrate and 12% nitroglycerin has been
replaced by gelignite, the modern term for dynamite. Ammonium nitrate when mixed with oil
is called ANFO an explosive used on New York's World Trade Center in 1993.
TNT unaffected by moisture, its name is Trinitrotoluene it is extremely shock
sensitive and unpredictable.
A military explosive, RDX(C-4) was invented by the British during World War II
when mixed with TNT it is called Cyclotol or C-6 It has a plastic, dough-like consistency and
charges can be shaped for special detonation effects, its dusts when inhaled for a long time
may cause anmnesia and epilepsy.
PETN or Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate is a nitrate ester. It is used in primacord which

can also shape charges.
Bombs in packages, boxes, suitcase and the like are usually triggered by a battery-
powered switching mechanism such as clock or mercury switch which is activated when the
package is opened. Car bombs are usually powered by the vehicles ignition engine switch.
Color spot tests exist for most common volatile materials. X-ray examination and
infrared spectro-photometry will reveal most organic explosives. Chromatography is
necessary for detecting traces of plastic or military explosives.
TOPIC 5: The Law on Arson

TIME ALLOCATION: Four Weeks
i) Materials
j) Reference
Bookstore Inc.
CHAPTER V
THE LAW ON ARSON
Chapter Eight, Revised Penal Code
ARSON AND OTHER CRIMES INVOLVING DESTRUCTIONS
 Arson is the malicious destruction of property by fire.
Art. 320. Destructive arson. - The penalty of reclusion temporal in its maximum period to
reclusion perpetua shall be imposed upon any person who shall burn:
1. Any arsenal, shipyard, storehouse or military powder or fireworks factory, ordinance,
storehouse, archives or general museum of the Government.
2. Any passenger train or motor vehicle in motion or vessel out of port.
3. In an inhabited place, any storehouse or factory of inflammable or explosive materials.
Art. 321. Otherforms ofarson. -When the arson consists in the burning of other property and
under the circumstances given hereunder, the offender shall be punishable:
1. By reclusion temporal or reclusion perpetua:

