Science Week 14

TYPHOONS
How Typhoons Develop

Air Masses- Weather changes are caused by the movements of air called air masses. Air
masses have the same temperature and humidity throughout. When two air masses meet,
a front is formed. Several changes occur as a front passes over a region.

 WARM FRONT- Forms when a warm air mass moves in and replaces a cool air mass.
 COLD FRONT – Forms when a cold air mass takes over a warm air mass.

AIR PRESSURE- Differences in air pressure from one location to another cause winds to
move high-pressure areas to low-pressure area. Air pressure depends on the density of air.
Less dense air exerts less air pressure.

Cyclone- When warm air rises, it produces an area of low pressure. A low-pressure area
with rising warm air is called a cyclone. The word cyclone comes from the Greek word
kykocin, which means “to circle or whirl”

GLOBAL WIND SYSTEM- The unequal heating of Earth’s surface forms a large global
wind system. In areas near the equator, due to the almost direct rays of the sun, Earth’s
warm air rises and moves toward the poles. At the poles, cooler air sinks and moves toward
the equator.

Coriolis Effect- The apparent shift in the path of any object moving above Earth’s surface
due to the rotation of the Earth. Caused by the earth’s rotation. It also causes the air
currents in cyclones to spin. –Objects deflect to the right in the Northern

Hemisphere

-Object deflect to the left in the Southern

Hemisphere

Anticyclones- A high pressure area containing cold, dry air. Winds spiral around and out
the centers of anticyclones. They usually bring in clear, dry, and fair-weather.
How Do Typhoons From?
-In the Western Pacific Ocean, the low-pressure areas bring in typhoon, which are result of
severe weather conditions from intense low pressure formation. Typhoons normally
develop over warm ocean waters and rotate in clockwise direction.

1. Warm, moist air begins to rise rapidly, followed by cooler air that moves in and
begins to spin.
2. More air is drawn into the spinning system as air pressure drops and it begins tto
spin faster.
3. The rapid spinning and rising of air forms a cylindrical wall of strong winds, cloud,
and rainfall.

EYE OF THE STORM – Calm center inside cylindrical wall. In this area, the air is calm.
The center is called eye of the storm.

WEEK 15
HPA- fair sunny and calm

Low pressure area – rainy, cloudy (mainit ang hangin, umaakyat at nag foform ng Low
pressure area.)

Monsoon- Seasonal winds that blow over the Northern part of the Indian Ocean and flow
over most of the surrounding areas. May be accompanied by rain.

Southwest monsoon- hanging habagat (rainy season. June-November)

Northeast monsoon- intersection of north and east (amihan. Dec-May)

Characteristics- cold and dry

Cold air sinks. It forms high pressure area.

Hurricanes- (Huraken- Mayan god of wind- West Indies, Atlantic ocean, Indian Ocean )

Typhoon –(“Tufan’-big cyclonic storm “tai fung”- a great wind. tropical countries)

Tropical cyclones- south pacific ocean and Indian Ocean

(BINABASED SA WIND SPEED SINCE YUN LNG NAIIBA)

TROPICAL CYCLONES

Tropical Depression Maximum wind speed of less than 63 km/h.

Tropical Strom Maximum speed of 63 km/h to 118 km/h.
Typhoon Maximum wind speed of 118 km/h to 220
km/h.
Super Typhoon Maximum speed of at least 220 km/h, and
above.
TYPHOONS IN THE PHILIPPINES

The Philippine Climate

-The location of the Philippines in the western North Pacific and its tropical climate makes
it prone to typhoons. The occurrence of volcanic eruptions and earthquake has nothing to
do with the formation of the typhoons. (because equator receives direct contact of Sun,
nagiging warm and nag kakaroon ng cyclones caused by warm airs. )

-Tropical cyclones are called bagyo. Tropical cyclones entering the PAR or Philippine Area
of responsibility are given local names by Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and
Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA).

PAR- refers to the designated area in the Western North Pacific where PAGASA is tasked to
monitor tropical cyclone occurrences.

