EE 462

ELECTRIC DRIVES
Presented
by
Prof. Philip Yaw Okyere
Chapter One
Introduction
Concept of an Electric Drive
 Mostof the production equipment used
in modern industry consist of
 electric drive and
 the driven equipment that performs
the desired job.
 The electric drive comprises
 the electric motor,

 the control equipment by which the

motor characteristics are adjusted and
 the energy transmitting shaft.

 Thedrive together with the driven

equipment or load is called the electric
drive system.
 Electric drives are used
 in a very wide power range, from a
few watts to several thousands of
kilowatts,
 in applications ranging from very
precise, high-performance position-
controlled drives in robotics
 to variable-speed drives for adjusting
flow rates in pumps.
Classification of Electric Drives
 The electric drives can be classified into
three groups:
 Group drive (or line shaft drive)
 Individual drive or single-motor,
single-load drive
 Multi-motor drive
 Group drive (or line shaft drive)
oThis is the oldest form of electric
drive.
o A single motor drives one line shaft
supported on bearings and the driven
machines coupled to the line shaft
through belts and multi-stepped
pulleys.
oThis is rarely used these days
because
 it cannot change the speed of
one of the loads alone
 it is inefficient in that the line
shaft continuously rotates
regardless of the number of
loads in operation.
Individual drive or single-motor, single-
load drive
o Singlemotor is used to impart motion to
various parts or mechanisms belonging to
single equipment.
 Gears, pulleys etc are used to transmit
power to the different mechanisms.
 For example in lathe machine, a single
motor imparts motion to the spindle, to
the feed and the lubricating and cooling
pumps.
o Ora single motor is dedicated to a
single load.
 This is the most common form of
electric drive.
 Examples include fans, electric
saws, electric drills and computer
hard disk drives.
Multi-motor drive
o Separate motors are provided for different
mechanisms in single equipment.
o An example is the traveling crane: it has
three motors
 one for hoisting,
 and another for long travel motion
 and the third for cross travel motion.
Another example is the robot arm.
 It can employ as many motors as its
movement requires.
Basic Components of Electric Drive
System
 In all modern electric drives where the
speed and position are controlled, a
power electronic converter is needed as
an interface between the power source
and the motor.
 A general block diagram for a modern
electric drive system:
 The converter converts the source
waveform to another waveform that
the motor can use.
 In addition, converter provides the
motor with adjustable voltage,
current and/or frequency.
 The controller performs a wide
range of functions to improve
system performance, efficiency and
stability.
 Often, the design engineer knowing the
nature of the load and available power
source is required to select the electric
motor, electronic converter and the
controller.
 Above a few hundred watt power level,
there are basically three types of motor
drives, namely dc motor drives,
induction motor drives and
synchronous motor drives
 Chapter Two
Dynamics of Electric drive System
Drive systems mechanics
 Two types of mechanical systems are
encountered in electric drives:
 mechanical systems in translational
(or linear) and
 mechanical systems in rotational
motions.
 Examples of translational motion are
hoists, electric trains and electric jack
Examples of rotational motion
are fans, pumps and
compressors.
In the translational and
rotational motions, we have the
following basic mechanic
equations:
Translational motion Rotational motion
Force due to acceleration = mass x Torque due to acceleration =
acceleration moment of inertia x angular
acceleration
Work done = force x distance Work done = torque x angular
displacement
Power = force x speed Power = torque x angular speed
Kinetic energy = ½ x mass x [speed]2 Kinetic energy = ½ x moment of
inertia x [angular speed]2
Example 1
A crane lifts a mass of 272 kg to a height of
61 m in 15 s. Calculate the power in kW.

Solution
Force required = 272 x 9.8 = 26665.6 N
Speed at which the body is lifted = 61/15 =
4.06 m/s
Power developed = 2665.6 x 4.06 = 10.84
kW
Example 2
A car engine develops a torque of 600 Nm at
a speed of 4000 rev/min. Calculate the
power output in kW.

Solution
2  4000 3
Power  600 10  251 kW
60
Mechanical Loads
 There are two types of loads:
 active and
 passive loads.
 Active loads
 They are due to gravitational pull or
deformation of elastic bodies e.g.
springs.
 They are unidirectional, independent
of direction of motion of the drive.
  Examples of driven equipment
presenting active load are hoists, lifts,
elevators, trains operating on gradient
hill.
 Passive loads
 They are due to friction, shear and
deformation in inelastic bodies.
 They always oppose motion.
 Examples are lathes fans and pumps.
The speed of a drive is determined
by the characteristic of the motor as
well as that of the mechanical load.
Mechanical loads have a wide range
of speed-torque characteristics.
In practical drives, loads may
consist of a combination of the
following basic loads in varying
proportions:
Active load: Torque is independent of speed.
This is seen in hoist and vehicle drives
Dry or coulomb friction:
 It is nearly independent of speed.
 This friction at zero or near zero speed
called sticking friction can be far
greater than the sliding friction.
 We observe this in bearings (no
lubricant), gears and brakes.
 Forces when cutting or milling material
contains coulomb type friction
Viscous friction:
 Torque is proportional to speed
 Examples are eddy current brakes,
separately excited generator feeding fixed
resistance load, fluid friction, well
lubricated bearings.
Fan type load:
 T=k x speed2
 Examples are fans, blowers, centrifugal
pumps, propellers in ships or planes, pipe
friction, velocity head of pumps
Constant power load:
 Power is approximately constant
 Examples are boring machines,
winders (coilers) and rotary cutting
machines, grinding, metal drawing,
crushing, shearing (where
deformation of material is involved)
Quadrantal Diagram of Speed-Torque
Characteristic
 A drive motor may be operated in either
direction and its torque may be reversed for
braking.
 When drawing speed-torque characteristics
of motors or loads, it is preferable to use all
four quadrants rather than quadrant one
alone.
 This diagram is referred to as quadrantal
diagram.
 The speed is taken to be positive if drive
or motor moves in the forward direction or
upward.
 Motor torque and load torque are assigned
the same sign as that of the speed if they
aid and oppose motion respectively if not
they are assigned the opposite sign.
 It follows that the load torque and the
motor torque have the same sign if they
are directed against each other.
The speed-torque characteristics of dc
separately excited motor and the
basic loads for four-quadrant operation
Equation of motion
 Motor and its driven load can be
represented as:

motor load
TL

ω
Te
Fig. 2.4 Motor-load system

 Itis assumed that coupling between the

different parts of the drive is stiff.
 Thebasic torque equation for the system
under dynamic conditions known as
equation of motion is
d ( J )
Te  TL 
dt

 where
 Te = motor torque,
 TL = load torque and
 J = moment of inertia of the drive
system
The moment of inertia of some drives
such as centrifuges or reeling drives
varies with motion.
 In most drives however, the moment
of inertia is constant.
For a constant moment of inertia, the
equation of motion becomes
 d
Te  TL  J
dt
For
d
(i) T e TL ,  0 and drive accelerates.
dt
d
(ii) T e TL ,  0 and drive decelerates.
dt
d
(iii) T e TL ,  0 and drive will continue to
dt
run at the same speed if it were running or will
continue to be at rest, if it were not running.
At starting Te must be greater than TL.
Effect of gearing
 Some loads are not directly coupled to
the motor shaft because they operate at
different speeds.
 Speed changing mechanisms such as
gears and v-belts are used to match the
speed of the drive motor to that of the
load.
 For these loads it is still desirable to refer
all mechanical quantities to the output
shaft of the motor.
Equivalent load torque:
Let  m = motor speed and L = load speed
Then equating powers, we obtain
TLeqm  TL L 
 L  1 TL
TLeq      TL 
 m   i
where
TL = load torque
TLeq = load torque referred to the motor shaft
m
i = coupling or gear ratio
L
 = efficiency of transmission
 Equivalent load torque:
In the case where the stages of
transmission are many:
J1, ω1
J2, ω2
Jm, ωm Jn, ωn

TL
 1 1
TLeq    TL
i1i2 ....in 1 2 ..... n

m 1 2
Where i1  , i2  , i3  ,… and
1 2 3
J1, J2, ---- Jn are the moments of
inertia of the different shafts running
at speeds ω1, ω2, ……, ωn respectively.
Equivalent moment of inertia
 The moment of inertia seen by the
motor can be obtained using the kinetic
energy for each component of the
system.
 The total kinetic energy seen by the
motor is
ω 2m
Total KE  J eq  KE of motor  KE of gears  KE of load
2
 For n stages of transmission
m2 m2 12 22 n2
J eq  Jm  J1  J2  ..............  J n
2 2 2 2 2
J1 J2 Jn
J eq  J m  2   ................
i1 i1i2 2
i1i2 ....in 2

 The equivalent torque and moment

inertia equations show that the coupling
ratio can change the moment of inertia
and the load torque seen by the motor.
 If the coupling ratio is greater than 1,
both of them are reduced.
Referring forces and mass
 This becomes necessary when
translational and rotational motions are
combined.
 A coupling mechanism such as rack-
and-pinion, belt-and-pulley or feed-
screw is used to couple a load with a
translational motion to a rotating motor.
 Examples are hoists, cranes and
shaping machines.
rack-and-pinion
 The equivalent torque and moment of inertia
for the force and mass are obtained by
equating powers and kinetic energies
respectively.
 Referring to the figure below, we obtain these
equations:
V d r r
 
V  1 m m i
TLeqm  FrV  or TLeq      Fr
 m  
and
2
 2
V 2 V 
J eq mm
or J eq     m
2 2  m 
Example 3
For the feed-screw drive given
above, obtain
(a) the equivalent load torque and
(b) the equivalent moment of inertia.
Neglect transmission losses.
Solution
(a) Equating powers
TLeqm  FLV ,
Therefore
V FL
TLeq  FL 
m i
The coupling ratio is obtained from the equation
m
V  s  nm  s 
2
where nm = speed of the motor in rev/s.
From the equation
m 2
i 
V s
(b) Equating kinetic energies
 2
 2
 2
V 2
V 2
J eq m
 Jm  Js
m
 MT
m
 MW
2 2 2 2 2
Therefore
2
J eq  J m  J s  M T  M W 
V
 2
m
Or
 M T  MW 
J eq  J m  J s   
 
2
i
Example 4
A horizontal conveyor belt moving at a
uniform velocity of 1 m/s transports load at
the rate of 50,000 kg/hour. The belt is 180
m long and is driven by a 960 rev/min
motor.
(a) Determine the equivalent rotational
inertia at the motor shaft.
(b) Calculate the required braking
torque at the motor shaft to stop the
belt at a uniform rate in 10 seconds.
Solution
(a) We assume that at any instant the load
on the conveyor belt is uniformly
distributed and that the mass of the
conveyor belt is negligible.

The total length of the conveyor belt

passing through the delivery point in 1
hour or 3600 seconds to deliver 50,000 kg is
s = speed x time = 1 m/s x 3600 s = 3600 m

Therefore load distribution on the

conveyor is 50,000/3600 kg/m.
 At any instant the total mass of the conveyor
is M = (50,000/3600) x 180 = 2,500 kg
2
V 
J eq     M
 m 
2
 
2
1  1 
    2500     2500
 2 60 960   32 
 0.25 kg  m 2

(b) Braking torque required

Tb  J eq  0.25 32 10  2.5 Nm
Determination of moment of inertia
 The moment of inertia of a drive is
required to design a drive control
system and to determine its transient
performance.
 The moment of inertia is usually
determined by experimental test. Why?
 By calculation it is difficult because the
rotating masses involved are complex
and non-homogeneous.
 When designing a drive control system,
the value of inertia used needs not to be
exact.
 An error of plus or minus 10 % is
usually acceptable without any serious
effect.
 The most common and simple test
performed is known as the retardation
or run down test.
The following steps are followed for
the run down test:
 Disconnect mechanical load not
contributing to the inertia
 Run the motor to some initial
speed slightly higher than the rated
or normal speed.
 Note the power drawn by the
motor P.
 Switch off drive power and
measure speed as a function of
time (storage scope or similar
recorders is used for the
measurement)
 Plot speed versus time curve as
shown on the next slide
Approximate calculation of J
 When the power supply is cut off, the
rotating part continues to rotate because of
the initial kinetic energy stored in the
rotating masses.
 The rotation stops when this energy is used
up by rotational losses.
 The power consumed in overcoming the
rotational losses is given by
d 1 2  d
Pr   J   J
dt  2  dt
 Alternatively, the equation may be derived
from the equation of motion.
 From the equation of motion when the
power is switched off, we obtain
d
0  TLS  J
dt
 Therefore
d
0  TLS   J
dt
 The first term on the right is the rotational
loss and the second term is the rate of
change of kinetic energy
 From the test results obtained by
performing the run down test dω/dt
at the rated speed can be found
 And taking the measured input
power P as the rotational loss at the
rated speed, the moment of inertia
can be estimated as
P
J 
d
r (r )
dt
More accurate calculation of J
 Additional test is performed to determine
the rotational losses or torque more
accurately.
 The procedure is as follows:
 Obtain rotational losses of the drive under
steady state conditions at various speeds
 (rotational losses = input power – no load
electrical losses)
 Compute effective loss torque TLS for
different speeds
 Plot TLS versus speed curve as shown
below
The inertia can be determined when
TLS (ω) is known by the equation
TLS (1 )
J 
d
(1 )
dt
The inertia is computed at different
speeds and their average value used.
Alternatively,
 We may plot (rotational losses)
versus speed curve
 Derive from this curve and run
down curve rotational losses versus
time curve as shown below
 Find the area under rotational losses
versus time curve, A
 The area A represents the kinetic
energy used up by the rotating masses
while retardation took place, that is
J 2
A o
2
 From which
2A
J
 2
o
The proof is as follows:
d
From Pe  PL  J when Pe  0,
dt
d
we obtain  PL  J
dt
T1 0
Therefore  P
t 0
L dt    J
o
d or
o
 J 
T1 2
1 2
A   PL dt     Jo
0  2 0 2
Example 6
In a retardation test, the speed of
a motor at a time t seconds after
the supply has been cut off is
100
given by  radians/sec. If the
1  t 
rotational losses of the motor are
given by PL  0.02 watts, find the
2

moment of inertia of the motor.

Example 7
The rotational losses of a motor are given by PL=0.02ω2 watts Estimate the
moment of inertia of the motor if retardation test on the motor yields the data
tabulated below.
Time in seconds 1 4 9
Speed in rad/s 50 20 10
Slope of speed-time curve in rad/s2 -25 -4 -1

Solution
PLS ( ) 0.02 2
TLS ( )    0.02
 
TLS ( ) 1
J    0.04 kg  m 2
At t = 1s, TLS = 0.02×50= 1.0 and d (25)
dt
0.4
At t = 4s, TLS = 0.02×20= 0.4 and J   0.1 kg  m 2
(4)
0.2
At t = 9s, TLS = 0.02×10= 0.2 and J   0.2 kg  m 2
(1)
0.04  0.1  0.2
J   0.113 kg  m 2
3
Criteria for steady state stability
 At a steady state speed , we have
Te o   TL o   0
 This is given by the point of
intersection of the curves:
  Te and   TL
A necessary and often sufficient
condition that this point is stable is
dTL dTe

d  o d  o
The neutral stability corresponds to
the case where
dTL dTe

d  o d  o

For this condition, there is no

definite operating point and speed
fluctuates due to random torque
variations.
A practical example below shows the
speed-torque characteristics of an
induction motor and some loads.
 L1 is a fan-type characteristic. The
point of intersection 1 is stable. This
point roughly corresponds to the rated
load.
 L2 is also a fan-type characteristic. Its
point of intersection with the motor curve
2 is stable but at this operating point the
motor would be heavily loaded.
 L3 is a constant-torque characteristic.
With this load, there is a stable operating
point 3 and unstable point 3’ but the
motor would be also overloaded. Also the
drive would fail to start together with the
load.
Example 8
The torque-speed curve of a motor can be
described as follows: Te = 2 + 0.1ω Nm
for 0 ≤ ω ≤ 60 rad/s and Te = 20 – 0.2ω
Nm for 60 ≤ ω ≤ 100 rad/s. The motor
drives a constant torque load whose
torque TL = 6 Nm.
(a) Can the motor start together with the
load? Why?
(b) Find the two possible steady state
speeds.
(c) Which of the two is stable? Why?
Solution
(a) No, because Te(ω=0)<TL=6 Nm
(b) The speed–torque
characteristics of the motor
and load are shown below. The
steady state operating points
are obtained by solving the
equations
6= 2 + 0.1ω1 and 6 = 20 – 0.2ω2
which give ω1 = 40 rad/s and
ω2 = 70 rad/s
For the operating point to be stable, the
condition is
dTL dTe

d  o d  o
dTL
Since the load torque is constant  0 at all
d
speeds. Therefore for the operating point to
dTe
be stable it must have negative .
d
dTe
is positive at ω1 = 40 rad/s and negative at
d
ω2 = 70 rad/s. Hence the stable operating
speed is the 70 rad/s.
Mechanical Transients
 Starting, braking and speed control of
drives result in mechanical transients
which can be obtained by integrating
the equation of motion.
 The equations are usually nonlinear and
there are several options available for
performing the integrations, namely
 numerical and graphical integration,
 analytical solution, and
 solution of linearized equation.
Numerical and graphical integration
 The solution of the nonlinear equation is
obtained by numerical integration with the
digital computer.
 A large number of integration techniques
can be used. The best known ones are
 Square-rule,
 Trapezoidal-rule,
 Simpson-rule,
 Newton-algorithm and
 Range-Kutta-algorithm.
 Thetime required to attain a change in speed
from ω1 to ω2 may be determined from
equation of motion:
d
Te  TL  J
dt

where both Te and TL are functions of ω only.