(a) if the offender shall set fire to any building, farmhouse, warehouse, hut, shelter, or vessel
in port, knowing it to be occupied at the time by one or more persons;
(b) If the building burned is a public building and value of the damage caused exceeds 6,000
pesos;
(c)If the building burned is a public building and the purpose is to destroy evidence kept
therein to be used in instituting prosecution for une punishment of violators of the law,
irrespective of the amount of the damage;
(d) If the building burned is a public building and the purpose is to destroy evidence kept
therein to be used in legislative, Judicial or administrative proceedings, irrespective of the
amount of the damage, provided, however, That if the evidence destroyed is to be used
against the defendant for the prosecution of any crime punishable under existing laws, the
penalty shall be reclusion perpetua
(e it the arson shall have been committed with the intention of collecting under an insurance
policy against loss or damage by fire.
2. By reclusion temporal:
(a) if an inhabited house or any other building in which people are accustomed to meet is set
on fire, and the culprit did not know that such house or building was occupied at the time, or
if he shall set fire to a moving freight train or motor vehicle, and the value of the damage
caused exceeds 6,000 pesos;
(b) If the value of the damage caused in paragraph (b) of the preceding subdivision does not
exceed 6,000 pesos;
(c) If a farm, sugar mill, cane mill, mill central, bamboo groves or any similar plantation is
set on fire and the damage caused exceeds 6,000 pesos, and
(d) If grain fields, pasture lands, or forests, or plantings are set on fire, and the damage caused
exceeds 6,000 pesos.
3. By prision mayor:
(a) If the value of the damage caused in the case mentioned in paragraphs (a), (c), and (d) in
the next preceding subdivision does not exceed 6,000 pesos;
(b) If a building not used as a dwelling or place of assembly, located in a populated place, is
set on fire, and the damage caused exceeds 6,000 pesos;
4. By prision correccional in its maximum period to prision mayor in its medium period:
(a) If a building used as dwelling located in an uninhabited place is set on fire and the damage
caused exceeds 1,000 pesos
(b) f the value or the damage caused in the case mentioned in paragraphs (c) and (d) of
subdivision 2 of this article does not exceed 200 pesos.
5. By prision correccional in its medium period to prision mayor in its minimum period,
when the damage caused is over 200 pesos but does not exceed 1,000 pesos, and the property
reterred to in paragraph of the preceding Subdivisi10n is set on fire; but when the value of (a)
property does not exceed 200 pesos, the penalty next lower in degree than that prescribed in
this subdivision shall be imposed.
6. The penalty of prision correcCional in its medium and maximum periods, if the damage
caused in the case mentioned in paragraph (b) of subdivision 3 of this article does not exceed
6,000 pesos but is over 200 pesos.
7. The penalty of prision correccional in its minimum and medium periods, if the damage
caused in the case mentioned paragraph (b) subdivision 3 of this article does not exceed 200
pesos.
8. The penalty of arresto mayor and a fine ranging from fifty to one hundred per centum it the
damage caused shall be imposed, when the property burned consists of grain fields, pasture
lands, forests, or plantations when the value of such property does not exceed 200 pesos. (As
amended by R.A. 5467, approved May 12, 1969).
Art. 322. Cases of arson not included in the preceding articles.- Cases of arson not included
in the next preceding articles shall be punished:
1. By arresto mayor in its medium and maximum periods, when the damage caused does not
exceed 50 pesos;
2. By arresto mayor in its maximum period to prision correccional in its minimum period,
when the damage caused is over 50 pesos but does not exceed 200 pesos
3. By prision correccional in its minimum and medium periods, if the damage caused is over
200 pesos but does not exceed 1,000 pesos; and
4. By prision correccional in its medium and maximum periods, if it is over 1,000 pesos.
Art 323. Arson of property of small value.- The Arson of any uninhabited hut, storehouse,
barn, shed, or any other property the value of wich does not exceed 25 pesos, committed at a
time or under sho ances which clearly exclude all danger of the fire spreading, shall not be
punished by the penalties respectively prescribed in this chapter, but in accordance with the
damage caused and under the Provisions of the following chapter.
Art. 324. Crimes involving destruction.- Any person who shall cause destruction by means of
explosion, discharge of electric current inundation, sinking or stranding of a vessel,
intentional damaging of the engine of said vessel, taking up the rails from a railway track
maliciously changing railway signals for the safety of moving trains destroying telegraph
wires and telegraph posts, or those of any other system, and, in general, by using any other
agency or means of destruction as effective as those above enumerated, shall be punished by
reclusion temporal if the commission has endangered the safety of any person, otherwise, the
penalty of prision mayor shall be imposed.
Art. 325. Burning one's own property as means to commit arson-Any person guilty of arson
or causing great destruction of the property belonging to another shall suffer the penalties
prescribed in this chapter, even though he shall have set fire to or destroyed his own property
for the purposes of committing the crime.
Art. 326. Setting fire to property exclusively owned by the offender. If the property burned
shall be the exclusive property of the offender, he shall be punished by arresto mayor in its
maximum period to prision correccional in its minimum period, if the arson shall have been
committed for the purpose of defrauding or causing damage to another, or prejudice shall
actually have been caused, or if the thing burned shall have been a building in an inhabited
place.
Art. 326-A. In cases where death resulted as a consequence of arson. If death resulted as a
consequence of arson committed on any othe properties and under any of the circumstances
mentioned in the preceding articles, the court shall impose the death penalty.
Art. 326-B. Prima facie evidence of arson.- Any of the following circumstances shall
constitute prima facie evidence of arson:
1. If after the fire, are found materials or substances soaked in gasoline, kerosene, petroleum,
or other inflammables, or any mechanical electrical chemical or traces or any of the
foregoing.
2. That substantial amount of inflammable substance or material were stored within the
building not necessary in the course of the defendant's business; and
3. That the fire started simultaneously in more than one part of the building or locale under
circumstances that cannot normally be due to accidental or unintentional causes: Provided,
however, that at least of the following is present in any of the three above-mentioned
circumstances:
(a) That the total insurance carried on the building and/or goods are more than 80 percent of
the value of such building and/or goods at the time of the fire;
(b)That the defendant aiter the fire has presented a fraudulent claim for loss.
The penalty of prision correccional shall be imposed on one who plants the articles
above-mentioned, in order to secure a conviction, or as a means of extortion or coercion. As
amended by R.A. 5467, approved May 12, 1969).
PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO. 1744
AMENDING ARTICLE THREE HUNDRED AND TWENTY OF THE REVISED PENAL
CODE PROVISIONS ON ARSON
WHEREAS, there have been ranmpant and wanton burnings of residential houses, public
buildings, markets, hotels and other commercial establishments
WHEREAS, to effectively discourage and deter the commission of arson, and to prevent