STORM WARMING SIGNALS

Tropical Depression signal 1

Tropical Storm signal 2- (class suspends classes)

Severe Tropical Storm-

Typhoon –

Super Typhoon-

TRACKING TYPHOONS

-Tracking typhoons serve to warm people and prepare them for the effects of the typhoon.
Farmers need to know what to do with their crops, and airplane flight crops, an including
takeoffs and landings, have to be monitored and directed. (lahar flows- mud from volcano
and rocks) In a typhoon advisory, the position, intensity, and predicted direction of
movement of the typhoon on the Philippine map should be noted. A typhoon track chart is
a map about the location and trajectory of a typhoon.
 SCIENCE 3RD QUARTER NOTES

States of Matter
“Why do different states of matter behave differently?” –Because they have a different set of
properties.

PROPERTIES OF THE DIFFERENT STATES OF MATTER

TABLE 1: PROPERTIES OF DOFFERENT STATES OF MATTER

STATES OF MATTER PROPERTIES

SOLID  Has no definite shape and volume.
 Flows and diffuses easily
 Can be compressed
 Exerts pressure
LIQUID  Has definite volume but no definite
shape
 Flows and diffuses slowly
 Nearly compressible
GAS  Rigid and compact
 Has Definite shape and volume
 Does not flow
 Cannot be compressed

DIFFERENCE IN PROPERTIES

The explanation for the differences in the properties of gases, liquids, and solids can be
explained in terms of the following;

 Arrangement of the particles

 Strength of forces between the particle; and
 Movement off the particles
 TABLE 2: COMPARISON OF PROPERTIES OF GAS, LIQUID, AND SOLID

COMPARISON GAS LIQUID SOID

Arrangement of Far apart in a random Close together in a Closely packed in an

particles arrangement disorderly orderly arrangement
arrangement
Forces between Almost no Weak intermolecular Strong forces holding
particles intermolecular forces forces particles together
Movement of Move quickly and Slide past each other Vibrate about their
particles randomly foxed position

PROPERTIES OF GASES

Gases

 Have no definite shape and volume- Since very negligible intermolecular force
exists between gas particles, they fill their container regardless of its shape and volume.
 Flow and diffuse easily- Gas [articles flow easily past one another and mix evenly
through diffusion. Particles diffuse of an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration.
 Are compressible- Gas particles are far apart from each other. Between the particles
are empty spaces. You can, therefor, compress or reduce the distance between the
particles by applying pressure.
 Exert pressure- Moving bodies like gases exert pressure. Gas pressure is the result of
simultaneous collisions of gas molecules with one another or with an object.

PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS

Liquids

 Have definite volume but no definite shape- The forces of attraction between the
particles of a liquid hold them together and allow them to occupy a fixed space (definite
volume). Weak intermolecular forces hold the liquid particles yet allow them to move
and slide past one another (no definite)
 Flow and diffuse slowly- Like gas, liquid is referred to as a fluid. A fluid is a
substance that can flow. The weak IMFA and random motion of liquid particles allow
them to flow and diffuse at rates slower than gas.

Viscosity- the resistance of a liquid to flow

  Are nearly compressible- The liquid particles are closer together than gas particles.
An enormous amount of pressure is needed to reduce a liquid’s volume by a very small
amount.

PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

Solid

 Rigid, compact, and incompressible- Solid particles are held by strong attractive
forces. Thus, the particles are closely packed, making solids rigid, compact, and
incompressible.
 Have definite shape and volume- The strong attractive force limits the motion of the
particles of a solid around a fixed position. Thus, a solid has an orderly arrangement.
 Do not flow- Solid particles only vibrate at fixed positions They do not slip and slide
like liquid particles. Hence, they do not flow.

Surface Tension
The property of the surface of a liquid that makes it resist an external force. (Example: water
droplets are spherical, water strider)

Capillary Action
The ability of a liquid to flow upward in narrow spaces without the assistance of external
forces. (Example: water moving up a straw or glass tube, absorbing property of paper towel
or cotton.)

Porus- maliit na force or butas-butas

Vaporization
The transforming of a liquid into gas. There are two types of vaporization: evaporation and
boiling

Evaporation- takes the place on the surface of the liquid at the temperature below the
bopiling point. It has a cooling effect. (take place even below 100*c)

Boiling- occurs at or above the boiling point temperature. Occurs below the furface.
( happens 100*cabove
 Changes in the Physical Change State
Physical Change- A change to a sample of matter in which some properties of the material
change, but the identity of the matter does not. Physical change is reversible. (The identity
does not change. Only size, etc ight change not the identity)

1. Role of Heat
(What happens when heat is added to a solid, liquid, and gas? It’s tempreture increases)

(When a solid is heated, how do you describe the movement of its particles? Vibrate rapidly
and move farther apart.)