 From the equation, we obtain
d d
 Te  TL  J dt ► dt  J
T T e L

2
d
 Therefore t J 
1 Te  TL
 From standstill
0
d
t J 
0
Te  TL

 The time can be determined by plotting

the reciprocal of the acceleration torque
(=Te-TL) as a function of speed
 And finding the appropriate area under
the curve.
The reciprocal of Te-TL would
become infinitely large as the speed
approaches its steady state value.
The difficulty which results from
this is avoided by computing the
time required to reach say 95 to
98% of the final steady state speed.
The time required to reach any
speed ωx is given by the expression
x
d
tx  J 
0
Te  TL

The above equation can be used to

obtain the speed versus time curve.
In using the steady state speed-
torque characteristic to compute the
starting transient, we are assuming
that the electrical transients are
negligible.
This is true if the starting is
sufficiently slow due to large inertia
or reduced voltage.
Example 9
A 3-phase, 440 V, 50 Hz induction motor
driving a fan, whose torque is proportional to
the square of the speed, has the speed-torque
characteristic given below:
Speed(rpm) 1500 1425 1350 1200 1050 900
Torque(Nm) 0 42 60 70 68 60

750 600 450 300 150 0

50 40 33 29 28 27
Determine the time taken by the fan having a
rated torque of 42 Nm to accelerate to its rated
speed of 1425 rpm. The total moment of
inertia of the motor and fan may be taken as 1
2
kg-m
Solution
(i) Obtain fan torque
2
 N 
2

TL   
 .TLrated  
N in rpm 
  42
 N rated   1425 
for speeds up to 1400 rpm. This is about
98% of the final speed of 1425 rpm.
1
(ii) Obtain up to a speed of 1400 rpm
Te  TL
(iii) Integrate using any of the numerical
techniques. The answer is 4.87 s
Analytical solution of nonlinear differential
equation
A solution of the equation of motion is
obtained by separation and integration:
 1
t t  J d
2

   T  
2 1
 T
1
e L

 This is rarely possible because there is

either no analytical expression for the
functions T   and T  
e L

or if there is such a formula, the

integration cannot be performed.
Exceptions include
 the starting of dc motor with a
constant flux which is a linear
equation and
 no-load starting of an induction
motor.
These will be considered later.
Solution of linearized equation
The linearized equation is obtained
by linearizing the equation of
motion about a steady state speed.
About a steady state speed ωo, the
equation is given by
 d
Te  TL  J or
dt

d
0  TL  Te  J or
dt

d
0  k  J or
dt
 d
Tm    0
dt
where
dTL dTe
k    
d d at o and

J
Tm 
k
Tm is called mechanical time constant
The change in speed  is a small
deviation from the steady state
speed .
We note that
 k is positive if the steady state
operating point is stable.
 partial derivative is used to obtain k
if TL and Te also depend on time.
Linearize y  f (x) where f ( x)  x 2

around xo
st st
1 approach -1 principles
y x 2

yo  y  ( xo  x) 2

yo  y  xo  2 xo x  x
2 2

y  2 xo x  x 2

y  2 xo x
Linearize y  f (x) where f ( x)  x 2

around xo
nd
2 approach
df
 2x
dx
df
Therefore at x  xo is 2 x o
dx
df
Hence y  ( xo )  x  2 xo x
dx
Linearize y  f (x) where f ( x)  x 2

around xo
3 approach-using  as an operator
rd

It is the approach 2 done without first

writing df/dx. It is executed in this
order: differentiate followed by Δx.
yx 2

y  2 xx  2 xo x
 Thegeneral solution of the linearized
equation of motion
d
Tm    0
dt

is given by  t    0e
t Tm

 where Δω(0) is the initial displacement

that may be caused by switching from
one motor characteristic to another
resulting in a new steady state speed.
 Δω(0)
is given by
0  i   f
 where
 ωi = steady state speed on the old
characteristic
 ωf = the steady state speed on the new
characteristic.
 See the figure below. The old and new
motor characteristics are curves 1 and 2
respectively.
The linear equation is obtained by
linearizing the equation of motion
around ωf.
The speed after the disturbance:

   f  

   f  (i   f )e t Tm
Simple cases of linearized solution
 In the simple cases used to illustrate the
linearized method, the load and motor
torques are linear functions of speed.
Therefore the equation of motion can be
solved directly.
 Again because of the linearity, the
deviation is not restricted to small
values. Hence the solutions obtained by
this approach are exact.
Case (a): Starting a motor with shunt-
type characteristic at no load
Refer to figure below.
The final steady state point is defined
by (ωf = ωo, Te = 0) because TL= 0.
The initial steady state speed, ωi = 0
because motor is initially at rest.
TL  0
It can also be shown that
To
Te  To  
o
dTL dTe
k (0 )  (0 )
d d
dTe To
 0 (0 ) 
d o
 J0
Tm 
T0
From the general equation
   f  (i   f )e t T m

   o  (0  o )e t Tm


 o 1  e  t Tm

The motor torque during
start up is obtained from
To  
Te  To    To 1  
o  o 
 o 1  e t Tm
  T e t Tm
T e To 1  
 o 
o
Alternatively, we can substitute the load
and motor torque equations in the
equation of motion before we linearize it.
To d
To    J
o dt
Linearizing the equation gives
To d d To
   J or 0  J   or
o dt dt o
d
0  Tm  
dt
Jo
Where as before Tm 
To
Case (b): Starting the motor with a load
torque proportional to speed
i  0
To
Te  To  
o
Referring to figure below
 f  2
Te 2
TL  
2
Substituting them in equation of motion,
we obtain
To d Te 2
To    J  
o dt 2
Linearizing the equation of motion gives
To d Te 2
   J   or
o dt 2
d  To Te 2 
0J     
dt  o  2 
Under steady state conditions,
d
0
dt
Therefore, from the equation
of motion we have
To Te 2
To  2  2 or
o 2
To Te 2 To
 
o 2 2
Substituting this in the linearized
equation yields
d To
0J   or
dt 2
d
0  Tm  
dt
where
J2
Tm 
To
The speed transient is
   2  (0   2 )e t Tm
or
  2 1  e t Tm

The torque transient
 
Te  To 1  
 o 
 2 t Tm 
Te  To 1  1  e 
  o 
Case (c): Loading transient of the motor
running at no load speed (TL is constant)
 The initial and final steady state speeds
are ωi = ωo and ωf = ω2 (new steady
state speed).
 Since the load torque is constant, the
linearized equation is the same as that for
case (a).
 Thus T  Jo
m
To
The speed and torque transients are
given by
t   2  o  2 e t Tm

   o  2  o  2 e  t Tm

Te  To 1    To  
 o   o 
or
 o   2 
Te  To  
 1 e
t Tm
 
 T2 1  e t Tm

 o 
Example 10
A dc shunt motor has a speed-torque
equation given by ω =110-12Te. At t =
0, the motor starts with a load whose
torque is given by TL = 0.1ω. J = 0.5
2
kg-m
(a) Determine the final steady state
speed.
(b) By linearizing equation of motion,
obtain the speed transient ω(t) and
the torque transient Te (t).
Solution
(a) At the final steady state
speed ωf,
ωf = 110 – 12Te
Te = TL = 0.1ωf
Therefore
ωf = 110 – 12x(0.1ωf) or
ωf =110 – 1.2ωf
from which ωf = 50 rad/sec
(b) Substituting the motor torque and
the load torque equations into the
equation of motion, we obtain
110  d
  0.1  0.5
12 12 dt
Linearizing the equation gives
1 d
   0.1  0.5 or
12 dt
2.2 d  6  d
0   0.5     
12 dt  2.2  dt or
Hence the speed transient
   f  i   f e t Tm
 50  0  50e 2.2t 6

 501  e 1.1t 3

and the torque transient
110   110  50  50e 2.2t 6
Te  
12 12
1.1t 3
60  50e

12
Example 11
A dc shunt motor has a torque-speed
equation given by Te =500 - 40ω. At t =
0, the motor starts with a load whose
torque is given by TL = ω . J = 6 kg-m
2 2

(a) Determine the final steady state

speed.
(b) Is the operating point stable?
(c) By linearizing equation of motion,
obtain the speed transient ω(t)
Solution
(a) At the final steady state speed
ωf
  500  40 f or   40 f  500  0
2
f
2
f

( f  50)( f  10)  0
 f 1, 2  10 rad/s, - 50 rad/s .
The speed should be positive.
Therefore ωf = 10 rad/s
 dTL
(   f )  2 f  20
(b) d
and
dTe
(   f )  40
d
Since
dTL dTe
(  f )  (  f )
d d ,
the operating point is stable
Part (c)
d
Te  TL  J and from part (b)
dt
d d 
 40  2 f   6  20  6 or
dt dt
d
0  60   6
dt
From which
6
Tm   0.1s
60
 (t )   f  i   f e t Tm
 101  e 10 t

Travelling time of dc motors
 Travelling time is defined here as the
time required to change the motor speed
from one steady state operating point to
another
 Itis an important quantity in drives such
as robotics.
 The travelling time of an electric motor
can be computed using electrical model
of the motor and equation of motion.
 Fordc machines, if electrical transients are
not neglected, the equations are
dia
Va  e  Ra ia  La
dt
e  k
Te  kia
 where
 Va = armature voltage,
 Ra = total armature circuit resistance
 La = total armature circuit inductance
 ia = armature current
 Substitutingthe motor torque equation
into the equation of motion yields:
d
kia  TL  J
dt

 From which we can derive

TL J d
ia  
k k dt
 For a constant load torque and constant
field current, differentiating the current
gives
 dia J d 
2

dt k dt 2
 Substituting this equation and equations
for e, and ia into the armature voltage
equation yields
RaTL Ra J d JLa d  2
Va  k   
k k dt k dt 2
 Rearranging gives
d  Ra d k  kVa RaTL
2 2

2
   
dt La dt JLa JLa La J
 The final steady state speed is given by
k  
2

kVa RaTL

f
JLa JLa La J
 From this, we obtain the final speed as
Va RaTL
f  
k k 2

 The above equation can be derived from

the steady state ω-Te equation of dc
shunt motor on recognizing that at the
steady state operating point, Te = TL.
Example 12
A dc shunt motor has the following
parameters: kφ = 3.0 V/rad/s, Ra = 1 Ω
and La = 10 mH. The rated voltage of
the motor is 600 V. The voltage is
reduced to 150 V at starting. The load
connected to the motor is a constant
torque of 20 Nm. The total moment of
inertia of the entire drive system is 6
2
kg-m . Find the motor speed as
function of time. Also find the motor
speed after 5 s.
Solution
Direct substitution in the equation
derived above gives
d 
2
1 d 3 2
3 150 1 20
   
dt 2
0.01 dt 6  0.01 6  0.01 6  0.01
d 2 d
2
 100  150  7500  333 .33  7166 .67
dt dt
The final steady state speed
7166 .67
f   47.78 rad/s
150
The characteristic equation is
given by
p  100 p  150  0
2

The roots are

b b  4ac
2
p1, p 2  
2a 2a
 100 100  4 150
2
 
2 2
 1.52,  98.48
The roots yield the solution
 (t )  47.78  Ae 1.52t
 Be 98.48t

Since the motor is starting

from rest, the initial speed
(0)  (0 )  (0 )  0
 

Substituting this in speed

equation yields
0  47.78  A  B
Differentiating the speed equation,
we obtain
d
 1.52 Ae 1.52t  98.48 Be 98.48t
dt
The acceleration at starting can be
obtained as follows:
TL J d
ia   or
k k dt
d k TL
 ia 
dt J J
Therefore
d  k 

TL (0 ) 
TL (0 )
(0 )  ia (0 )  
dt J J J
 
ia (0 )  ia (0 )  0
because current in inductance cannot
change suddenly.
The acceleration is computed as
d  20
(0 )    3.33
dt 6
Substituting this in the
differential equation yields
3.33  1.52 A  98.48 B
The two equations obtained
from the initial conditions when
solved simultaneously yield
A  48.49 rad/s and B  0.71rad/s
The required solution is
 (t )  47.78  48.49e 1.52t
 0.71e 98.48t

The motor speed after 5 s is

 (t  5)  47.78  48.49e 1.525
 0.71e 98.485

 47.76 rad/s

This is nearly equal to the

final steady state speed.
A simpler equation is obtained if
electrical transient is neglected.
 That is the armature inductance La is
neglected.
 The resulting equation can be obtained
as previously
 Or by setting La to zero in the equation:
RaTL Ra J d JLa d 2
Va  k   
k k dt k dt 2
 This yields
RaTL Ra J d
Va  k  
k k dt
 Rearranging yields
 Ra J  d Va RaTL
 (k ) 2  dt    k  (k ) 2
 
 This is first order differential equation.
Its solution in general form is
 f  final steady state speed
   f  ( i  f )e t Tm
i  initial speed
Ra J
Tm 
(k ) 2
Example 13
Repeat Example 12 with the
armature inductance ignored.
Solution
The final steady state speed
Va RaTL 150 1  20
f      47.78 rad/s
k k 2 3 9

The initial speed i  0

The time constant
Ra J 1 6 1 1
Tm    0.67 and   1.5
(k ) 2 3  3 Tm 0.67

The required solution is

   f  ( i  f )e t Tm

1.5t
 47.78  47.78e
1.5t
 47.78(1  e )

The motor speed after 5 s is

 (t  5)  47.78(1  e 1.5 5 )  47.75 rad/s
Ifthe two speeds obtained in
Examples 12 and 13 are plotted, it
will be observed that the two are
almost identical.
Thus the starting time of the dc
motor is more dependent on the
system inertia than on the armature
inductance.
If we assume that the motor reaches
its new steady-state operating point
when the speed of the motor is about
95 % of the final speed, the starting
time (i.e. the time it takes to reach
the final speed from zero speed)
3Ra J
t st  3Tm 
(k ) 2
 The above equation shows that the starting
time depends on armature resistance, system
inertia and field current.
 We also observe that the motor voltage
controls the magnitude of the final speed but
not the starting time.
 Toreduce the starting time, the system
inertia must be reduced either by using a
gear or belt system or by increasing the field
current.
Example 14
A dc shunt motor is used in high
performance operation. The starting
time of the motor must be limited to
2 s. The motor has a moment of
2
inertia of 1 kg-m . The load moment
2
of inertia is 5 kg-m . The field
constant kφ = 3 V/rad/s and the
armature resistance is 2 Ω. Show how
we can achieve the desired starting
time.
Solution
The starting time of the motor is
3Ra J 3  2  (1  5)
t st    4s
(k ) 2 9

This is higher than the desired

starting time.
A gear system can be used to
reduce the moment of inertia.
The equivalent moment of inertia
to give a starting time of 2 s must
be equal to
t st (k )
2
29
J eq    3 kg  m 2

3Ra 3 2
If we ignore the moment of inertia
of the gear system, then for a
single-stage gear system
JL
J eq  J m 
2
i
Hence
5
3  1
2
i
And the gear ratio must be
5
i
2
Example 15
For the dc motor in Example 12,
the motor operates at a steady-
state speed when the terminal
voltage is at 500 V. To increase the
motor speed, the terminal voltage
is increased to 600 V, while the
field current remains constant.
Calculate the time required to
change the motor speed.
Solution
The initial steady state speed
Va RaTL 500 1 20
i    
k k  2
3 9
 164.44 rad/s
The final steady state speed
600 1  20
f    197.78 rad/s
3 9
The time constant is computed in
Example 13 as
Tm  0.67 s
The travelling time is
calculated by assuming that
the motor reaches the new
steady-state operating point
when the motor speed is 95 %
of the final value.
The solution is in the form
t T
   f  ( i  f )em
Thus
t T
0.95 f   f  ( i  f )e m

which gives the travelling time

 0.05 f 
t  Tm ln  
  f  i 
 0.05 197.78 
 0.67 ln    0.81s
197.78  164.44 
Example 16
The motor in Example 12
operates at a steady state speed
with a terminal voltage of 500 V.
Assuming that the load torque is
constant, calculate the terminal
voltage that stops the motor and
keeps it at holding. Also calculate
the travelling time during braking
Solution
To find the voltage required to stop the
motor, ωf is set to zero.
Va RaTL Va 1 20
f     0
k k 2
3 9
This gives Va = 6.66 V
The braking time can be calculated by
assuming that the motor reaches the
holding state when its speed is about 5
% of the initial speed.
From
   f  ( i  f )e t Tm