destruction of properties and protect the lives of innocent people, it is necessary that the
capital punishment be imposed upon arsonists
NOW, THEREFORE, I, FERDINAND E. MARCOS, President of the Philippines by virtue
of the power vested in me by the Constitution, do hereby order and decree that Article 320,
Revised Penal Code be amended:
Sec. 1. Article 320 of the Revised Penal Code shall read as follows:
“Art. 320. Destructive Arson. The penalty of reclusion temporal in its minimum period to
death shall be imposed upon any person who shall burn:
1. One or more buildings or edifices, consequent to one single act of burning or as a result of
simultaneous burnings, or committed on several or different occasions;
Any building of public or rivate ownership, devoted to the public general or where people
usually gather or congregate for a definite purpose such as but not limited official
governmental function or business, private transaction, commerce, trade workshop, meetings
and conferences, or merely incidental to a definite purpose such as but not limited to hotels,
motels, transient dwellings, public conveyance or stops or terminals, regardless of whether
the offender had knowledge that there are persons in said building or edifice at the time it is
set on fire and regardless also of whether the building is actually inhabited or not.
3. Any train or locomotive, ship or vessel, airship or airplane, devoted to transportation or
conveyance, or for public use, entertainment or leisure
4. Any building, factory, warehouse installation and any appurtenances thereto, which are
devoted to the service of public utilities.
5. Any building the burning of which is for the purpose of concealina or destroying evidence
of another violation of law, or for the purpose of concealing bankruptcy or defrauding
creditors or to collect from insurance irrespective of the application of the above enumerated
qualifyine circumstances, the penalty of death shall likewise be imposed when the arson is
perpetrated or committed by two (2) or more persons or by a group of persons, regardless of
whether their purpose is merely to burn or destroy the building or the burning merely
constitutes an overt act in the commission or another violation of law.
The penalty of reclusion temporal in its maximum period to death shall also be imposed upon
any person who shall burn:
1. Any arsenal, shipyard, storehouse or military powder or fireworks factory, ordinance,
storehouse, archives or general museum of the government.
2. In an inhabited place, any storehouse or factory of inflammable or explosive materials.
lf as a consequence of his commission of any of the acts penalized under this Article, death or
injury results, or any valuable documents, equipment machineries, apparatus, or other
valuable properties were burned or destroyed, the mandatory penalty of death shall be
imposed."
Sec. 2. Provisions of Articles 320, 321 and 322 of the Revised Penal Code which are or may
be inconsistent herewith are hereby repealed.
Sec. 3. Effectivity.-This Decree shall take effect immediately.
Done in the City of Manila, this 11th day of November, in the year of our Lord, nineteen
hundred and eighty.
PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO. 1613
AMENDING THE LAW ON ARSON
WHEREAS. findings of the police and intelligence agencies of the government reveal that
fires and other crimes involving destruction Metro Manila and other urban centers in the
country are being nerpetuated by criminal syndicates, some of which have foreign
connections;
WHEREAS, the current laW on arson suffer from certain inadequacies that impede the
successul entorcement and prosecution of arsonists;
WHEREAS, it is imperative that the high incidence of fires and other crimes involving
destruction be prevented to protect the national economy and preserve the social economic
and political stability of the country
NOW, THEREFORE, I, FERDINAND E. MARCOs, President of the Philippines, by virtue
of the powers vested in me by the Constitution do hereby order and decree as part of the law
of the land, the following:
Sec. 1. Arson.- Any person who burns or sets fire to the property of another shall be punished
by Prision mayor. The same penalty shall be imposed when a person sets fire to his own
property under circumstances which expose to danger the life or property of another.
Sec. 2. Destructive Arson. -The penalty of Reclusion temporal in its maximum period to
Reclusion perpetua shall be imposed if the property burned is any of the following:
1. Any ammunition factory and other establishment where explosives, inilammable or
combustible materials are stored.
2. Any archive, museum, whether public or private or any edifice devoted to culture,
education or social services.
3. Any church or place or worship or other building where people usually assemble.
4. Any train, airplane or any aircraft, vessel or watercraft, or conveyance transportation of
persons or property.
5. Any Building where evidence is kept for use in any legislative, Judicial, administrative or
other official proceedings
6. Any hospital, hotel, dormitory, lodging house, housing tenement, shopping center, public
or private market, theater or movie house or any similar place or building
7. Any building whether used as dwelling or not, situated in a populated or congested area.
Sec. 3. Other Cases of Arson. The penalty of Reclusion temporal to Reclusion perpetua shall
be imposed if the property burned is any of the following:
1. Any building used as offices of the government or any of its agencies;
2. Any uninhabited house or dwelling
3. Any industrial establishment, shipyard, oil well or mine shaft, platform or tunnel;
4. Any plantation, farm, pastureland, growing crop, grain filed, orchard, bamboo grove or
forest;
5. Any rice mill, cane mill or mill central; and
6. Any railway or bus station, airport, wharf or warehouse.
Sec. 4. Special Aggravating Circumstances in Arson.-The penalty in any case of arson shall
be imposed in its maximum period:
1. If committed with intent to gain;
2. If committed for the benefit of another;
3. If the offender is motivated by spite or hatred towards the owner or occupant of the
property burned;
4. If committed by a syndicate.
The offense is committed by a syndicate if it is planned or carried out by a group of three (3)
or more persons.
Sec. 5. Where Death Results From Arson.-If by reason of or on thne occasion of arson death
results, the penalty of Reclusion perpetua to death shall be imposed.
Sec. 6. Prima Facie Evidence of Arson. - Any of the following circumstances shall constitute
prima facie evidence of arson:
1. If the fire started simultaneously in more than one part of the building or establishment.
2. If substantial amount of flammable substances or materials are stored within the building
not necessary in the business of the offender nor for household use.
3. Gasoline, kerosene, Peuroleunm or other flammable or combustible substances or materials
soaked therewith or containers, thereof, or any mechanical, electrical, chemical, or electronic
contrivance designed to start a fire, or ashes or traces ot any ot the foregoing are found in the
ruins or premises of the burned building or property.
4. If the building or property 1s insured for substantially more than its actual value at the time
ot the isSuance of the policy.
5. If during the lifetime of the corresponding fire insurance policy more than two fires have
occurred in the same or other premises owned or under the control of the offender and/or
insured.
6. If shortly before the fire a substantial portion of the effects insured and stored in building
or property had been withdrawn from the premises except in the ordinary course of business.
7. If a demand for money or other valuable consideration was made before the fire in
exchange for the desistance of the offender or for the safety of other person or property of the
victim.
Sec. 7. Conspiracy to Commit Arson. - Conspiracy to commit arson shall be punished by