When a solid is heated, how do you describe the movement of it’s particles? Eventually, a
point is reached when the vibrating particles can no longer retain their orderly arrangement.
When this happens, the melting point of the solid is reached and solid melts.)

(process) Melting and Freezing point

Melting point- The temperature at which solid turns into a liquid.

Freezing point- The temperature wherein a liquid solidifies. (0*c)

Sublimation- The process wherein substances change from solid to gas.

Deposition- A reverse reaction in which a gas change directly to solid without passing
throughh the liquid state.

Summary Solid to Gas- SUBLIMATION

of the
processes Gas to Solid- DEPOSITION
in
physical Liquid to Gas- EVAPORATION
change
Gas to Liquid- CONDENSATION

Solid to Liquid- MELTING

Liquid to Solid- FREEZING/ SOLIDIFICATION

WEEK20

FEATURES OF ATOMS
We already know that matter is made up of countless atoms which differ in arrangement, and
motion. (EX:DIAMOND-atoms in a solid, CLASS OF WATER-atoms in a solid, and AIR-
atoms in a gas

These atoms are the building blocks of matter and their arrangement and movement is what
makes a matter unique!

If we look a lot more close, an atom also has its own building blocks which makes up its
identity.

WEEK21

FEATURES OF THE ATOM

Process questions

What is an atom? Atoms are the building blocks of matter.

What are the three main parts of an atom? The three main parts of an atom are the electrons,
neutron, and proton.

Where are these parts located in an atom?

Proton- inside the nucleus

Neutron- Inside the nucleus

Electron- outside of nucleus

What does it mean when an atomic particle has an electric charge? An electric charge in an
atom particle is carried by the electrons and protons within the atom. (Nag cacary ng
electrons yung proton.)

Atoms are the smallest building blocks of matter and make up everything around us. They
can bond to one another to form solids, liquids, and gases.

The nucleus is a collection of particles called protons, which are positively charged, and
neutrons which are electrically neutral. Orbiting the nucleus are electrons, which are
negatively charged particles.
 Protons- positively charged

Neutrons- electrically neutral (no charge)

Electrons- Negatively charged

A chemical symbol is a shorthand method of representing an element. Instead of writing the

name of an element, we represent an element name with one or two numbers.

Atomic mass (A) - #neutrons + #protons

Atomic number (Z) - # of protons

Charge of an ion- If it is 0, then atom is neutral. If it is > or < 0, then it is an ion.

Pag mas madaming protons compared to electrons, positive yung Ion mo (+Ion)

Pag mas madami yung electrons compared to protons, negative na (-Ion)

Notice that even if you add or subtract neutrons and electrons from the atom, the identity of the
element doesn’t change, as long as the number or protons are the same. This is what we call an
isotope, which are atoms of the same element but have different atomic masses. The number of
protons determine the identity of the atom and that’s what makes them unique!
Week 22

STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
Atoms- are the smallest units into which matter can be divided without release of electrically
charged particles.

Protons, Neutrons, Electrons- Sub-atomic particles which vary in charges and determine the
identity of an atom.

ATOMIC MODELS

John Dalton- Billiard Ball Model

- all matter was composed of atoms, indivisible and indestructible building block. While all
atoms of an element were identical different elements had atoms of differing size mass.

John Joseph Thomson-Plum pudding model

-The atom was composed of a positively charged sphere wherein electrons were loosely
embedded on the surface. This surface could be compared to a plum pudding or a raisin
bread.