 0  ( i 0)e t Tm

 i e t Tm

we obtain
 t Tm
0.05i  i e

which gives travelling time

t  3Tm  3  0.67  2 s .
Travelling time of induction
motors
Electricaltransients are ignored
and steady state torque used.
The torque is nonlinear function of
speed is given by
3 V 2
R2
Te  1
s  R2 
2
 s
 R1    X e 
2

 s  
Its maximum value is given by
3V12
Tmax 

2s R1  R12  X e2 
Or
VL2
Tmax 

2s R1  R12  X e2 
The maximum torque occurs at a
slip smax given by
.
smax 
R2 . R2
 ► R X 
2 2

R12  X e2
1 e
smax
Theratio of the developed torque to
maximum torque is
Te


2 R2 R1  R12  X e2  Or
Tmax  R2 
2

s  R1    X e 
2

 s  

Te


2 R2 R1  R12  X e2 
Tmax  2  R2  2 R1R2 
s  R1     2  Xe 
2

  s  s 
 Inserting the smax equation into this
gives
 R2 
2 R2  R1  
Te
  smax 
Tmax  R 
2
 R2 
2
R1 R2 
Or
s  2    2 
 smax   s  s 


 R1 
2  smax  1
Te  R2  Or

Tmax  s s max R1 
s  2 smax 
 max s R2 
 2 KT max
Te 
 s s max 
s   2bsmax 
 max s 
 Where
b
R1 K  bsmax  1
R2
 Theconstant b =1 if it assumed that
R1  R2
 Andb = 0 if the stator resistance is
considered to be negligible.
 On no load the equation of motion is
d
Te  J
dt
d d
  s 1  s    s
ds
  s 1  s  ► dt dt dt

 Therefore
ds
Te   s J
dt

 Substituting
this in the motor steady
torque equation yields
 2 KT max ds
  s J
 s s max  dt
s   2bsmax 
 max s 
 Therefore
 J s  s smax 
dt     2bsmax  ds
2 KTmax  smax s 
 The time t taken by the motor to change
its slip from s1 to s2 is given by
t  Js  s2 s s2 s s2 
0 dt  2Tmax s1 smax d s  s1 s ds  s1 2bsmax ds
max
 Js  s12  s22  s1  
t   smax loge    2bsmax s1  s2 
2 KTmax  2smax  s2  

 OR
  s12  s22  s1  
t   smax loge    2bsmax s1  s2 
2 K  2smax  s2  

 Where
Js

Tmax
τ is known as system time constant.
Let (smax)opt be the value of smax that
would give minimum time to
change the slip of the motor from s1
to s2.
This (smax)opt can be obtained by
differentiating the above time
equation with respect to smax and
equating the result to zero.
 Assuming b to be constant (Note that b
is a function of the rotor resistance.
Hence a function smax )
s s
2 2
smax opt  1 2

  s1  
2loge    2bs1  s2 
  s2  
 Theminimum time can be determined
by substituting this in the time
equation.
The optimum value of smax to
accelerate the motor from rest or
standstill (s1=1) to any slip s in
minimum time is given by
1 s 2
smax opt 
 1 
2loge    2b(1  s)
 s 
The (smax)opt can be used to obtain
the optimum value of rotor
resistance required to change the
slip of the rotor from s1to s2 in
minimum time as follows:
( R2 ) opt  ( smax ) opt R  X
1
2 2
e
Example 17
A 3-phase, 400 V, 6-pole, 50 Hz,
star connected wound rotor
induction motor has a sum of
stator and rotor leakage
reactance referred to stator of 1
ohm. It is connected to a balanced
400 V supply and drives a pure
inertia load.
The moment of inertia of rotor
2
including the load is 10 kg-m .
Direct on line starting is used
and the rotor circuit resistance
is adjusted so that the motor
brings its load from rest to 0.95
of synchronous speed in the
shortest possible time.
Neglecting stator resistance,
calculate the value of the
rotor resistance referred to
the stator and the minimum
time to reach 0.95 of
synchronous speed.
Solution
Slip corresponding to 0.95Ns,
N S  0.95N S
s  0.05
NS
With negligible stator resistance
b = 0 and K = 1. s  to accelerate
max opt

the motor from rest to slip of 0.05 in

the shortest possible time is then
given by
 1
  2 1
    2

 1 s
2
  1  0.052 
s max opt      0.408

 2 log  1    1 
e
  2 log e 
    0.05  
 s 

R2 opt   X 1  X 2 smax opt  1  0.408  0.408 

The minimum time
  1 s 2 1 
t min    smax opt loge  
2  2smax opt s




2 2
V 3 V
Tmax 
  
L L

2 s R1  R  X 1
2 2
e
2 s X e
2
400
  763.94 Nm
 50 
2  2   1
 3
The minimum time
J s 10  2  50 
     1.371
Tmax 763.94  3 

Therefore
1.371  1  0.05
2
 1 
t min    0.408loge  
2  2  0.408  0.05 
 0.685 1.22  1.22  1.67 s
Example 18
A 480-V, 60-Hz, 3-phase
induction motor has a rated
speed at full load of 1120
rev/min, stator resistance of 1
Ω, rotor resistance referred to
stator of 1 Ω, and equivalent
winding reactance of 5 Ω.
The inertia of the motor is
2
4 kg-m . Calculate the
starting time of the motor
at no load and full voltage.
Solution
With a rated speed of 1120
rev/m at a frequency of 60
Hz, the motor must be a 6-
pole type with a synchronous
speed of 1200 rev/m.
 2
V
Tmax 
 
L

2 s R1  R  X
1
2 2
e
2
480
  150 Nm
 1200 
2 2


 1  1  25
60 

  1200 
4 2 
J s  60 
   3.36 s
Tmax 150

R2 1
s max    0.196
2 2
R1  X e 1  25

b  R1 R2  1
K  bsmax  1  1  0.196  1  1.196
The slip at starting
s1  1 .
A good approximation is to
assume that the final slip at no
load
s2  2 %  0.02 .
The starting time is then
 1  s22 1 
   smax loge   
t st   2 s max  s 2  
2K

  2 bs max 1  s 
2 

1  0.022  1  
3.36   0.196 loge   
t st   2( 0.196)  0.02  
2(1.196)
  2(1)(0.196)1  0.02
 5.2 s
Example 6
In a retardation test, the speed of
a motor at a time t seconds after
the supply has been cut off is
100
given by  radians/sec. If the
1  t 
rotational losses of the motor are
given by PL  0.02 watts, find the
2

moment of inertia of the motor.

 Problems
(1) A motor having a suitable
control circuits develops a torque
given by the relationship Te = aω + b,
where a and b are positive constants.
The motor is used to drive a load of
2
torque TL = cω + d where c and d
are some other positive constants.
The total moment of inertia of the
rotating masses is J.
(a) Determine the relations among the
constants a, b, c and d in order that
the motor can start together with the
load and have equilibrium operating
speed.
(b) Calculate the equilibrium operating
speed.
(c) Will the drive be stable at this
speed?
(d) Determine the initial acceleration of
the drive.
(2) The complete quadrant-
one speed-torque curve of a
squirrel cage induction motor
is to be determined by
experiment. Explain whether it
is possible to get it using the
following loads:
(a) Pulley and spring balances
arrangement for which the torque
may be assumed to be independent
of speed.
(b) Separately excited dc generator
supplying fixed resistance load
(c) Fan-type load for which the torque
may be assumed to vary
proportionally to the square of the
speed.
(3) A dc shunt motor with a speed-
torque equation ω= 110 - 12Te runs at
no load speed ω1. At t =0, a constant
torque load of 5 N-m is applied to the
motor shaft causing the motor to slow
down to a new steady state speed ω2.
(a) Determine ω1 and ω2.
(b) By linearizing equation of motion,
obtain the speed transient ω(t) and
the torque transient Te(t). Take J =
2
0.5 kg-m .
(4) In a retardation test of a drive
to determine its moment of inertia,
the speed of the motor after the
supply has been cut off is estimated
as N = 1000/(0.97 + t) rev/min.
Motor has rated speed of 1000
rev/min and rotational losses at the
rated speed of 2.7 kW. Estimate
the moment inertia of the drive.
(5) A motor develops a torque
given by Te = 9184 - 87ω. The
motor is used to drive a passive
load whose torque is given
2
by TL = 0.0044ω .
(a) Find its steady state speed.
(b) Will the drive be stable at
this speed?
(6) Assuming that the motor
in Example 18 is unloaded
and a starting resistance of 1
Ω referred to the stator side is
inserted in the rotor circuit,
calculate the starting time of
the induction motor.
Ans = 4.34 s.
(7) A reverse current
braking is applied to the
induction motor in Example
18. Calculate the magnitude
of the motor voltage that
limits the braking time to
15 s. Ans = 419 V
(8) A reverse current braking is
applied to stop the induction motor
in Example 11.6 by reversing the
terminal voltage and simultaneously
inserting a resistance in the rotor
circuit. Calculate the value of the
braking resistance that minimizes
the braking time and the braking
time. Ans = 2.8 Ω, 4.5 s
(9) A 500 V dc shunt motor has the
following parameters: kφ = 3.0
V/rad/s, Ra = 1 Ω and La = 10 mH.
The load connected to the motor is
a constant torque of 20 Nm. The
total moment of inertia of the
2
entire drive system is 4 kg-m . The
voltage of the motor at starting is
150 V.
(a) Find the motor speed as function of
time.
(b) Find the motor speed after 5 s.
(c) Find the starting time.
(d) The motor reaches the steady-state
speed and the terminal voltage is at
full value. To decrease the motor
speed, the terminal voltage is reduced
by 10 % while the field remains
constant. Calculate the travelling time.
(10) Determine the time required to
bring to rest, by reverse current
braking, a load of moment of
2
inertia of 10 kg-m from a speed
of 950 rpm by means of a 400 V,
6 pole, 50 Hz, star-connected
three phase induction motor
having the following parameters:
R1  0, R2  0.2  , x1  x2  0.5  .
What resistance per phase
must be connected to the
rotor circuit to bring the
motor to rest in quickest
possible time? Calculate this
minimum time. Answers:
4.89 s, 1.45 Ω , 1.325 s
(11) The figure below shows a
mass of 1000 kg being lifted
up at a velocity of 0.5 m/s by
means of a drum-type hoist.
The gear ratio i = ωm/ωd = 80.
Transmission efficiency η =
83.33 per cent. Take g = 10
2
m/s . Calculate
(a) the motor speed in
rev/min
(b) the load torque
referred to the motor
shaft
(c) the load inertia referred
to the motor shaft
(d) the drum-side rotating
mass inertia (Jd) referred to
the motor shaft
(e) the motor torque
required to accelerate the
load from rest to full speed
at a uniform rate in 1
second.
Chapter Three

Electric Braking
Introduction
Braking of electric drives
can be achieved using either
electrical or

(electro) mechanical means.

Compared to mechanical braking,
advantages of electric braking are:
 Little maintenance is required
(mechanical braking requires
adjustment and replacement of
brake linings).
 No dust is produced (the wear of
mechanical brakes produces dust).
  A portion of the stored energy
(kinetic or potential) may be
returned back to the supply.
 Braking is smooth.
 The disadvantages are as follows:
 It normally cannot provide a holding
torque.
 It imposes stressful electrical and
mechanical transients.
The current during braking can
damage the motor windings as
well as the power converters.
The mechanical stresses can cause
damage to the bearings, coupling
and the rotor itself.
The braking system needs to be
designed to ensure safe operation.
Braking is employed under the
following two circumstances:
While the drive is slowing down or
stopping.
 The objective can be any of the
following:
 To reduce the time taken to stop
or slow down to a lower speed.
  To stop exactly at specified points
e.g. in lifts.
 To feed power back to the supply.

While lowering loads of high

gravitational energy such as hoists,
cranes and vehicles on a downward
grade.
The objectives are
To control the speed at which
the load comes down and to
limit it to a safe value.
To feed power back to the
supply.
Generally,we can group all
braking methods into three types:
Regenerative braking
The motor is operated as a
generator which is still connected
to the supply network.
Mechanical energy is converted into
electrical energy, part of which is
returned to the supply. The rest is
lost as heat in the motor winding.

An example is shown below, where

an electric motor is driving a
trolleybus uphill and downhill.
Inthe uphill direction, motor speed,
motor torque and load torque are all
positive.
The power flow is from power
source to electric machine and the
electric machine is motoring.
This is first quadrant operation.
Trolleybus
In the downhill direction, the speed
is still positive and the load torque
which aids the motion becomes
negative.
In the steady state conditions, the
direction of the motor torque is
always opposite to the direction of
the load torque, so the motor
produces a negative torque.
The power flow is from electric
machine to power source and the
electric machine is generating.

This is second quadrant operation.

Dynamic or rheostatic braking

 Motor is operated as a generator.

 Mechanical energy is converted into

electrical energy which is dissipated as
heat in the machine winding or in
resistors connected across their
terminals as electrical load.
 Forexample if an electric motor is
disconnected from the power source, it
continues to rotate for a period of time
until its stored kinetic energy is totally
dissipated as rotational losses.

 How fast the braking is depends on how

fast the kinetic energy is dissipated.
 With dynamic braking, the kinetic
energy is converted into electrical
energy and quickly dissipated as heat
in the machine winding or the resistors.
 While the machine is stopping, the
direction of its speed does not change
but the direction of its torque reverses.
 Thusthe machine operates in the
second quadrant in the braking mode.
Plugging or reverse current braking
 Motor is reconnected so as to make it
tend to drive in the opposite direction.
 Incase it is required to bring the drive
system to rest, it is necessary to
disconnect the supply exactly at the
instant when the motor stops otherwise
it will continue to move in the reverse
direction.
 Thisis the most inefficient technique of
braking because
 the electrical energy, which is converted
from the mechanical energy, is dissipated
as heat and also
 the electrical energy which is drawn from
the supply is similarly wasted.
 When used to stop a motor, the machine
operates in the second quadrant during
the braking.
Braking of dc motors during
lowering of loads
Regenerative braking of dc shunt
motor or separately excited motor
The motor is switched on to lower
the load.
That is the motor connection should
be such that it will lower a light load
(Note that a light load opposes
motion).
 Forconvenience, we take the speed as
positive when drive is lowering a light
load.
 Then the motor torque Te is initially
positive and the load torque TL is
always negative.
 Thus initially, the motor torque Te and
the load torque TL act together to
accelerate the motor as shown below.
 Themotor operates in the first quadrant
during the acceleration.
 The emf increases during the
acceleration and attains a value equal to
the applied voltage when the increasing
speed reaches the ideal no-load speed.
 The
armature current and hence the
motor torque Te become zero.
 The downward motion is then sustained
solely by the downward moving load
 When E increasing still becomes
greater than the terminal voltage V, the
motor generates and develops a braking
torque which opposes the load torque as
shown below
 The drive attains a steady state speed
when the braking torque becomes equal
to the load torque.
d
 The equation of motion: Te  J  (TL )
dt
 Thespeed-torque equation is obtained
from the two basic equations and the
armature voltage equation of dc shunt
motor:
Te  kI a
E  k
V  E  I a ( Ra  R )
V ( Ra  R )
  T
k (k ) 2 e
The speed-torque characteristic of
the motor is shown below.
The motor is supposed to operate in
quadrant 1 to lower a light load
which is positive because it opposes
motion
And in quadrant 2 to lower a heavy
load which is negative because it
aids motion.
 Thefigure below shows the
characteristics of the motor when both
upward and downward motions are
combined for unidirectional torque
gravitational load
 Forthe unidirectional torque
gravitational load, the load torque is
unidirectional in the two directions of
motion, and so is the motor torque.
 Anexample of unidirectional torque
gravitational load is shown below.
 The
motor operates in quadrant 1 when
moving upward and in quadrant 4 when
moving downward.
 Here the speed is bidirectional.
 Therefore if a positive terminal voltage
is applied to move a load up then
negative voltage must be applied to
move a light load down.
The figure below shows the
characteristics of the motor when
both upward and downward
motions are combined for
bidirectional torque gravitational
load.
Here the speed is unidirectional
An example of a bidirectional torque
gravitational load is shown below.
The motor operates in quadrant 1
when moving uphill and in quadrant
2 when moving downhill.
We note that the connection to send
a light load downhill is the same as
the connection to send a load uphill
because the speed is unidirectional
With this braking, the steady state
speed cannot be less than the ideal
no load speed.
The speed can be varied by shifting
the speed-torque curve along the
speed axis if voltage control is used
for the speed regulation
 Orby inserting resistance in the
armature circuit to modify the speed-
torque characteristic as shown above.
 Forthe unidirectional torque
gravitational load by reducing the
terminal voltage,
 the motor can be brought to a stop,
 its direction of rotation can be reversed
 or motor can be operated under holding
conditions.
The figure below shows the
characteristics of the motor driving
a unidirectional torque load.
Atoperating point 1, the machine is
motoring and the motion is upward.
To achieve the downward operation,
the voltage applied to the armature
is reduced from V1 to V2.
If the change is done quickly, the
operating point moves rapidly from
1 to 2 because the speed of the
motor cannot change suddenly due
to system inertia.
The operating point then moves
from 2 to 5 where the steady-state
condition is met: load torque =
motor torque.
From operating point 2 to 3, the
machine generates (regenerative
braking),
From 3 to 4 the machine motors but
speed decreases because TL is
greater than Te and
From 4 to 5 the machine generates
but power is wasted
 Atoperating point 4, the motor speed is
zero.
 Tostop it at this point, the supply
should be cut off and mechanical brakes
should be applied to keep the motor at
standstill. Why?
 Holding position is attained when the
load torque is equal to the motor torque
and speed of the motor is zero.
Example 1
A 220-V dc shunt motor has an
armature resistance of 0.062 ohms
and with full field has an emf of
215 V at a speed of 960 rpm. The
motor is driving an overhauling
load with a torque of 172 Nm.
Calculate the minimum speed at
which the motor can hold the load
by means of regenerative braking.
 Solution
(i) Obtain the field constant
E 215
k  
 2  960 60
(ii) Obtain the current required to
develop a torque Te of 172 Nm:
Te 172  2  960
Ia     80.42 A
k 215 60
(iii)Obtain the emf during the
regenerative braking and use it to
determine the speed.
V  E  I a Ra