prision mayor in its minimum period.
Sec. 8. Confiscation of Object of Arson. - The building which is the object of arson including
the land on which it is situated shall be confiscated and escheated to the State, unless the
owner thereof can prove that he has no participation in nor knowledge of such arson despite
the exercise of due diligence on his part.
Sec. 9, Repealing Clause.- The provisions of Articles 320 to 326-B of the revised Penal Code
and all laws, executive orders, rules and egulations, or parts thereof, inconsistent with the
provisions ot this decree are hereby repealed or amended accordingly
Sec. 10 Effectivity,-This Decree shall take effect immediately upon publication thereof at
least once in a newspaper of general circulation.
Done the City of Manila this 7th day of March nineteen hundred and Seventy nine.
-----------------------------------------------FINALS-----------------------------------------------------

Fire Technology and Arson Investigation

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fire Technology and Arson Investigation

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Republic of the Philippines

MARINDUQUE STATE COLLEGE

(BS - Law Enforcement Administration)

Physical properties of matter related with fires:

 Temperature refers to the measure of the degree of thermal agitation or disturbance of

Chemical properties of fire:

Based on color and completeness of combustibility of fuel:

Three kinds of fire:

Three phases of fire:

TOPIC 3: Combustible Materials

Safeguards to be considered in the installation of LPG in the kitchen:

f. Do not strike a match or light so long as gas odor is present.

Gases according to its use:

Chemicals: Hazardous properties of chemicals are classifies into: combustibility,

(BS - Law Enforcement Administration)

Procedures in tracing the origin of fire and searching for evidence:

Techniques in the collection of physical evidence:

Methods of Preserving Evidence:

Basic Guidelines in the conduct of the interview:

Fires and Explosions Distinguished.

PETN or Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate is a nitrate ester. It is used in primacord which

TOPIC 5: The Law on Arson

1. By reclusion temporal or reclusion perpetua:

Sec. 7. Conspiracy to Commit Arson. - Conspiracy to commit arson shall be punished by

You might also like