Ernest Rutherford- Nuclear Model

- The atom is a miniature solar system, with electrons orbiting around a massive nucleus, and
as mostly empty space, with the nucleus occupying once a very small part of the atom

Neils Bohr- Planetary Model

- The electrons encircle the nucleus of the atom in specific allowable paths called orbits.
When the electrons is one of its orbit, its energy fixed. (Ground state energy is calmed or in
the comfort zone. Excited state- electrons are excited, energy is increasing.) (GOURND
STATE-EXCITED STATE= HIGHER ENERGY)

ATOMIC ORBITALS

The wave function of the Schrodinger equation suggest a 90% probability of finding an
electrons in a region around the nucleus. These regions are called atomic orbitals which may
be s, p, or f.
ORBITALS SHAPE QUANTUM NUMBERS

Principal (n) Azimuthal (L) Magnetic (Ml) Spin (Ms)

n-1 -1 to 1 (negative to
positive.)
S Sphere 1 0 0 -1/2 or ½
P Dumbell 2 1 -1, 0, 1 -1/2 or ½
D Lobe/clover 3 2 -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 -1/2 or ½
f Tertrahedral 4 3 -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 -1/2 or ½

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
Aufbau Principle- States that electrons must first occupy the orbitals with lower energies than
lose with higher energies.

ORBITAL DIAGRAM- The orbital diagram is another representation of how electrons (arrows)
occupy the orbital (boxes)

EX: ATOMIC NUMBER ELECTRON CONFIGURATION

Hydrogen 1 1s1

1s

Helium 2 1s2

1s

Lithium 3 1s1 2s2

1s 2s

HOW TO GET THE NUMBER OF ORBITALS:

 Max # of electrons

W23

SCIENCE W23

THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

The periodic table

-A tabular arrangement of the chemicals, organized on the basis of their atomic numbers,
electronic configuration, and recurring chemical properties.

-Currently 118 elements.

-Dmitri Mendeleev- Father of the Modern Periodic Table

Properties of metal
Ductile- folded

-easily corrodes (Iron in the metal, reacts in the oxygen.) (madali mangalawang)

Properties of NonMetals

-Nonmetals are very brittle and cannot be rolled into wired and sheets.

-They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.

-They have no metallic luster and do not reflect light. (not shiny, the light does not bounce back)

(Insulators- does not conduct heat and electricity.)

Properties of Metalloids

(cannot be classified)

-Metalloids (metal-like) have properties of both metal and nonmetals. They are solids that can be
shiny or dull.

-They conduct heat and electricity better than nonmetals but not as well as metals.

-Ductile and malleable.

(Britle- babasagin or mabilis masira. Antomony- shiny. Bronon- a bit shiny, conducts electricity.
Brittle like a non-metal.)

Chemical symbols
-atomic number (found at the top)

-atomic mass (usually a decimal number. Found at the bottom.)

-symbol (The big letter in the box)

-name (below the symbol) most of the time denerive from their properties or symbols. Some
from latin, where from, and who discovered.

-electronic number

Common Elements and Their Symbols

TABLE 1.1 Some Elements and Their

Common symbol
Carbon C Aluminium Al Copper Cu (from cuprum)
Fluorine F Bromine Br Iron Fe (from ferrum)
Hydrogen H Calcium Ca Lead PB (from plumburn)
Iodine I Chlorine Cl Mercury Hg ( from hydrargryam)
Nitrogen N Helium He Potassium K (from kalium)
Oxygen O Lithium Li Silver Ag (from argentum)
Phosphorus P Magnesium Mg Sodium Na ( from natrium)
Sulfur S Silicon Si Tin Sn (from Stannum)
 Atomic number and Atomic Mass

-The atomic mass refers to the weight of atom. (protons + neutrons =)

- Atom with a charge- Ion.

Neutral- =

Ion= not equal

Groups and Families

-Colums of elements are called groups. (vertically)

-In total there are 18 groups of elements.

-Elements in each group have similar but not identical properties.

-All elements in a group have the same number of valence electrons(pinaka labas ng orbital).

1A- Group 1 Alkali Metals

2A- Group 2 Alkali earth metals

3A- Group 13

4A- Group 14

5A- Group 15

6A-Group 16 (Oxygen0

7A- Holagens (Group 17) (form salts with group 1A and 2A)

8A- Noble gases (Group 18) (does not really reacts with other elements.)

Periods

-rows of elements are called periods. (Horizontally)

-The elements in a period do not have similar properties.

-Their properties change greatly across a given row.