220  E  80.42  0.062

E  220  80.42  0.062  225 V

(iv) Since for dc shunt motor emf
is proportional to speed when
the field current is kept
constant, we have
225
Speed   960  1004.65 rpm
215
Alternatively, we can use kφ to
find the speed in rad/s
Example 2
A dc separately excited motor has an
armature resistance of 0.5 Ω and kφ
= 3 V/rad/s. The motor is driven by
1-phase fully controlled ac-dc bridge
converter. The input to the converter
is an ac source of 277 V. The motor
is used to drive a forklift which is a
unidirectional torque load.
In the upward direction, the
mechanical load is 100 Nm, and the
o
triggering angle is 20 . In the
downward direction, the load torque
is 200 Nm. Calculate the triggering
angle required to keep the downward
speed equal in magnitude to the
upward speed. Assume that the
motor current is always continuous.
Solution
The applied voltage when motoring is
2 2V
Vo  cos

2 2  277
 cos 20o  234.35 V

The motoring speed
Vo Ra
m   T
k (k ) 2 e

234.35 0.5
  2 100  72.56 rad/s
3 (3)
The braking speed is b  72.56 rad/s . Therefore
Vo 0.5
 72.56    200
3 (3) 2

0.5
Vo   200  3  72.56  184.35 V
3

2 2  277
Vo  cos b  184.35

 184.35
cos b   0.7395 ►  b  137.7 o
0.9  277
The converter operates in the inverter mode,
converting the dc power from the machine operating
as a generator into ac which is delivered to the
electrical source.
Example 3
For the motor in Example 2, the
operator during the upward motion
changes the triggering angle to keep
the motor at holding position.
Calculate the triggering angle.
Solution
At the holding position motor speed is zero and
motor torque is equal to load torque. Therefore
Vo Ra Vo 0.5
0  TL    100
k (k ) 2 3 (3) 2

0 .5 50
Vo   100   16.6667
3 3
16.6667
cos b   0.06683 ►  b  86.2 o
0.9003 277
 Example 5
A dc separately excited motor has an
armature resistance of 0.5 Ω and a field
constant, k  3 V/rad/s . The dc source
voltage of the circuit is 200 V. The motor
is driving a forklift whose torque is 180
Nm. A regenerative braking is applied by
switching the terminal voltage of the motor
to a 30 V reversed-polarity dc supply.
Calculate the new steady-state speed and
the armature current at the new speed.
 Solution
The characteristics are as shown below:
Since the load
torque is
unidirectional, the
new operating
point is in the
fourth quadrant at
point 5.

V Ra  30 0.5
5   TL    180  20 rad/s
k (k ) 2 3 9
N 5  190.98 rev/m
Rheostatic or dynamic braking of dc
shunt motor or separately excited
motor
 Motor terminals are connected to external
resistor Rex and the field winding separately
excited as shown below
 Under steady state conditions, the load
torque which is negative because it is aiding
motion must be opposed by motor torque,
i.e. motor torque must also be negative.
When shunt excitation is used self-
excitation becomes ineffective at
about 50 % of the rated speed.
Thus no braking torque is
developed.
With this method of braking,
operating speeds lower than ideal
no load speed can be achieved.
 Thespeed-torque equation can be
obtained from the basic equations and
armature voltage equation:
Te E
Ia  ,  , E  V  I a Ra
k k
E   I a Rex  I a Ra   I a ( Rex  Ra )

 I a ( Rex  Ra ) ( Rex  Ra )
  Te
k (k ) 2

( Rex  Ra )
 Te
(k ) 2
 Thefigure below shows the speed-torque
characteristics for bidirectional and
unidirectional torque loads.
 Withthis braking complete stoppage of the
downward moving load is not possible
because E will be zero and so will Ia.
 Inother words zero speed can only occur at
zero torque.
 Brakingtorques can be obtained at very
low speeds: 0.07 to 0.1 of the rated speed.
 Consider the case where a motor is lifting a
unidirectional torque load at a constant speed
and suddenly dynamic braking is applied.
 Let
A in the figure on the next slide be the
operating point under normal motor
operation.
 Then just after braking, the motor operating
point moves to B, then to the origin and
finally to C where steady state condition is
met.
 The motor stops momentarily at the
origin. If the load is disconnected or a
mechanical brake is applied at the
origin the motor stops.
 Otherwise, the motor speed reverses.
 Atthe steady state operating point C,
the motor operates as a generator
supplying electric power to the
electrical load resistance Rex.
Plugging or reverse current
braking of dc shunt motor or
separately excited motor
The braking also known as terminal
voltage reversal (TVR) braking is
achieved by applying a motor
terminal voltage whose polarity is
opposite to that applied to lower a
light load.
 The characteristics of the motor with
normal and reversed voltage applied are
shown below.
 With this braking method,
 the motor can be brought to a stop
(i.e. speed reduced to zero),
 its direction of rotation can be
reversed or
 motor can be operated under holding
conditions.
 The figure below shows the
characteristics of the motor driving a
bidirectional torque load.
 The motor operates at point 1 in the
upward motion.
 If the reversal of the voltage is sudden,
the operating point moves from point 1
to point 2, then to point 3 and finally to
point 4 where both the motor torque and
speed have reversed; reverse motoring
 While travelling from 2 to 3, the motor
operates in the plugging mode.
 The equations describing operating
point 1 are
TL and I  V1  E1
V1  E1  Ra a1
k Ra

 The equations at point 2 are

V2  V1  E1  Ra
T2 and  V1  E1
Ia2 
k Ra
The initial braking torque T2 and the
initial braking current Ia2 are
negative.
The initial braking current is much
larger than Ia1.
Itis about two times the starting
current.
At point 3, the speed is zero and so
is the motor emf. The equations at
this point are
T3 and I   V1
 V1  Ra a3
k Ra

This is equal to the motor starting

current without starters.
The equations at steady state
operating point 4 are
 T  ,  V  E 
 V  E   L
  R I   1
 and
4

 k 
1 4 a a4
 Ra 

E4  k4

where E4 and ω4 are negative.

Ia4 = Ia1
One method for keeping the initial
braking current Ia2 within safe limits
is to simultaneously insert
resistance Rb in the armature circuit
when the armature voltage is being
reversed.
The figure below shows the effect
of the braking resistance.
Another method for reducing
the braking current is to
reduce the terminal voltage.
The effect of voltage
reduction is shown in the
figure below.
Example 5
A dc separately excited motor has an
armature resistance of 1 Ω and kφ = 3
V/rad/s. When the terminal voltage of
the motor is adjusted to 320 V, the
motor speed is 1000 rev/m. A TVR
braking is applied. Calculate the value
of the braking resistance that would
reduce the maximum braking current
to twice the rated current.
Solution
1000
E1  k1  3  2  314.16 V
60
V1  E1 320  314.16
I a1    5.84 A
Ra 1
Max. braking current occurs at point 3
I a3  2 I a1  2  5.84  11.68 A

 V1  E1  320  314.16
I a3    11.68
Ra  Rb 1  Rb

Rb  53.3 
Regenerative braking of dc series
motor
This is not possible because we
cannot obtain e.m.f. which is
greater than the terminal voltage.
This is also shown by the speed-
torque characteristic not crossing
into the second quadrant.
In electric traction, where
regenerative braking is used, the
dc series motors are reconnected
as separately excited motors.
Switching from the dc series
motor connection to separately
excited motor connection is best
done using solid state switches.
 During the change over, the field
current is not supposed to be
interrupted.
 Thisis to reduce current transients and
to prevent the machine from over-
speeding.
A simple circuit for the change-over is
shown below.
 The switches are solid-state switches.
 For normal motor operation, S1 is
closed, and S2 and S3 are open.
 The change over from motoring to
braking is done in two steps.
 The first step consists of opening S1
and closing S3 to separate the
armature circuit from the field circuit.
 The second step consists of closing S2
to provide the field current from a
separate source.
During the interval between
opening S1 and closing S3, the field
current is kept continuous by the
freewheeling action of the diode.
The voltage Vf required to
circulate rated field current is low
because the field resistance of the
dc series motor is small.
Rheostatic or dynamic braking of dc
series motor
 This is possible with dc series motors.
 For this motor, we need
 to interconnect the armature winding
and the field winding so that the
direction of the current in the field
remains the same as in the normal
running (or motoring).
 to ensure that the total resistance in
the motor circuit (Ra + Rs + Rex) is not
greater than the critical value
 Similar to the dc shunt motor,
E   I a ( Rex  Ra )
   I a ( Rex  Ra ) k or
   ( Rex  Ra )Te  (k ) 2

 We note that kφ depends on the field

current Ia unlike the dc shunt motor.
 Rheostatic braking of dc series motors
can also be achieved by reconnecting
them as separately excited motors.
Example 6
A dc series motor is subjected
to rheostatic braking against a
load torque of 318.3 Nm.
Determine the value of the
resistance to be reconnected
in the motor circuit to limit
the speed to 480 rpm.
The total resistance of the armature
and the field is 0.24 Ω and the open-
circuit characteristic corresponding to
900 rev/min is as given below:
If 20 40 60 80 100 A
E 261 540 738 882 945 V
Neglect rotational losses.
Solution
Here too we require E and Ia under
the given loading condition. Since
flux depends on the load or Ia, we
use the following procedure:
Step 1: Obtain kφ as a function of Ia
from the open-circuit characteristic.
This is called the magnetization
curve.
Step 2: Use the magnetization curve to
obtain Te as a function of Ia. This is called
electromagnetic torque characteristic.
Step 3: From Te - Ia curve, find Ia that is
required to develop a torque of 318.3 Nm.
Step 4: From kφ - Ia curve, determine kφ
that corresponds to the armature current
obtained in step 3. Alternatively, you
may use the formula Te = kφIa to calculate
kφ corresponding to that armature current.
Step 5: Using the braking speed (=
480 rev/min) and kφ in step 4, obtain
the corresponding emf E.
Step 6: Using E in step 5 and Ia in
step 3, obtain the total resistance in
the motor circuit: RT = E/Ia and hence
Rex = RT – (Ra + Rs).
Total resistance = 6.99 Ω and Rex
required = 6.70 Ω
We obtain the magnetization curve from the
o.c.c. as follows:
For a given Ia = If, divide the corresponding E
by ωtest. For example, for Ia = If =20 A,
261
k   2.77 Nm/A where N = 900 rev/min
2 60
N

(the speed at which the o.c.c. is obtained)

To obtain the electromagnetic torque, a given

Ia = If is multiplied by its corresponding kφ.
For example, for Ia = If =20 A,
Te  kI a  2.77  20  55.4 Nm
Plugging or reverse current braking of
dc series motor
 Two methods can be applied to the dc
series motor.
 One method consists of inserting a
resistance in the armature circuit.
 The equation of the motor under this
type of braking is
E  V  I b ( Ra  Rb )
 Ib is the steady-state armature current
after braking.
 Neglecting saturation, the braking
current is given by
TL  Te  kI b k I2
c b

 Ifthe terminal voltage and load torque

are constant, the back emf can become
negative for large braking resistance Rb.
 The characteristics are shown below.
 Point1 is the steady-state operating
point for normal running
 And point 2 is the steady-state operating
point under reverse current braking.
 The other method is the TVR braking
 IfTVR braking is applied we are to
ensure that the direction of the field
current remains unchanged.
 To prevent the field current from
reversing when the applied voltage is
reversed, the circuit below can be
implemented.
 Inthe normal operation, the switch S is
at A, and transistors Q1 and Q2 are
switched on.
 Diode D1 does not conduct and diode
D2 conducts to short the braking
resistance.
 To apply TVR, switch S is changed to
B, Q1 and Q2 are turned off, and
transistors Q3 and Q4 are turned on.
D1 ensures that the field current is
not interrupted while the transistors
are switching.
 D2in this mode of operation is
reverse biased and allows braking
current to flow in the braking
resistance.
The characteristics are shown below:
The operating point under normal
conditions is point 1.
After the braking it moves to point
2, then finally to point 3 if load is
bidirectional torque load.
If load torque is unidirectional, the
motor will continue to move to point
4, where the speed is zero.
The motor should be disconnected
at this point. The motor cannot
produce a torque that meets the load
demand.
Braking dc motors while stopping
Regenerative braking of dc shunt
motor or separately excited motor
This is possible with adjustable
speed motor.
Examples are adjustable speed
motor using
 flux control or
 armature voltage control.
 In
the case of flux control, the motor
operates at rated conditions with a
weak field current.
 Before bringing the motor to rest, the
field current is increased to the
permissible maximum value.
 The speed of the motor then falls to the
minimum value and the kinetic energy
released from the rotor fed back to the
supply.
A motor which operates with a
weak field under rated conditions
has to be designed to carry a large
current to produce the rated torque.
 Such motors are
 large in size,
 poor in efficiency and
 costly.
Adjusting the armature voltage
causes the speed-torque
characteristic of the motor to shift
along the speed axis.
Characteristicsfor the two methods
for the case where the driven load is
passive.
Plugging or reverse current braking of
dc shunt motor or separately excited
motor
 It is used to obtain a rapid stop.
 To reverse the torque developed, either
the field current or the armature current
is reversed.
 Armature current is reversed in practice
because the time constant of the
armature circuit is less.
 When the armature current is reversed,
the back emf of the armature aids the
supply voltage.
 Theinitial current can therefore be very
high (about 50 times the rated current).
 The initial current is limited
 by inserting additional resistance Rb in
the armature circuit or
 by reducing the terminal voltage.
 The initial braking current is usually
limited to about twice full-load value.
 The characteristics under reverse
current braking when the armature
voltage is reversed are shown below.
 Circuit
interruption is usually effected
by automatic null-speed device
mounted on the motor shaft.
Example 8
A 220 V, 20 kW dc shunt motor
running at its rated speed of
1200 rev/min is to be braked by
reverse current braking. The
armature resistance is 0.1 ohm
and the rated efficiency of the
motor is 88 %. Calculate:
(a) the resistance to be connected
in series with the armature to
limit the initial braking current
to twice the rated current.
(b) the initial braking torque and
(c) the torque when the speed of
the motor falls to 400 rev/min.
Solution
ouput power 20  103
Input power of motor  
efficiency 0.88
input power
Input current (rated value) 
input voltage

20 10 3
  103.3 A
0.88  220
Rated torque of motor (shaft torque)
rated output power 20 10 3
   159 .15 Nm
rated speed 2  1200
60
(a) The back emf of the motor at rated
current, field current neglected
(input current I  I a  I f ) is given by
E  220  103.3  0.1  209.67 V
At operating point 3,
 V  E  I a ( Ra  Rb ) or

 I a ( Ra  Rb )  E  V
E  V  209.67  220  429.67 V
Initial braking current is supposed to be
 2  103.3  206.6 A
and it is negative. Hence resistance in
armature circuit should be
E V 429.67
Rb  Ra    2.08 
 Ia  (206.6)
Braking resistance required
Rb  2.08  0.1  1.98 
(b) For a dc shunt motor Te  I a , field current
being kept constant. Hence initial braking
torque will be twice the full load torque
 2  159.15  318.30 Nm

(c) At the speed of 400 rev/min, the back emf

N new
Enew   Eold
N old
400
  209.67  69.89 V
1200
Hence braking current at 400 rev/min
220  E new 220  69.89
   139.37 A
Rex  Ra 2.08
Braking torque
I a ,new
Te,new   Te,old
I a ,old
139.37
  159.15  214.72 Nm
103.3
Rheostatic or dynamic braking of dc
shunt motor or separately excited
motor
 As discussed earlier.
 Inpractice Rex is chosen so that the
initial braking current is about twice the
full-load value.
 Thismethod is less rapid than plugging
but simple and not so wasteful of
energy.
Characteristicsfor three different
values of braking resistances are
shown below.
The smaller the braking resistance
is, the larger the braking current, the
higher the rate of dissipation of the
kinetic energy, and the faster the
braking.
Regenerative braking of dc
series motor
The dc series motor is
reconnected as separately excited
motor.
How it should be reconnected is
already discussed.
Plugging or reverse current braking of
dc series motor
 The terminal voltage is reversed and
additional resistance Rb is inserted in
the armature circuit to limit the initial
braking current as in the case of the dc
shunt motor.
 When the terminal voltage is reversed,
the direction of the field current should
not change.
The change-over from the normal
circuit to the braking circuit is
already discussed.
In the case of dc series motor, the
initial braking torque varies
significantly with changes in the
torque as shown below.
Curve 1 is the speed-torque curve
while motor is operating in the
forward direction and
Curve 2 is the speed-torque curve
with high external resistance in the
armature circuit while motor is
operating in the reverse direction.
Rheostatic or dynamic braking of
dc series motor
We need to ensure that
 the direction of the field current is
not changed and
 the total resistance in the motor
circuit (Ra + Rs + Rex) is not
greater than the critical value.
In the practice Rex is chosen so that
the initial braking current is about
twice the rated motor current.
Braking induction motors while
lowering loads
Regenerative braking of induction
motor
Regenerative braking takes place
under two conditions:
 motor must rotate in the same
direction as the stator magnetic
field and then
 speed must be greater than the
synchronous speed
 To achieve regenerative braking while
lowering a load, the motor connection
should be as will be used to lower a
light load.
 Thehappening when the switch is
closed is as described for the dc shunt
motor.
 The
speed-torque characteristic of the
motor is shown below.
 Themotor is supposed to operate in
quadrant 1 to lower a light load (Tlight is
positive because it opposes motion)
 And in quadrant 2 to lower a heavy
load (TL is negative because it aids
motion)
 Theload torque must not be higher than
the maximum braking torque that the
motor can develop (Tmax).
In a wound rotor motor, it is
possible to vary the operating speed
by varying the resistance in the
rotor circuit.
Ifv/f control is used for speed
regulation, the motor speed-torque
characteristic can be shifted along
the speed axis to vary the operating
speed.
Figures below show the
characteristics of the motor when
both upward and downward
motions are combined
 for unidirectional torque gravitational
load and
 for bidirectional torque gravitational
load.
 Forthe bidirectional torque
gravitational load, the motor operates in
quadrant 1 when moving uphill and in
quadrant 2 when moving downhill.
 Forthe unidirectional torque
gravitational load, the motor operates in
quadrant 1 when moving upward and in
quadrant 4 when moving downward.
Example 10
A 208 V, 6-pole, 60 Hz star-connected
induction motor has the ff parameters:
R1 = 0.6 Ω, R’2 = 0.4 Ω, Xe = 5 Ω
The motor is loaded by a 30 Nm
bidirectional constant torque. If the load
torque is reversed, calculate:
(a) the motor speed
(b) the power delivered to the
electrical supply
Solution
When the torque is reversed, the motor
operates in the second quadrant.
The new speed is calculated using the
motor torque equation given by
VL2
R2
Te 
 
R2 
2  s
 s  R1    Xe 
2
 s  
 
2 
2 2 2 V L R2
2
R1  Xe s  2 R1 R2 s  R2 
2
s
Te s

Substituting in values (note that

torque is negative), we obtain
0.6 2
5 s
2 2 2
 2  0.6  0.4s  0.4 2

208  0.4
2
 s
 2 1200 
(30) 
 60 
 2
25.36s  5.07s  0.16  0
s1,2  0.039,  0.161

The regenerative speed

N r  N s (1  s)  1200(1  0.039)
 1247rev/min
The developed power
1247
Pm  Ter  (30 )  2   3.918 kW
60
Rotor copper loss
s  0.039
Pjr  Pm  (3.918)  0.1471kW
1 s 1  (0.039)
Stator copper loss
R1 0.6
Pjs  Pjr   0.1471  0.2207 kW
R2 0.4

Total losses, neglecting iron losses

Pjs  Pjr  0.1471 0.2207  0.3678 kW

Power supplied to the electrical source

Ps  3.918  0.3678  3.550 kW
Plugging or reverse current
braking of induction motor
Itis achieved by interchanging any
two stator leads of motor that has
been connected to lower a light
load.
Method is employed in hoisting
mechanism.
A stable operation is obtained when the
condition of steady state stability is
satisfied:
 dTL dTe 
  
 d d 

 This happens when the rotor resistance

is sufficiently large as shown below.
 By varying this resistance, it is possible
to change the speed during braking.
Addition of rotor resistance has
additional advantages of reducing
stator current and increasing power
factor.
During plugging, the slip is given
by
 r 
s  1  
 s 
Shown below are the characteristics
of the motor when both upward and
downward motions are combined
 for unidirectional gravitational
load
 for bidirectional torque
gravitational load.
Rheostatic or dynamic braking of
induction motor
There are two types, namely
 ac dynamic braking and
 dc dynamic braking.
The former is only suitable in
general for small machines because
the characteristic is inferior.
The dc dynamic braking is achieved
by circulating dc current in the
stator winding usually through any
two terminals.
The dc excitation produces
stationary magnetic field having the
same number of poles as when the
motor is running on ac.
When the rotor sweeps past the
stationary field, an ac voltage is
induced in the rotor bars, which
produces ac current.
The equivalent circuit of the motor
under this condition is shown
below.
I1 = ac equivalent of the dc current.
I1depends on the magnitude of the
dc current and the nature of stator
winding connection.
The slip s is defined as
Motor speed r
s 
Synchronous speed s
 The braking torque is obtained on
noting that the generated power is all
dissipated in the rotor resistance as
heat:
 2 
Tb r  3I 2 R2
 From this, we obtain the expression for
the torque as
3 R2
Tb  I 2
2
Nm
s S
 2  R2 
xm  
Tb 
3
 I12  S  Nm
s 2
 R2 
  xm  x 2 
2

 S 

 Differentiating it with respect to s and

equating it to zero, we obtain
R2
Sm 
xm  x2 
 This gives a maximum braking torque of
2
3 xm
Tb max   I12 Nm
s 2xm  x2 
We make the following
observations:
 As R2 increases, the speed at
which maximum braking torque
occurs also increases.
 The braking torque is proportional
to the square of the dc braking
current.
 In practice, the maximum braking
torque will not increase in
proportion to the square of the
current because Xm decreases due
to saturation caused by increase
in I1.
 Since the stator winding carries
only dc current, the stator
inductance has no effect.
Stator connections and their equivalent
ac excitation
 We consider three of four widely used
stator connections.
 We assume that the space mmfs
produced by the dc current in the
phases are sinusoidal.
 The resultant mmf for the connection in
fig. (a1) can be determined as shown in
fig. (b1):
The resultant mmf,
Fres  2 I dc N eff cos 30  3 I dc N eff
o

Neffis the effective turns per phase.

The resultant mmf due to Iac(rms)
flowing in all three phases

3
2
 
2 I ac N eff
If Iac is
the equivalent of Idc, then
their resultant mmfs should have the
same magnitude.
Equating the two mmfs, we obtain
3
3 I dc N eff  I ac N eff or
2

2
I ac    I dc
3
 The resultant mmf for the connection in
fig. (a2) can be determined as shown in
fig. (b2).
 1 0 3
Fres   I dc  2  I dc cos 60  N eff  I dc N eff
 2  2

 Equating mmfs, we obtain

3 3 1
I dc N eff  I ac N eff I ac  I dc
2 2 ► 2
The resultant mmf for the
connection in fig. (a3) can be
determined as shown in fig. (b3).
2 1
Fres  I dc N eff  2  I dc N eff cos 600  I dc N eff
3 3

Similarly,
3
I dc N eff 
2
I ac N eff ► I ac 
2
I dc
3
 The equivalent ac currents may also be
obtained using the fact that the
resultant mmf due to the ac current
flowing in all three phases is the same
at every instant.
 Let the 3 phase currents be defined as:
ia  2 I ac sin t ,
ib  2 I ac sin(t  120 ) and
o

ic  2 I ac sin(t  120 )
o
For the stator connection (a1),
consider the instant where ωt = 60o.
The current in the three phases for
ac supply are
3 3
ia  2 I ac sin 60  2 I ac 
o
 I ac
2 2
 3 3
ib  2 I ac sin(60  120 )  2 I ac   
o o
   I ac

 2  2
ic  2 I ac sin(60  120 )  2 I ac  0  0
o o
 Thus the mmf produced at this instant
should be the same as the mmf
produced by stator connection (a1),
where
ia = Idc, ib = -Idc and ic = 0.
 For their mmf magnitudes to be the
same we should have
3 2
I dc  I ac or I ac  I dc
2 3
Expression for Iac can be
obtained for stator connections
(a2) and (a3) in a similar manner
using ωt = 90 for both
o

connections.
The advent of automatic control
of dc rheostatic braking of
induction motors using closed
loop systems has made the use
of induction motors more
popular than dc motors for
hoist–type load, especially for
drives employed in mine hoists.
Braking induction motors while
stopping
Regenerative braking of induction
motor
Itcan be achieved by switching
over to a low frequency supply
where v/f control is used for speed
regulation or
Switching over to larger pole
number operation where pole
changing is used for speed control.
Plugging or reverse current
braking of induction motor
Copper losses in the rotor
exceed those when the rotor is
locked.
Motors should therefore not be
plugged too frequently.
The power factor is low if the
rotor resistance is not
supplemented externally.
Motor should be disconnected
from the supply when speed
reaches zero.
DC rheostatic or dynamic braking of
induction motor
 Themotor comes to rest when all the
kinetic energy has been dissipated.
 Thedc current can be two to three
times the rated current of the motor.
 Even larger values can be used
provided the stator does not become
too hot.
Example 11
A 3-phase, 440V, 50Hz, 10 pole star
connected induction motor has the ff
parameters: R1 = 0.15 Ω, R2 = 0.45 Ω, X1
= 0.6 Ω, X2 = 1.8 Ω, sfl = 0.05 and the
effective stator to rotor turn ratio = 1/√3.
The motor is to be stopped using reverse
current braking at rated speed. An external
resistance of 1.75 Ω per phase (referred to
the stator) has been inserted into the rotor
circuit. Find the initial braking torque.
Solution
Initial braking speed
= speed of motor in normal operation,
r  1  s fl s
Initial slip during braking
 r 
sb  1   
  1  1  s fl  2  s fl
 s 
 2  0.05  1.95
Rotor resistance referred to the stator
2
 1 
   0.45  0.15 
 3
Rotor leakage reactance referred to stator
2
 1 
  x 1.8  0.6 
 3
External resistance + rotor resistance
 1.75  0.15  1.9 
Initial braking current
VL 1
I 2  
2
3  R2 
 R1     x1  x2 2

 sb 

440 1
 
2
3  1.9 
 0.15    1.2
2

 1.95 
 159.42 A
Synchronous speed
2f 2  50
S  
p 5
 20 rad/s
Hence initial braking torque
3I 2 R2 3 159.42  1.9 
2 2
Tb     
s sb 20  1.95 
 1182.35 Nm
Energy relations during braking
We consider the case where the
motor is on no load and braking
is from initial no load speed to
standstill.
The moment of inertia of the
rotating part is denoted by J.
Rheostatic or dynamic braking of dc
shunt or separately excited motor
The basic equations are
Te  kI a and
E  k
Voltage equation is
V  E  I a Ra
During braking we have
0  E  I a Ra  Rex  ► I a Ra  Rex    E
On no load,
d
Te  J
dt
d J d
kI a  J ► Ia 
dt k dt
Multiplying the voltage equation
by Ia gives
I a Ra  Rex    EI a
2
Substituting for Ia on the r.h.s.
of the equation gives
 J  d
I a Ra  Rex    E 
2
 k  dt
 J  d
I a Ra  Rex   k 
2
 k  dt
d
I a Ra  Rex    J
2
dt
t 0

 I
2
a  R a  Rex dt   J  d
o 0
Hence energy dissipated in the armature
winding and the external resistance during
braking

 
2 0
1
We  J   ► We  Jo
2

 2  0 2
This is equal to the kinetic energy possessed
by the armature at the start of the braking.
Plugging or reverse current braking of
dc shunt or separately excited motor
During braking,
 V  E  I a Ra ► I a Ra  (V  E )

 J  d
I a Ra  V  E  
2
,
 k  dt
where Ra  Ra  Rex
  J  d
I a Ra  ko  k  
2
,
 k  dt
where  o = ideal no speed
 d d 
I a Ra   Jo  J 
2

 dt dt 
t 0

I Ra dt   J  Jo d  Jd 
2
a
o 0

o
  
2
o 2
  Jo  J   Joo  J
 2 0 2
On no load the ideal no load speed
o  o (ωo = the no load speed).
Hence the energy dissipated in the
armature circuit and external resistance
o 2
3 2
We  Jo  J
2
 Jo
2 2
3
We  Jo
2

2
Plugging or reverse current braking of
induction motor
The torque developed is given by the
expression
3 R2
Te  I2

s
2
s
On no load, we have
d
Te  J
dt
  J s
ds
dt

since   s 1  s 
 From the above two equations
3 R2 ds
I 2
  Js
s
2
s dt

J 2
 
t2 s2 2
3 I 2 R2 dt   J  J sds 
2 2 s s1
s s s2
t1 s1
2
Total energy loss in rotor

J 2
 
2
Wer  s1  s 2
s 2

2
The slip changes from
approximately
s1  2  s nl  2 to s2  1 .

Substituting these limits in the

above equation yields total energy
loss in rotor
J 2
Wer  4  1
s
►
3 2
Wer  J s
2 2
This equation represents the loss in
the rotor circuit alone.
Including the energy loss in the
stator, the total energy dissipated
by the motor during braking will be
3J  R1 
2
We  1   
s

2  R2 
Similar equations can be derived
for the starting of the induction
motor at no load. For this case
s1  1 and s2  0
Thus giving a total energy lost in
rotor as
J 2
Wer  s
2
DC rheostatic or dynamic braking
of induction motor
The energy dissipated in the rotor
circuit will be given by the stored
kinetic energy available at the
beginning of the braking process:
J 2
Wer  s
2
Energy loss in the stator, during
rheostatic braking is given by
2
Wes  3I ac eq  R1t br
where tbr denotes the braking
time during which the motor
speed falls from ωs to zero
(ωs = ideal no load speed ).
Example 11
A 230 V, 3-ph, 4 pole, 10 A,
0.85 power factor squirrel cage
induction motor has a full load
rated speed of 1440 rev/min. The
stator losses amount to 86.16 W.
The total inertia of the motor
together with the load is 0.0486
2
kg-m .
Determine the number of
starts by direct-on-line
starting and stops by
plugging per minute that
this motor can make
without exceeding the
allowable temperature rise.
Solution
Input power
 3  23010  0.85  3386.16 W
Power transferred to rotor
 3386.16  86.16  3300 W
Rotor copper loss
= slip x power transferred to rotor
1500  1440
  3300  132 W
1500
Hence the energy dissipated in rotor in
one minute without exceeding
permissible temperature rise
 132 60  7920 J
Energy loss in the rotor during starting,
i.e. from s1  1 to s 2  s fl is
J
 
2
We ( st )  1  s fl
s 2

2
Energy loss in the rotor during braking, i.e.
from s1  (2  s fl ) to s2  1 is

J
 
2  s fl   1
2
We (br )  s 2

2
Hence total energy loss in the rotor during
starting and braking
J S
 
1  s fl  2  s fl   1 or
2
We,total  2 2

2

We,total  2 J 1  s fl
2
S 
 
We,total  2 J 1  s fl
2
S 
 2  50 
2

 2  0.0486    1  0.04
 2 
 2302.38 J
Therefore the total number of starts
and stops
7920
  3.44 say, 3
2302.38
Example 13
A 10 kW, 3-phase, 400 V, 20 A,
50 Hz, 960 rev/min, 0.88 p.f.
squirrel cage induction motor
drives a certain load. The total
moment of inertia of the drive is
2
0.5 kg-m .
Determine the number of starts per
minute that this drive can make
under no load conditions without
exceeding the total power
dissipated in the motor under rated
conditions.
Assume that the ratio of stator
resistance to rotor resistance
referred to the stator is unity.
Solution
Input power
 3  400 20  0.88  12193.6 W
Full load losses
 12193.6 10000  2193.6 W
Energy lost per minute under full load
conditions
 2193.6  60 J
Energy lost by the motor during starting
1 2  R1 
 Js 1  
2  R2 

 2 1000   1 
2
1
  0.5    1    5483J
2  60   1
Therefore number of starts that can be made
2193.6  60
  24
5483
 Chapter 4
Speed Control
Introduction
The steady-state speed and torque
are obtained by intersecting motor
speed-torque and the load speed-
torque curves.