W23 QUIZ
1. Majority of the elements in the periodic table are metals.
2. The horizontal rows of the periodic table are called Periods.
3. The vertical columns of the periodic table are known as groups.
4. The transition elements are located- In the central section of the perioic table.
5. Elements that have properties of both metals and non metals are metalloids.
6. The stair-line running diagonally from aliminum to polinium devides the metals and non-
metals.
7. Atomc number of phosphorus is 15.
8. The element with atomic number 12 is magnesium.
9. The most common physical state of the element is solid.
10. The akalai metals are located in the far left column of the periodic table.
11. Elements that are malleable are metals.
12. Elements that touch the stair-step line running diagonally from aliminum to polonium are
known as metalloids.

W24 NOTES

PERIODIC TRENDS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

PERIODS AND GROUPS

-The vertical columns are called groups

-The horizontal rows are called periods.

Metals

 80% of the table

 Solids at room temperature (except for Hg)

Nonmetals

 Most gases except for sulfur. Phosphorus and bromine

Metalloids

Similar properties of both metals and metals depends on the conditions

Periodic Trends

Specific patterns In the properties of chemical elements that are revealed in the periodic table of elements.

Atomic size

 distance between nuclei

  increases from top to bottom (energy levels increase)
 decreases from left to right (eletrons get pulled closer to nucleus)

Ionization Energy

 the energy required to move one electron

 decrease from top to bottom
 increase from left to right (more attraction to the nucleus makes ut harder to pull an electron out)

Malaking atom, mababang ionization energy

Ionic size

 size of charged atom

 cations (+) are always smaller than the atoms in which they from
 anions (-) are always larger than the atom from which they from
 increases from top to bottom
 decreases from left to right

Electronegativity

 The ability of an atom to attract electrons when in compound

 Decrease from top to bottom
 Increases from left to right

SCIENCE 4TH QUARTER NOTES

WEEK1

The Digestive System

Main Functions:

 Mechanical digestion: chewing and mixing food.

 Chemical digestion: breaking down the molecules in food, from big polymers, to small
monomers
 Absorption: when nutrients are absorbed from food into the blood.

1 The Path of The Food (What organs does food travels through (or past) in the digestive
system?)
 Mouth- Chews food to break into smaller pieces. Enzymes like amylase begin chemically
breaking down carbohydrates like starch.

 Esophagus- a tube that connects the mouth to the stomach. It moves food by squeezing
itself to push food down- a movement called peristalsis.

 Stomach
- A muscular, U-shaped organ where food is broken down using acid and digestive
enzymes like pepsin.
- Half-digested food in the stomach is called chyme.
 Small Intestine
- 70-foot-long tube where digestion is completed. Small intestines are lined with villi
which is where nutrients are absorbed into the blood.

 Villi
- Tiny, finger-like structures in the lining of small intestine.
- Nutrients in the small intestine diffuse through the cells in the walls of the villi into the
capillaries (tiny blood vessels) in the villi.
 Large Intestine – Large tube where water is absorbed into the blood.

 Rectum and Anus

- Rectum- store waste before it is expelled into the body.
- Anus - passageway of expelled solid wastes.
2 Other Organs od The Digestive System (what other organs are ivolved in the
Digestive system?)
 Pancreas- Organ that secretes (releases) digestive enzymes into the small intestines to
help break down lopids.

 Gallbladder- Organ that secretes bile into the small intestines to help break down lipids.
- Bile – a sopal-like chemical that breaks down fats.

WEEK 2

Disorders of the Digestive System

 Gastroesophageal Reflux (GERD)-

Description: -Happens when the muscle found at the end of the esophagus does not close
properly, which allows the acid from the stomach to flow or leak into the esophagus.

Signs/symptoms: Frequent episodes of acid reflux.

prevention/treatment;

-can be treated by taking antacids or surgery.

-Avoidance of alcohol, spicy, fatty, and acidic foods.

  Diarrrhea
Description: May be caused by a virus or bacteria. Prolonged diarrhea dehydration may result
in dehydration if not treated.

-Irritates the colon and interrupts reabsorbs of water.

Signs/symptoms: Soft and watery stool.

-Increased frequency of excretion.

Prevention/Treatment: Drinking lots of fluids to replenish what is lost in the stool.

-Consult a doctor.

 Constipation
Description: Opposite of diarrhea.