Therefore to control or change the

steady-state speed, the motor
characteristic is changed or shifted.
Speed control of dc motors
The speed-torque characteristics of
dc motors are described by the
equation
V Ra
  T
k (k ) 2 e

From the equation, two methods can

be used to control the speed of dc
motors.
 The two methods are:
 Varying the armature voltage while
maintaining the field current constant
 Varying the field current while
maintaining the armature voltage
constant.
 We cannot operate dc motors with
armature voltage and field current
higher than the rated values.
Therefore, only armature voltage
and field current reduction can be
done.
The armature voltage control is
suitable for speed reduction and
field control is suitable for speed
increase.
For a full range of speed control,
both of them must be used.
The speed ranges obtained by speed
control are defined with respect to a
reference called the base speed.
The base speed of a dc motor is
defined as the speed produced with
rated armature voltage and rated
field current, and with no external
resistance in the armature circuit.
Speed control of dc shunt or
separately excited motors
Controlling speed by varying the
armature voltage
 This
method of controlling speed is
commonly used.
 The method is highly efficient and
stable.
 With this method, the speed can be
adjusted from zero speed to base speed
at a constant torque.
The field is kept constant.
The characteristics of the motor
driving a unidirectional torque load
such as a lift are shown below.
 The motor speed-torque
characteristics are parallel since
they have the same slope given by
Ra (k ) 2
At steady state point 1, the rated
armature voltage is applied.
Ifthe armature voltage is
decreased, the steady state speed
decreases.
The smaller the armature voltage,
the lower is the speed.
At steady state point 2 say
V2 Ra
2   T
k (k ) 2 L

At operating point 4, the motor

operates under holding conditions.
At this point
V4 Ra Ra
0  T ► V4 
k
TL
k (k ) 2 L
Conventional method
Thismethod is known as Ward
Leonard system
Itwas designed to provide highly
accurate speed and position control
of separately excited dc motor
The motor field current is fed from
a constant-voltage source
The armature is fed from a variable
supply consisting of a motor-
generator set
These are two machines of the
same power rating as the motor
being controlled
The system is shown below
The motor driving the generator is
either ac or dc constant speed drive.
The ac driving motor is either a 3-
phase induction motor or 3-phase
synchronous motor.
The field winding of the separately
excited dc motor is energized even
when the motor is at standstill,
unless the stop is of long duration.
 Speed control of the separately excited
motor is effected by varying the
excitation and hence the voltage of the
dc generator.
 The potentiometer regulator indicated
permits the variation of the exciting
current from maximum to zero and in
the reverse direction when the direction
of rotation of the motor is to be
changed.
The motor generator set runs
continuously but the generator is
excited only during the actual
moments when the variable voltage
motor is working.
They were much used in the past for
large reversing rolling mill and mine
hoist motors where regenerative
braking can be applied.
They can still be found in some old
mine hoists.
Consider the use of this system for a
mine hoist.
When it is being used to lower an
empty cage, the drive initially
operates as a motor in quadrant 1 to
bring the cage down.
 As the cage is lowered, the weight of
the supporting cable overhanging the
winding drum increases and causes the
motor armature to accelerate and the
quadrant of operation shifted from 1 to
2 where regenerative braking is then
applied.
 For detailed description of the
happening, refer to section 2.1 of
chapter 3.
Theadvantages of the Ward-
Leonard system include:
 A wide range of speed from zero
to high speeds in either direction
 The main motor characteristics are
similar
 It can provide regenerative
braking
 Its disadvantages include
 Only speeds below base speed are
obtainable
 High initial cost of three machines
 Low overall system efficiency due
to the fact that three machines are
used in chain for the energy
conversion.
 The Ward Leonard drives have been
superseded by thyristor converters which
offer
 lower initial cost,
 higher efficiency (typically over 95%),
 smaller size,
 reduced maintenance, and
 faster response to changes in set speed.
Example 1
In a Ward–Leonard method of speed
control, the variable voltage motor is
separately excited from 500 V supply.
Motor output power is 450 kW and its
efficiency 90.0%. It is supplied at 500 V
from generator and runs at 400 rpm. If
the motor is required to run at 200 rpm
and develops the same torque, determine
the excitation required by generator
Motor armature and field resistances
are 0.01 Ω and 50 Ω respectively.
Armature resistance of the generator is
0.02 Ω. Open circuit characteristic
(O.C.C.) of generator is

If 1.4 2.2 3 4 5
E 210 320 400 475 525
6 7 8 A
565 590 615 V
Solution
450103
Input power of motor   500103 W
0.90
500
Motor field current   10 A
50
Motor field copper loss  50010  5000 W
Power drawn by motor armature circuit  500 kW  5 kW
 49.5 kW
Motor armature current  49.5 kW 0.5 kV  990 A
Motor back emf  500  990 0.01  490.1 V
Motor back emf when speed is reduced to 200 rpm
 200 
Em     490.1  245.05 V
 400 

New armature current = old armature current = 990 A

since torque is constant

Generator emf required,

Eg =Em + IR drops in motor and generator

E g  245.05  9900.01 0.02  274.75 V

When the O.C.C. is plotted the corresponding field

current is found to be 1.85 A.
Solid state control method
The control of the terminal voltage
is achieved by supplying the
armature from
 a controlled rectifier if the power
source available is ac or
 from a dc step down chopper if
the power source available is dc.
The use of solid state control
enhances the efficiency of the drive
systems and makes their operation
versatile.
For heavily loaded motors with high
armature inductance, the armature
current is continuous.
Controlling speed by varying the
field current
Reduction of field current provides
speeds above the base speeds.
The maximum speed is determined
by
 the effects of centrifugal force on
the armature,
 the effect of commutation time on
commutation (the ability of the
motor to complete commutation
decreases as commutation time
decreases),
 the effect of armature reaction
(armature reaction weakens the air
gap flux, which as a result can
lead to unstable operation).
 Fieldweakening due to armature
reaction makes too weak a flux
impracticable and a reduction of field
current below 70% of the maximum is
unusual, unless compensating windings
are used.
 The maximum allowable speed under
weak field conditions is usually
indicated on the motor nameplate.
A marking of 1200/1750 rev/min, for
example, would indicate a base speed of
1200 rev/min, and a maximum speed
with field weakening of 1750 rev/min.
 The field weakening range varies
widely depending on the motor design,
but maximum speed rarely exceeds
three or four times the base speed.
 Fora given torque, reducing the field
current results in an increase in the
armature current.
 Because of this and the excessive speed
which may result from reduction in
field current, field control should be
done with special care to prevent
electrical and mechanical damage to the
motor.
Conventional method
A variable resistor termed a field
regulator is connected in series with
the field winding.
The resistor may consist of a simple
slide wire for small motors or of
studs over which a contact arm can
be moved.
For large machines, up to 50 studs
may sometimes be required for fine
control speed.
According to the speed-torque
equation, the no load speed is
inversely proportional to the flux,
and the slope of the speed-torque
curve is inversely proportional to
the square of the flux.
Therefore the speed is more
sensitive to flux variations than to
armature voltage variations.

The characteristics of the drive with

a constant torque load for three
values of the field regulator are
shown below.
 Because the slope of the speed-torque
curve depends on the flux the motor
speed-torque curves are not parallel.
 Theadvantages of this method of speed
control include
 It is economical

 The shapes of main motor

characteristics are almost similar for
all settings of the field strengths.
Its disadvantages include
 The speed can only be raised
above its base value
 More speed generally means more
input power therefore higher
speeds are permissible for lower
torques only.
Example 2
A 220-V, 21-A, 1000- rev/min dc shunt motor
has an armature resistance of 0.05 Ω and a field
resistance of 220 Ω. The magnetization curve at
1000 rev/min for the machine is given by the
following:
If 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
E 50 100 150 190
1.0 1.2 1.4 A
219 235 245 V
Plot the speed torque curve for the motor when
no external resistances are included and when a
resistance of 110 Ω is included in series with the
field winding.
Solution
(i) For a shunt motor
V Ra
   Te
k k 2
(ii) Obtain kφ as function of If:
E
k 
m where

 1000 
m  2     104.7198rad/s
 60 
(iii)Case (a): No external resistance is included
I f  220 220  1 A
From kφ-If curve, determine the
corresponding kφ and substitute it into
the speed-torque equation to obtain the
required curve
(iv) Case (b): A resistance of110  is included
I f  220 330  0.67 A
Obtain the corresponding kφ and hence
the required speed-torque curve as in
case (a).
Example 3
The machine in Example 2, driving
a certain load at 1000 rev/min, takes
a current of 21 A from the line. It is
desired to raise its speed to 1500
rev/min. Find the value of the
resistance that must be included in
the field circuit when the load is
(a) a constant torque load
(b) a constant power load
Solution
Using the ω-Te curve for case (a)
in the previous Example,
determine the torque Te when the
speed is 1000 rev/min
 1000 
 2   
 60 
 104.7198 rad/s
Alternatively, obtain
E  V  I a Ra

 220  20 0.05  219 V

E 219
k    2.0913
m 104.7198

and then
Te  kI a  2.0913 20  41.826 Nm
(a) For this load Te 2  Te1 .
From the speed-torque equation, we have
V Ra
2    Te2
k k 2

 1500 
2     220m  0.05 41.826m
2

 60 

2.0913m  220m  157.0796  0

2

where m  1 k
About the same solution is obtained
2
if the coefficient of m is
approximated to zero.

The appropriate value of kφ will give

you If from the kφ-If curve and with
If known the total resistance in the
field circuit can be determined.
(Answer: 156.7 Ω)
(b) For this load Te 2 2  Te11 .
1 1000 Te1
Hence, Te 2  Te1  Te1  .
2 1500 1.5
The quadratic equation can be
obtained from the previous by
2
dividing the coefficient of m by 1.5
2
and since the m term can be
ignored the answer should again be
156.7 Ω.
Solid state control method
A controlled rectifier, usually 1-
phase semi-controlled, is used to
vary the voltage applied to the field
circuit.
Given the input voltage to a 1-phase
semi-controlled bridge rectifier V,
the field resistance Rf and the field
current If, the required firing angle
is found as follows:
2V (1  cos ) Or
 Rf I f


0.45V (1  cos )  R f I f
Speed control of dc series motors
Controlling speed by varying the
armature voltage
Conventional method
Motor is fed from a constant voltage
supply system and a variable
resistor termed a controller is
inserted in the armature circuit.
For a given torque and for that
matter a given armature current, the
larger the controller resistance in
the circuit, the smaller the voltage
applied and the lower in
consequence is the speed:
V ( Ra  R)
  Te
k (k ) 2
The effect of controller on speed-
torque characteristic can be deduced
from the above equation.
Consider the case where the load
current is low. For this case
Te
Te  kIa  k1 2
► 
k1
Substitutingthese equations into the
speed-torque equation yields
V k1 Ra  R 
2
 
k k  2

C1
  D1 Ra  R 
Te

The shape is hyperbolic

For higher values of load current, φ
is approximately constant and
  C2  D2 Ra  R Te

The torque increases hyperbolically

until the knee of the magnetization
curve is reached, then it becomes
linear.
The characteristics of the motor
driving a unidirectional torque
load are shown below.
To obtain the actual curve, the
magnetization curve will be
required as will be illustrated by
an example.
We make also the following
observations:
 Curves are increasingly steep as
the added resistance is raised.
 A considerable increase in the
series resistance can bring the
curve into the fourth quadrant.
 High reverse speeds may be
reached if the series resistance is
high.
 No load speed may be excessively
high even with fairly large series
resistance.
Its advantages include the
following:
 It is simple

 Speed from zero upwards are

easily obtainable
 The disadvantages include:
 Only speeds below base speed are
obtainable.
 It is relatively ineffective at no loads
 The controller is relatively expensive
because the resistance elements are
designed to carry armature current
continuously
 It is grossly wasteful of power
The use of this method is
acceptable only when the heat
produced by the resistance is
used as a by-product or
when the resistance is used for
very short period of time such as
speed control of cranes and hoist
which operate intermittently.
Example 4
A dc series motor with armature
and field resistances of 0.10 Ω
and 0.05 Ω respectively has a
magnetization characteristic at
600 rev/min given by
If 25 50 75
E 57 106 135
100 125 150 A
155 167 180 V
The motor operates on a 230-V
supply. Obtain the speed-torque
curve for the following
connections:
(a) Basic normal connection
as series motor
(b) Motor having series
resistor R = 2.0 Ω
Solution
Step 1: Obtain kφ as function of If from the given
characteristic
If 25 50 75
k  E  m 0.908 1.688 2.150

100 125 150 A

2.468 2.659 2.866 V/rad/s

 600 
where m  2     20  62.8 rad/s
 60 
is the speed at which the O.C.C. was obtained.
Step 2: Obtain for each connection
the emf equation in terms of the
field current and also the armature
current equation in terms of the
field current:
Connection (a):
E  230  0.15I f and I a  I f
Connection (b):
E  230  2.15I f and I a  I f
Now consider connection (a).
For a given field current I f  25 A , say,
the corresponding armature current
I a  I f  25 A ,
the corresponding emf
E  230 0.15I f
 230  0.15 25  226 V ,
the corresponding speed
E 226
   247 rad/s
k 0.908
and the corresponding torque
Te  kI a  0.908 25  23 Nm
The results are summarized in the Table below
If 25 50 75 100 125 150 A
k 0.90 1.68 2.150 2.468 2.659 2.866 V/rad/s
8 8
Ia = If 25 50 75 100 125 150 A
E  230  0.15 I f 226 222 219 215 211 207 V

E 249 132 102 87 79 72 rad/s


k
Te  kI a 23 84 161 247 324 430 N/m
The Table for the connection (b), similarly obtained, is
as follows:
If 25 50 75 100 125 150 A
k 0.908 1.688 2.150 2.468 2.659 2.866 V/rad/s
Ia = If 25 50 75 100 125 150 A
E  230  2.15I f 176 122 69 15 -39 -93 V
E 194 72 32 6 -15 -32 rad/s

k
Te  kI a 23 84 161 247 324 430 N/m
Solid state control method
In the modern approach, a
variable dc voltage is applied to
the motor terminals.
The variable dc voltage is
obtained from either a chopper
or controlled rectifier.
Controlling speed by varying the field
current
A highly inductive regulating resistance
termed field diverter is connected in
parallel with the field winding.
 The resistance should be inductive so
that under transient conditions it will
not divert excessive portion of the
motor current because of the field
winding inductance.
 Themain characteristics of the series
motor under this type of control are
shown below.
 Fora given armature current, as the
diverter resistance increases, the field
current increases and the motor speed
decreases.
 The advantages and disadvantages are
the same as given for the shunt motor.
Example 5
For the machine in Example 4,
obtain the speed-torque curve
for a diverter Rd of 0.10 Ω
across the field winding.
Solution
Rd 0.10 0 .1
If  Ia  Ia  Ia
Rd  Rs 0.10  0.05 0.15

I a  1.5I f

 Rd Rs 
E V    Ra  I a
 Rd  Rs 

 0.10  0.05 
 230    0.10 I a
 0.01  0.05 
 0 .2
E  230 I a  230 0.2I f
1.5
Therefore extra equations required
to determine speed-torque curves
are
I a  1.5I f and E  230 0.2I f

Proceed as in Example 8 to obtain

the complete solution.
Variable-speed dc drives
 Bothseries and separately excited dc
motors are used in variable-speed dc
drives.
 However,series motors are traditionally
employed for traction applications.
 Speed control is achieved either by
controlled rectifiers or dc choppers but
many of the drives use controlled
rectifiers.
Case a: motor is separately excited dc
motor
 For a speed less than the base speed, the
field current of the separately excited
motor is kept at its rated value and the
armature voltage applied varied.
 To obtain speeds beyond the base
speed, the armature voltage is kept at its
rated value and field current varied to
control the speed.
The maximum continuous torque of
the motor is shown below.
Itis obtained when the armature
current is held constant at its rated
value.
The region of constant field flux is
often called the constant torque
region of the speed-torque plane.
In the constant torque region, the
drive can provide the rated torque at
any speed between zero and the
rated speed.
We note that the term constant
torque does not mean that the motor
will produce constant torque, but
rather it signifies that the motor can
produce constant torque if required.
In the region where the field is
weakened, the maximum output
power must not be exceeded on
continuous basis so the output
torque decreases.
The maximum power
 Ea I a,r  Vr  I a,r Ra I a,r  Te
This region of the speed-torque
plane is called constant power
region.
Applications that operate with
field weakening must require
less torque at higher speeds.
An example is electric traction.
Case b: motor is dc series motor
In the case of the dc series motor,
for speeds up to the base value, the
armature voltage is varied.
Once the rated armature voltage is
applied, the speed-torque
relationship follows the natural
characteristic of the motor and the
power remains constant.
In electric traction, where
regenerative braking is used, the dc
series motors are reconnected as
separately excited motors.

Invariable speed applications, a dc

motor may operate in one, two or
four quadrants as shown below.
For a four-quadrant operation the
converter should allow its output
voltage and current to reverse.
Ifthe speed does not have to reverse
but braking is needed (two-quadrant
operation), then the converter
should allow the armature current to
reverse.
Controlled rectifier drive types
Single-phase semi-converter drives
It is one-quadrant drive.
Itis used for industrial drives up to
15 kW.
Dynamic braking is often used on
single quadrant drives as a means of
stopping a motor quickly.
The output voltage of the converters
is given by
Vo 
2V
1  cos  for 0    


Vo  0.45V 1  cos  for 0    

The circuit is shown below.

Single-phase full-converter drives
 The circuit is below.
 Itis a two-quadrant drive (Quadrants
1& 2): the speed is unidirectional but
braking is needed.
 It
is used for industrial drives up to 15
kW and up to 75 kW for series traction
motors where regeneration is required.
 Theconverter in the field circuit may be
semi-, full- or dual converter.
 Where the field converter output voltage
is reversible, the field current can be
decreased rapidly.
 The output voltage of the full-converter
is given by
2 2V
Vo  cos for 0    

Vo  0.90V cos for 0    
From a single-phase 240 V supply a
suitable voltage rating for the dc
motor is 180–200 V.
When starting the motor, the firing
angle α is set at 90o so that the
output voltage of the rectifier is zero,
then the switch connecting the
converter to the motor is closed.
 When the switch is closed, α is
gradually reduced so that the output
voltage builds up.
 Itis common practice for the firing
angle corresponding to rated dc voltage
to be around 20o when the incoming ac
voltage is normal: if the ac voltage falls
for any reason, the firing angle can then
be further reduced to compensate and
allow full dc voltage to be maintained.
To brake the motor, the torque has
to be reversed.
The converter can only supply
positive current, so to reverse the
motor torque we have to either
reverse the armature connection or
the field connection, using
contactors.
To avoid inductive voltage surges,
the reversal of the field or armature
is done when the field or armature
current is brought to zero by the
converter.
The armature current is reduced to
zero by lowering the converter
voltage.
The converter with two pairs of
contactors for reversing the
armature connection is shown
below.
With the armature connection
reversed, the emf is seen to be
assisting the current.
To keep the current within
bounds the converter must
operate as an inverter absorbing
power from the dc machine.
In this condition the system is
operating in quadrant 2, and the
motor is decelerating because of
the negative torque.
As the speed falls, the emf
reduces, and so the converter
output voltage must be reduced
progressively to keep the current
at full value.
This is achieved automatically by
the action of a current-control
loop in the control circuit.
Total reversing time is about 150 ms
for the armature connection reversal.
For the field current reversal it is
about 1 to 2 s because of the
relatively long time-constant of the
field winding.
The use of the two pairs of contactor
allows the drive to operate in all
four quadrants.
 Consider the case where the motor is
driving a unidirectional torque load.
 When raising a load, the converter
operates as a rectifier and the dc
machine as a motor (quadrant-1
operation)
 Andwhen lowering a heavy load, the
converter operates as an inverter.
 The polarity of the back emf reverses
naturally and the output of the
converter is adjusted to obtain the
desired current (quad.-4 operation).
 Tolower a light load (e.g. empty
hook), the downward motion is
achieved by motor action, which
means that either the field or armature
has to be reversed.
Example 6
A dc separately excited motor has a
constant torque load of 60 Nm. The
motor is driven by a fully controlled
converter connected to a 1-phase 120 V
ac supply. The field constant of the
motor kφ = 2.5 V/rad/s and the
armature resistance is 2 Ω. Calculate
the triggering angle α for motor to
operate at 200 rev/min. The motor
current is continuous.
Solution
From
Vo RaTL  200  Vo 2  60
  ► 2   
k k 2
 60  2.5 2.5
2

The average terminal voltage Vo  100.3599V

2 2V 2 2 120
Vo  cos  cos
 
 108.0380cos  100.3599
Hence cos  100.3599 108.0380  0.9289 and
  21.7 o
Example 7
The speed of a separately excited dc
motor is controlled by a single-phase
fully-controlled bridge converter. The
field circuit is also controlled by a
fully-controlled converter and the
field current is set to the maximum
possible value. The ac supply voltage
to the armature and field converters is
1-phase 440 V, 60 Hz.
The armature resistance is Ra = 0.25 Ω, the
field circuit resistance is Rf = 175 Ω, and
the motor voltage constant kv = 1.4V/A-
rad/s. The armature current corresponding
to the load demand is Ia = 45 A. If the
delay angle of the armature converter is
o
60 , determine (a) the torque developed by
the motor (b) the speed in rev/min.
Assume that the armature current is
constant and continuous.
Solution
(a) The maximum field voltage
2 2V 2 2  440
V fd    396.14 V
 
The field current
V f 396.14
If    2.26 A
If 175

The developed torque

Te  kv I a I f  1.4  2.26 45  142.4 Nm
(b) The armature voltage is
2 2V 396.14
Vo  cos 60 
o
 198.07 V
 2
The back emf
E  V0  I a Ra  198.07  45  0.25

 186.82 V
The speed
E 186.82
   59.05 rad/s
kv I f 1.4  2.26
 564 rev/min
Example 8
If the polarity of the motor back emf in
Example 7 is reversed by reversing the
direction of the field current, determine
(a) The delay angle of the armature
circuit converter to maintain the
armature current constant at 45 A.
(b) The power fed back to the supply
due to regenerative braking of the
motor.
Solution
(a) VO  E  I a Ra
 186.82  45 0.25  175.57 V
2 2V 2 2  440
Vo  cos  cos
 
 396.14 cos  175.57
  116.31 o

(b) The power fed back to the supply

Po  Vo I a  175.57  45  7.901kW
Single-phase dual-converter drives
The armature of the dc motor in a
fast four-quadrant drive is usually
supplied power through a dual
converter.
In a single-phase dual converter,
two single-phase full converters are
connected anti-parallel as shown
below.
It
is used for applications up to 15
kW.
The converter in the field circuit
may be semi-, full- or dual
converter.
Converter 1 provides operation in
quadrants 1 and 4, and converter 2
in quadrant 2 and 3 as shown
below.
The dual converter can be operated
with either
 circulating current or
 without circulating current.
With circulating current both
converters conduct at the same time
and circulating current that results
is limited by an inductor.
A dual converter operating without
circulating current has only one
converter operating at any instant.
Each converter has four SCRs.
The converter that conducts for
forward motoring (Converter 1) is
called the positive converter and the
other converter (converter 2) is
called the negative converter.
In order to drive the motor in the
forward direction, the positive
converter is controlled.
To control the motor in the
reverse direction, the negative
converter is controlled.
When the speed of motor is to be
changed fast from
 a high value to
 a low value
in the forward direction, the
conduction has to switch from
 the positive converter to
 the negative converter.
Then the direction of current flow
changes in the motor and it
regenerates, feeding power back to
the source.
When the speed is to be reduced in
the reverse direction, the
conduction has to switch from the
negative converter to the positive
converter.
Itis seen that conduction has to
switch from one converter to the
other when the direction of motor
rotation is to change, so that
regeneration can occur.
During regeneration, the direction
of the torque developed by motor is
opposite to that of the motoring
torque.
Thus the regenerating torque acts as
the braking torque and the motor
decelerates fast.
At the instant when the switch from
one converter to the other is to
occur, it would be preferable to
ensure that the average output
voltage of either converter is the
same.
Let the firing angle of converter 1
be α1, and the firing angle of
converter 2 be α2.
Iftheir output voltages are equal,
then
2 2V 2 2V
Vo  cos1   cos 2
 
From this equation, we obtain
cos1  cos(   2 ) ► 1   2  
In a dual-converter, the firing
angles for the converter are
changed according to the above
equation.
But it needs to be emphasized that
only one converter operates at any
instant.
Example 9
A separately excited motor is driven by a
1-phase dual-converter. The motor has an
armature resistance of 1 Ω and a field
constant kφ = 3 V/rad/s. The ac voltage
source is 480 V. Assume that the load
torque is bidirectional and equal to 120
Nm in either direction of rotation. The
trigger angle of converter 1 for forward
o
motoring is 30 . A regenerative braking is
used.
(a) Calculate the voltage that must be applied
to the motor to reduce the initial braking
current to three times the current before
braking is applied.
(b) Calculate triggering angle of converter 2
for power to be fed to the electrical
supply during braking

Assume that the current is continuous

during normal and braking conditions.
Solution
The characteristics are as
shown below:

(a) Average armature

current
TL1 120
I a1  
k 3
 40 A

  
E1  Vo  I a1Ra  2 2  480  cos30o  40 1

 334.254 V
 At point 2, the applied voltage
V2  E1  I a 2 Ra
where Ia2 is negative because torque is
negative and flux is constant.
V2  334.254  3  40 1  214.254 V
(b) Using converter 2, the applied voltage
2 2  480
V2   cos 2  214.254

214.254
Hence cos 2   0.9003 480  0.4958

And 2  119. 72 o
 Alternatively, for a voltage
V2  214.254 V , converter 1 must
operate at firing angle
214.254
cos1   0.4958 and
0.9003 480
1  60.28 .Therefore using converter 2
o

the angle must be  2  180  1

 180  60.28  119.72
o o o

The dual-converter operates in the

forward regeneration mode.
Example 10
For the motor in Example 9,
assume that it is necessary to
keep the motor at holding
after TVR braking is applied.
Calculate the triggering angle
of the converter 2.
Solution
To keep the motor at holding, the motor
torque must be equal to the load torque at
the zero speed. Therefore
Vo Ra Te (120)
0  T ► Vo  Ra  1  40 V
k (k ) 2 e
k 3

2 2  480
Vo   cos 2  40


 2  84.69 o
Three-phase converter drives
Similarly, we have
 Three-phase semi-converter
drives for applications up to 115
kW

Vo 
3 2VL
1  cos   0.675VL 1  cos 
2
 Three-phase full-converter drives
for applications up to 1500 kW.
3 2VL
Vo  cos  1.35V Lcos


From 415 V, three-phase

supplies, it is usual for the
motors to be rated in the range
440–500 V.
 Often the field winding will be
supplied from single-phase 240
V, and field voltage ratings are
then around 180–200 V.

 Three-phase dual-converter drives

for applications up to 1500 kW
Example 11
A 750 hp, 250 V, 1200 rev/min dc
shunt motor is connected to 208 V,
three-phase, 60 Hz line using a
three-phase fully controlled bridge
converter. The full-load armature
current is 2500 A and the armature
resistance is 0.004 Ω.
Assuming that conduction is
continuous, calculate
(a) The firing angle required under
full-load conditions
(b) The firing angle so that the
motor will run at 600 rev/min at
no load
(c) The firing angle required so that
the motor develops its rated
torque at 400 rev/min
Solution
(a) The rated voltage must be
applied to a fully loaded
motor to operate at 100%
speed. Therefore, under
rated full-load conditions,
the applied voltage must be
the rated voltage.
 3 2VL 3 2  208
Vo  cos  cos
 
 280.8987cos  250
Hence cos  0.8900 and   27 o
(b) Full load IaRa drop
= 2500 x 0.004= 10 V.
The back emf E1 = 250 – 10 = 240 V
At 600 rev/min, the new back emf
 N2  600
E2    E1   240  120 V
 N1  1200

Vo  280.8987cos  120 .

Hence cos  0.4272and   64.7 o

(c)To develop the rated torque,
the armature current must be 2500 A
The back emf at 400 rev/min
 N2  400
E2    E1   240  80 V
 N1  1200
The dc applied voltage
Vo  280.8987cos  80  2500 0.004
 90 V

Hence cos  0.3204 and   71 o

Chopper drive types
A chopper-type converter is usually
employed if the source is dc.
For example in
 battery electric vehicles (e.g.
small delivery vehicles, forklifts
and golf carts) and
 mass rapid transit (MRT) (e.g.
electric trains and trolley buses).
In addition to armature voltage
control, a dc chopper can provide
regenerative braking of the motors.
Chopper-fed motors perform better
than controlled rectified-fed motors
because the armature current ripple
can be less if a high chopper
frequency is used.
Single-quadrant chopper drives
For a single quadrant operation, the
step-down chopper shown below can
be used.
Ifthe motor current is continuous,
then the average armature voltage is
given by
Vo  Vs where Ton  T
Fora constant motor current Ia, the
power supplied to the motor is
Po  Vo I a  Vs I a

Assuming the chopper is lossless, the

input power
Pi  Vs I s  Po  Vs I a
which gives the average source
current as I s  I a
 Theequivalent input resistance of the
chopper drive seen by the source is
Vs 1 Vs 
Req    
Is   Ia 

 The chopper output voltage can be

varied from 0 to Vs by varying
 the duty cycle which is in turn varied
by varying Ton (pulse-width
modulation) or
 f (frequency modulation).
In many systems, speed control or
voltage control is by means of
frequency modulation.
The top frequency (about 2000 Hz)
is limited by the turn-on and turn-off
time of the thyristors.
Otherchoppers use pulse-width
modulation.
Instill more sophisticated controls,
both frequency and pulse-width
modulation are used.
Insuch cases, Ton may range from
20 μs to 800 μs.
The chopper can also be used to
obtain reduced voltage starting.
When the motor starts up, a low
chopper frequency is used,
typically 50 Hz.
The corresponding on-time is
typically 500 μs.
Example 12
A dc separately excited motor is
powered by a dc step down chopper
from a 600 V dc source. The
armature resistance is Ra = 0.05 Ω.
The back emf constant of the motor
is kv = 1.527 V/A-rad/s. The average
armature current is Iave = 250 A. The
field current is If = 2.5 A.
The armature current is
continuous and has negligible
ripple. If the duty cycle of the
chopper is 60 %, determine (a)
the input power from the source
(b) the equivalent input resistance
of the chopper drive (c) the motor
speed (d) the developed torque.
Solution
(a) Input power = output power
Vo I o  Vs I ave  0.6  600 250  90 kW
(b) DC input current
input power 90,000
Is    150 A
input voltage 600
Input resistance
input volt age Vs 600
Ri     4
dc input current I s 150
(c) E  kv I f   1.527 2.5
 Vo  I ave Ra  0.6  600  250 0.05
 347.5 V
347.5
  91.03 rad/s
1.527 2.5
 869.3rpm
(d) Te  kv I f I a  1.527 2.5  250
 954.38 Nm
Example 13
A trolley bus is driven by a 150 hp, 1500
rev/min, 600 V dc series motor. The
rated current is 200 A and the total
resistance of the armature and field is 0.1
Ω. The bus is fed from 700 V dc line. A
chopper controls the torque and speed.
The chopper frequency varies from 50
Hz to 1600 Hz, but the on time Ton = δT
is fixed at 600 μs.
Calculate
(a) The chopper frequency and
the dc current drawn from the
line when the motor is at
standstill and drawing a
current of 240 A
(b) The chopper frequency when
the motor delivers its rated
output
Solution
(a) Vo  E  Ra I a  0  240 0.1  24 V
Vo  Vs  700  24 V
  24 700
Now T  Ton  600μs
600600
T   700  17500μs
 24
The chopper frequency
1 1
f   3
 57.14 Hz
T 17.5 10
DC current from the supply
power supplied 24  240
   8.23 A
supply voltage 700
.
Hence average source current
24
 240  240  8.23 A
700
(b) At rated output, the voltage across
the motor terminals is 600 V.
Therefore
600
 and since T  600μs
700
6
600 10
T  600  and
700
60010 6
f   1429 Hz
600 700
Two-quadrant chopper drives
Ifthe speed does not have to
reverse but braking is needed,
then the two-quadrant converter
shown below can be used.
In quadrant 1,
 the active switches are S1 and D2
and
 the drive operates as a step down
chopper as shown for single-
quadrant drive supplying power
from the source to the machine as
a motor.
 In quadrant 2,
 the active switches are S2 and D1 and

 the drive operates as a step-up chopper

supplying power from the machine as
a generator having emf E to the source
of voltage Vs where E < Vs.
 Thedrive circuit while operating in
quadrant 2 is as shown below
Ifwe assume that the armature
current is constant and continuous,
then we obtain the waveforms
shown above.
From the waveform, the average
voltage across the chopper switch S
(or the average voltage across the
machine) is
Vch  1   Vs
The regenerated power = input
power to the chopper = power
supplied to the source is
Pg  I aVs 1   