-Result of slow peristaltic movement in the large intestine.

-This slows the movement causes much of the water to be absorbed from the stool, making it
hard or dry.

Syns/Symptoms; Infrequent, difficult bowel movement. Dry hard stool.

Prevention/treatment: Bowel Training .

-More fluid intake.

-High –fiber diet (such as pineapple, banana

 Appendicitis

Description: Caused by the blockage of hard mass of feces or parasitic infection which makes the
appendix swell.

Sign/symptoms: Inflammation of the appendix.

-Sharp pain in the lower right side of the abdomen.

Prevention/treatment: Surgery to remove the swollen appendix

(Vestigial- organs that cannot cause death. )

 Peptic Ulcer
Description: -Painful, open lesions in the stomach.
-Result of imbalanced digestive fluids caused by Helicobacter pylori (H. Pylori )

Signs/symptoms; Burning pain in the upper or middle stomach.

-Bloating.

-Nausea or vomiting.

-Heart burn

Prevention/treatment: Elimination the cause of H. pylori infection.

-Antibiotics

 Stomach Cancer
Description: otherwise known as gastric cancer. Risk factors include having a nitrite –and-
nitrate-rich diet.

Signs/symptoms: Weight loss

-Abdominal pain

-Vomiting, with or without blood.

-Prevention/Treatment: Surgery.

-Avoidance of processed foods (hotdog, tocino.)

-Chemotherapy

 Colon(large intestine) Cancer (colorectal cancer)

Description; Malignancy in the area of the colon and rectum that may be diet-included.

Signs/Symptoms: diarrhea or constipation.

-Blood in the stool

-Weakness and fatigue

Prevention/Treatment; consumption of high fiber, low-fat, and low-calorie foods.

WEEK 2 QUIZ
 1. The process by which large pieces of food are cut and crushed into smaller pieces is
called Mechanical Digestion.
2. The enzyme in the saliva that helps digest food is called Salivary Amylase
3. The gastric juice produced in the stomach contains mucus, hydrochloric acid, and 
pepsin.
4. The wavelike contraction that moves food along the digestive tract is called peristalsis
5. Final and complete digestion happens in the small intestine.
6. Saliva does the following except: produce bile
7. The stomach accomplishes this type of digestion by churning food: Chemical.
8. When the large intestine reabsorbs too much water from solid waste before it exits the
body, it results in a condition called constipation.
9. When increased bacterial growth within the appendix causes infection and swelling it
results in a condition called appendicitis.
10. causes the bacterial infection of the stomach which results in peptic ulcer: Helicobacter
pylori.

FROM FLASH CARDS

 Constipation- when the large intestine reabsorbs too much water from solid waste before
it exits the body.
 The common bile duct delivers bile from the gall bladder, and duodenum.
 Small intestine- the area where digested molecules of food, water, and minerals are
absorbed.
 Liver- organ makes bile, detoxifies, blood, and filters out red blood cells.
 sulcus terminalis is a v-shaped groove that divides the tongue into lingual part and
pharyngeal part.
 How does the food move through your digestive tract? By wavelike muscular contraction
 Cardiac sphincter- the muscular valve that prevent the back flow of gadtric juices to the
esophagus.
 Sublingual fold- the structure in the sublingual region in which the secretio of the rivini’s
ducts empties the oral cavity.
 Cecum- the first pert of the large intestine is the cecum.
 Small intestine- where does most of the digestive process take place?
 Palatine tonsils- the lymphoid tissue found between the anterior and posterior pillars off
fauces.
 Villi- tiny fingerlike projections in the small intestine which increases the surface area
for absorption of nutrients.
 Digestive enzymes-the acini of the pancreas produce
 Pyloric sphincter- the muscular valve that prevents the back flow of gastric juices to the
stomach.
 Fundus- the part of the stomach that lies above the esophagus.
  Appendix- The lest important human digestive organ from this list: duodenum, appendix,
pancreas, esophagus.
 Large intestine/colon- excess wayer is re-absorbed from undigested food by
 Bloodstream- the major functions of the digesting system are to digest and to absorb the
nutrients into ;

WEEK 3
SCIENCE 4TH QUARTER WEEK 3 NOTES

Cell division
Importance of Cell Division

You began as a single fertilized egg, Look at how you’ve changed through the years! Organism
are made up of cells. Many cells in your body are growing, dividing, and dying, as we speak.

Human development shows the importance of cell division. From a single fertilized egg that
dividies, the embryo takes human form and eventually grows and matures.

The Cell Cycle

 Reproduction & cell division is a common feature of a living organisms.

 Th cell ccycle is the series of events that takes place in a cell as a controlled set of events
which leads to growth and division.
 Prokaryotic cell (without nucleus)- binary fission. (like bacteria)
 Eukaryotic cell (with nucleus)- interphase and mitotic phase. (dogs, and cats)

Cell division

 Cell division is a unique and essential process by which a mature organism is formed
from a fertilize egg.
 Cell of the hair, skin, blood, and intestine get renewed.

Mitosis

 A process in which the nucleus divides into two nucleus.

 Each new nucleus has the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
 A parent cell contains two complete set of chromosomes (diploid, 2n).
 Occurs in somatic (body) cells.
 Body cells only

Phases of cell cycle

  G1 (Gap) phase

Initial growth phase

The cell grows and prepares itself for DNA replication

Cycle start

 S Phase

Synthesis phase (pinaparami, and cinocopy yung DNA) (onti onting na foform yung chromo)

The cell replicates its DNA

 G2 (Gap) Phase

Second growth phase

The cell manufactures necessary materials it will need when the cell devides, such as
organelles, materials for new membranes, and cytosol.

 M Phase

(mitotic phase) Mitotic 2 daughter cells only)

Where nucleus divides into two nuclei

Stages of Mitosis

PMAT Prophase-Metaphase-Anaphase-Telophase

Stages of Mitosis: Prophase

  Chromosomes condense(nag lalapit) and become visible
 Spindle fibers (blue) emerge from the centrosomes
 Nuclear envelop (green broken circle lines, encloses the nucleus) breaks down.
 Centrosome (orange, pulling themselves apart.) ) move toward the opposite

Stages of Mitosis: Metaphase

 Chromosomes are lined up at the metaphase plate (invisible line)

 Each sister chromatid is attached to the spindle fiber is originating opposite poles.

Stages of Mitosis: Anaphase

 Centromeres split into two

  Sister chromatids (now called chromosomes) are pulled towards opposite poles(nag hati)
 Certain spindle fibers began to elongate the cell.
 Mas mahaba na ng onti than Metaphase. Spindle fibers are no longer connected

Stages of Mitosis: telophase

 Chromosomes arrive at opposite poles and begin to decondense

 Nuclear envelope material surrounds each set of chromosomes
 Mitotic spindle breaks down
 Spindle fiber continues to pull poles apart.

Stages of Mitosis: Cytokenesis (extra)

 Division of the cytoplasm of the parental cell into two daughter

 The contraction of the cell membrane creates a cleavage furrow, or indentation of the
plasma membrane

Meiosis (gametogenesis)

 Reduce the number of chromosomes in the parent cell by half and produce four gamete
cells.
 This process is required to produce egg and sperm cell for sexual preproduction.
 Nagaganap sa sex cells
For diploid, if the parent cell has 4 chromosomes, then the daughter cells will also have 4
chromosomes. For haploid, if the parent cell has 4 chromosomes, then the daughter cells will
have 2 chromosomes each.

Meosis 1

 Prophase 1: Chromatin condenses

Meosis 2 (sabay nag uundergo ng PMAT

2 daughter cells

WEEK 5

Biodiversity and Why it matter

Biodiversity (pag kakaiba-iba)

- A short term for biological diversity, which refers to the variety and
abundance of life forms within species(singular and plural form),
community, ecosystem, and biosphere.
- It is an important indicator of an healthy ecosystem.

Biodiversity and Survival

A higher volume and diversity of species indicates that other species have more to
depend on.
 “Free” Ecosystem Services

-There are lot of “free services” offered by ecosystem, such as freshwater, oxygen,
fuel, plants, and trees that man uses for medicine, food, and shelter.

Causes and Effects of Low and High Biodiversity

Low Biodiversity

Cause - Pollution

Event - Algal Bloom

Effect- loss of oxygen and loss of life.

High Biodiversity

Cause- Conservation

Event - Mating

Effect- Increase in population.

Taxonomy- Putting Order in Diversity

-Everything and everyone has a name

-Taxonomy is the branch of science concerned with classification of naming
organisms.

Taxonomic Ranks

-Organisms are classifies through a taxonomic rank. They are classified from
general to specific classifications

King Philip Came Over From Great Spain

1.Domain - Eukarya
2. Kingdm – Animalia
3.Phylum - Chordata
4.Class - Mammalia
5.Order - Carnivora
6.Family -Caridao
7.Genus-Vulpes
8.Species Valpos vulpos
- A naming a system which uses the combined genus and species of an
organism
- Genus + species = scientific name
(Hand written- should be underlined) (text written- crtl+I and Underline)

EXAMPLES:

Onion Allium cepa

Dog Canis lupus familiaris

Corn Zea mays

Tarsier Carlito syrichta

Calamansi Citrus microcarpa

Coliform bacteria Escherichia coli

WEEK 7
THE CYCLE OF LIFE

1 The Flow of Energy

Living things need energy. They need to carry out life processes which include growth, nutrition,
respiration, reproduction, locomotion, excretion, and sensation.

What is the fundamental source of energy in the environment? Sun.

Radiant Energy – The fundamental source of energy in the environment is radiant energy from
the sun.

1. Sunlight
2. (Autotrophs) organisms to use radiant energy to make their own food through
photosynthesis
3. (Heterotrophs)Organisms that obtain energy by feeding on other organisms.

Energy flow in an Ecosystem;

The amount of life an ecosystem can sustain is dependent on the amount of energy autotrophs
can capture. Where there is no food, there are also no consumers.

Trophic Levels;

Energy flows from the Sun to the autotrophs and then to the heterotrophs. Trophic levels are
feeding positions of organisms in a food chain.

(Pants produce glucose/sugar) (palaging 100 percent ang nakukuha ng primary.)

- The first trophic level is composed of organisms that obtain energy directly from the sun,
the autotrophs, also called producers.
- Producer pass on the energy to different heterotrophs or consumers. The primary
consumers are herbivores, such as nails, cows, and grasshopper that feed on producers.
(Pag kinain ng secondary consumer 1/10th nalang ang makukuha ni Secondary (100
divided by 10) )
- The secondary consumer are carnivores, such as big fish and frogs that feed on
herbivores.
(Pag si Secondary consumer kinain ng textiary consumer, the 10 percent will be divided
by 10. So, they will receive 1 percent.)
- The tertiary consumers are carnivores, such as snakes, hawks, and sharks that feed on
secondary consumers. There are also consumers that feed on both meat and plants,
referred to as omnivores (eats meat)
- Detritivores are also part of this food chain. They are organisms that feed on dead and
decomposing matter. Detritus.
Food Web;

In reality, it is uncommon that only one food chain exists. Most of the time several food chains
overlap to from a food web.

Ecological Pyramids- The amount of energy transferred from one organisms to another can also
be illustrated using ecological pyramids. Ecological pyramids show the reduction in energy as
one moved through each trophic levels.

Biogeochemical Cycles

Biogeochemical cycles are any of the naturally circulating pathways of the essential substances
needed by organisms to live.

Biotic and Abiotic Factors (Living and non-living)

- Macronutrients – essential substances that are needed by an organism in large quantities.

- Micronutrients- essential substances that are needed by an organisms in a minute (small)
quantities.

The Carbon Cycle – The carbon cycle is nature’s way of reusing carbon atoms, which travel
from the atmosphere into organisms in the Earth and then back into atmosphere repeatedly. Most
carbon is stored in rocks and sediments, while the rest is stored in the ocean, atmosphere, and
living organisms.

The Oxygen Cycle- Oxygen cycle refers to the movement of oxygen through the atmosphere,
Biosphere, and the Lithosphere. The oxygen cycle demonstrated how free oxygen is made
available in each of these regions, as well as how it is used. (Oxygen is flammable)

The Nitrogen Cycle- The nitrogen cycle is a repeating cycle of processes during which nitrogen
moves through both living and non-living things: the atmosphere, soil, water, plants, animals,
and bacteria. In order to move through the different parts of the cycle, nitrogen must change
forms. (Nitrogen changes it forms every stage)