The voltage generated by the motor

E  kv I f 
E  Vch  Ra I a  1   Vs  Ra I a
The equivalent resistance seen by
generator (or motor) internal voltage
E is
Req   1     Ra
E Vs
Ia Ia

By varying the duty cycle the

equivalent load resistance seen by
the motor (acting as a generator) can
be varied from Ra to (Vs/Ia) + Ra
And the power regenerated can be
controlled.
The step-up chopper supplies power
from a lower voltage source to a
higher voltage source.
Therefore we should have its input
voltage Vch to be less than Vs, i.e.
E  Ra I a  Vs
Again we should have the input
voltage to be greater than zero, i.e.,
E  Ra I a  0

From, the above equation, we have

kv I f   Ra I a

This gives the minimum braking

speed as
 Ra   I a 
min      
I 
 v  f
k 
Also from the other equation, we
have
kvI f  Vs  Ra I a

Thisgives the maximum braking

speed as
Vs  Ra   I a 
max       
kv I f  kv   I f 

Regenerative braking will be
effective only if the motor speed is
between these two speed limits.
That is
min    max
Example 14
A dc chopper is used in regenerative
braking of a dc series motor. The dc
supply voltage is 600 V. The
armature resistance is 0.02 Ω and the
field resistance is 0.03 Ω. The back
emf constant kv = 15.27 mV/A-rad/s.
The armature current is maintained
constant at Ia = 250 A.
If the duty cycle of the chopper is 60%, find
(a) the average voltage across the chopper
switch, Vch
(b) the regenerated power supplied to the dc
supply
(c) the equivalent load resistance of the
motor acting as a generator
(d) the minimum permissible braking speed
(e) the maximum permissible braking speed
(f) the motor speed
Solution
(a) Vch  (1   )Vs  (1  0.6)600  240 V
(b)

(b) Pg  chopper input power  I aVch  240 250

 60 kW
Vch 240
(c) Req   Ra   0.03  0.02  1.01
Ia 250
(d)

 Ra   I a  Ra 0.05

(d) min        
 kv   I f  kv 15.27 103
(e)
   
 3.274 rad/s  31.26 rev/min
 Vs  Ra   I a  Vs R 
(e) max          a
kv I f  kv   I f  kv I a kv
600 0.05
 3
 3
15.27  10  250 15.27  10
 160.445 rad/s  1532.14 rev/min
(f) E  Vch Ra I a  240  0.05  250  252.5 V
E 252.5
 
kv I f kv  250
 66.14 rad/s  631.6 rev/min
Four-quadrant chopper drives
 In
industrial applications, four-
quadrant operation is required.
 Thecircuit for this operation is shown
below
 The drive operates in quadrants 1 and
3 as step-down chopper and quadrants
2 and 4 as step-up chopper.
Quadrant 1(forward motoring)
The drive operates as step-down
chopper.
The switches S1 and S2 operate.
Switches S3 and S4 are off.
The drive operates as indicated
below
 The drive operates as follows:
 S1 and S2 are turned on together to
apply the supply voltage: armature
current rises (chopper on-time).
 S1 is turned off and S2 is still turned
on: armature current decays through
S2 and D4 or both S1 and S2 are turned
off: armature current forced to decay
through D3 and D4 (chopper off-time)
Quadrant 2 (forward regeneration)
The drive operates as step-up
chopper.
The switch S4 operates and S1, S2
and S3 are off.
The operation is as follows:
 S4 is turned on: armature current
which rises, flows through S4 and
D2 (chopper on-time)
 S4 is turned off: the motor acting
as a generator, returns energy to
the supply through D1 and D2
(chopper off-time)
Quadrant 3 (reverse motoring)
The switches S3 and S4 operate.
Switches S1 and S2 are off.
The operation is as follows:
 S3 and S4 are turned on together:
armature current rises and flows in
the reverse direction (chopper on-
time)
 S3 is turned off and S4 is still
turned on: armature current decays
through S4 and D2 or both S3 and S4
are turned off: Armature current is
forced to decay through D1 and D2
(chopper off-time).
Quadrant 4 (reverse regeneration)
The switch S2 operates and S1, S3
and S4 are all off.
The operation is as follows:
 S2is turned on: armature current
rises through S2 and D4 (chopper
on-time).
 S2 is turned off: the motor acting
as a generator, returns energy to
the supply through D3 and D4
(chopper off-time).
Closed loop variable speed phase
controlled dc drives
The speed of dc motors changes
with the load torque.
To maintain a constant speed, the
armature (and or field) voltage
should be varied continuously by
varying the delay angle.
The most common control
arrangement is the so-called two-
loop control.
This is used with only minor
variations from small drives of say
0.5 kW up to the largest industrial
drives of several megawatts.
Ithas an inner feedback loop to
control the current (and hence
torque) and an outer loop to control
speed.
A standard dc drive system with
speed and current control is shown
below.
The speed control ensures a constant
speed regardless of the load torque.
Speed feedback is provided by a dc
tachogenerator
And the actual and set (or reference)
speeds are fed into the speed
controller (speed-error amplifier or
simply speed amplifier).
Any difference between the actual
and the set speed is amplified, and
the output serves as the input to the
current loop, which in turn changes
the firing angle.
If,for example, load is suddenly
increased the motor will slow down,
reducing speed feedback.
The speed controller will output a
higher signal to the current
controller, which then will increase
the firing angle of the firing circuit.
The resulting increased in armature
voltage will supply more current to
the motor thus producing more
motor torque to offset the increased
load.
Motor speed will increase until it is
equal to the set speed.
The purpose of the current loop is to
make the actual motor current
follow the current reference signal.
It does this by
 comparing a feedback signal of
the actual motor current with the
current reference signal,
 amplifying the difference (or
current error), and
 using the resulting amplified
current error signal to control the
firing angle and hence the output
voltage of the converter.
The current feedback signal is
obtained
 either from a dc current
transformer (which gives an
isolated analogue voltage output)
or
 from ac current transformer/
rectifiers in the mains supply lines.
As long as the current control loop
functions properly, the motor
current can never exceed the
reference value.
Therefore if we limit the magnitude
of the current reference signal as
shown below, the motor current can
never exceed the maximum value
Imax.
By arranging for this maximum
current reference to correspond to
the full or rated current of the
system there is no possibility of the
current in the motor and converter
exceeding its rated value, no matter
how large the speed error becomes.
The speed reference signal, also
known as set speed signal, is usually
a dc voltage varying from 0 to 10 V.
This signal is applied to a ramp
function generator which applies
reference voltage to the speed
controller over a specified period of
time.
This allows a smoother acceleration
of the motor and connected load.
A tachometer is used when a more
accurate measurement of speed is
needed, or when the motor will be
operated above base speed.
Otherwise, CEMF feedback can be
used to keep the cost down.
CEMF feedback provides
approximately 2-5% speed
regulation.
 With this feedback, Va and Ia are
monitored, and CEMF calculated (E
= Va – IaRa) using Ra measured
during the comissioning of the drive.
Drives which use field-weakening
to extend the speed range include
automatic provision for controlling
both armature voltage and field
current when running above base
speed.
Closed loop variable speed
chopper-fed dc drives
The control philosophy and
arrangements for a chopper-fed
motor are the same as for the
converter-fed motor,
With the obvious exception that the
duty cycle of the chopper is used to
vary the output voltage, rather than
the firing angle.
Microcomputer-based controllers
Amicrocomputer where the control
scheme is implemented in the
software may also be used.
Amicrocomputer control system
has the advantages of
 reduced size and cost,
 flexibility, and
 improved reliability and control
performance.
A microcomputer control system can
also perform desirable functions such as
 on/off of the main power supply,
 start/stop of the drive,
 current control,
 initiation protection and tripping
circuit,
 fault diagnostics and
 communication with a supervisory
central computer.
The speed signal is fed into the
microcomputer using A/D
(analogue/digital) converter.
The armature current signal can be
fed into the microcomputer through
A/D converter or by sampling the
armature current.
A microprocessor-controlled drive
has become the norm.

Analogue control has become

almost obsolete.
Speed control of 3-phase induction
motor
There are two types of ac drives:
 induction motor drives and
 synchronous motor drives.
Three-phase induction motors are
commonly used in variable speed
drives and in this course we limit
our discussions to this motor.
To obtain the speed-torque
characteristics of a 3-phase
induction motor, we use the
approximate equivalent
circuit shown below.
The torque of 3-phase induction motor is given by
3I2  R2
2

Te 
s S
3 V12
R2
Te 
 s  R2 
2
 s
 R1     X 1  X 2  
2

 s  
3 V 2
R2
Te  1

 s  R2 
2
 s
 R1    Xe 
2

 s  
where X e  X 1  X 2
The torque has maximum value
when the power dissipated in R
2 s is
at its maximum value.
Then by maximum power transfer
theorem, maximum torque will
occur when
R2
R1  jX e 
s
Thusthe slip smax at which
maximum torque occurs is given by
R2
smax  
R X
1
2 2
e

When this value of slip is

substituted into the general equation
for torque, the value of maximum
torque Tmax is obtained as
 2
3V
Tmax  1

 2 
2 R1  R1  X e  s
2

 
for motor action and

2
3V
Tmax  1

 2 
2 R1  R1  X e  s
2

 
for generator action
We observe the following:
 The speed at which maximum
torque occurs is proportional to R2,
all other parameters being constant
 smax is independent of the terminal
voltage
 Tmax developed in the generating
mode is greater than that
developed in the motoring mode
  Te  V12
for any given slip,
frequency and the parameters
remaining constant.
The speed-torque characteristic in
quadrant one can be divided into
two regions:
 large slip region which is from zero
speed (s = 1) to the speed where
maximum torque occurs (s = smax) and
  small slip region which starts at the
speed where maximum torque occurs
and ends at the synchronous speed.
In the large slip region, also known
as the starting region, the torque
equation of the motor can be
estimated by assuming that
R2 
2

 R1    X e
2

 s 
This results in an approximate
value of the torque as
3 V12 R2
Te 
s X e s
2

By setting s = 1 in the above

equation, we can estimate the
starting torque as
3 V12 R2
Te 
s X e2
For the small slip region, when the
rotor speed is close to synchronous
speed, the motor torque can be
approximated, assuming that
R2
R1   X e
2

Hence
3 V12 R2
Te  2
3 V s V s 2
s  R2  s
2
► Te  1
 L
  s R2 s R2
 s 
From the last equation, for a given
frequency we can write
2
Te, new  V1,new   snew  R2 ,old 
  

 
 R 

Te,old V
 1,old   old  2,new 
s
Five methods are generally used to
modify the speed-torque
characteristics:
 Variation of applied voltage
 Variation of rotor resistance
 Injection of voltages in rotor
circuit
 Variation of supply frequency
  Variation of supply voltage and
frequency
 Changing the number of poles
Controlling speed by varying motor
terminal voltage
 Theeffect of varying the motor
terminal voltage on the speed-torque
characteristic is shown below
Two cage motors are considered:
 cage motor with low rotor
resistance and
 cage motor with high rotor
resistance.
For each case, two curves are shown
for two different stator voltages.
Also shown is a fan-type load curve.
As seen from the figure,
 the method is not suitable for
standard low-resistance cage motors,
because their stable operating speed
range is very restricted.
 However, if special high-rotor
resistance motors are used a
reasonably wide speed range is
obtained.
This method, like any form of slip
control, is wasteful of power
(efficiency 1 s ).
Itis practically limited to fan-type
load where the load torque is low at
low speeds, so that at high slips the
heat in the rotor is tolerable. Why?
Many ventilating systems with
two, three or four speeds use
voltage control.
The main advantage of this
method is that it is simple and is
frequently used because of this.
 Its disadvantages include
 Wasteful of power(  1  s )
 Wasteful of machine capacity
 Poor speed regulation (i.e. slight
disturbance causes a significant
change in speed)
Conventional method
Method 1
The voltage controllers consist of
variable 3-phase autotransformers or
variac.
They are expensive and automatic
control is difficult thus making them
not feasible.
Method 2
To vary the motor terminal voltage,
variable resistance is connected in
series with the stator of motors of
rating 1 kW or less.
Resistance is wasteful of power and
the motor terminal voltage is current
dependent.
We note that variable inductance is
not a realistic option.
The reasons are as follows:
 The physical size of inductance
required to make a sizable change
in speed is likely to be larger than
the motor itself.
 Unlike variable resistance,
variable inductance requires
expensive and elaborate design
 The insertion of inductance
reduces the starting torque
 The insertion of inductance
lowers the motor power factor.
Solid state control method
Full-wave ac voltage regulators are
used.
The regulator exhibits two modes of
conduction:
 2/3 mode of conduction with a
conduction angle 120o and
  0/2 mode of conduction with
o
conduction angle < 120 .
To produce the rated voltage across
the motor, the SCRs are fired with
delay angle α equal to phase lag φ
that would exist if the motor were
directly connected to the line.
Power factor is low and the high
voltage distortion (higher order
harmonics are present) increases
losses in the motor compared to the
autotransfomer method.
These limit its use for motors rated
below 15 kW.
Applications are numerous, mainly
in the range 0.5–10 kW, with most
motor manufacturers offering high-
resistance motors specifically for
use with thyristor regulators.
Motors are derated to 1/3 to 1/2 of
full output.
Automatic control is not difficult.
 Therefore, where accurate speed
control is needed, a tachogenerator
is fitted to the motor to provide a
speed feedback signal.
 Example 15
A 3-phase, star-connected, 480 V, 6-pole,
60 Hz, slip ring induction motor has a
stator resistance R1  0.5  and a rotor
resistance referred to stator R2  0.5  . The
motor load is a constant-torque type and is
equal to 120 Nm.
(a) Calculate the motor speed at full voltage
(b) Repeat the calculation if the voltage is
reduced by 20 %.
Use the small-slip approximation
Solution
60 f 60  60
(a) N s    1200rev/min
p 3
2 2
3 V s V s
Te  1
 L
s R2 s R2
2
480 s
120 
1200
2 0.5
60
s  0.0327
 Thus, the speed at full voltage is
N r  N s (1  s)  1200(1  0.0327)
 1161rev/min

(b) From
2
Te, new  V1,new   s new  R2 ,old 
  

 
 R


Te,old V
 1,old   sold  2,new 
 2
Te, new  0.8V1,old   s new 
 1     
  0.0327 
Te,old V
 1,old 
s new  0.0511
The new speed of the motor is
N r  N s (1  s)  1200(1  0.0511)
 1139rev/min
Controlling speed by varying rotor
resistance
Thismethod is suitable for slip-ring
or wound-rotor induction motor.
The wound-rotor induction motors
are widely used in applications
requiring frequent starting and
braking with large motor torques
such as cranes and hoists.
Controlling speed by varying rotor
resistance is inherently inefficient
but it is still used in many medium
and large drives such as
hoists, conveyors and crushers
because of
its simplicity and comparatively
low cost.
The modified characteristic can be
accurately obtained from the basic
one on noting that for a given torque
the ratio R s is constant.
2

That is, for a given torque, rotor

resistance is proportional to slip.
Thiswill be illustrated by a
numerical example.
From the figure, it is observed that
 The motor speed does not change
appreciably at light loading (low
torques) conditions.
 However at heavy loading
conditions wider speed range may
be achieved.
  By appropriate selection of the
rotor circuit resistance, any torque
up to typically 1.5 times full-load
torque can be achieved at any
speed.
Other disadvantages of this method
of speed control are
  Poor speed regulation
 Unsatisfactory for large speed
variation
Inpractice the minimum speed is
50 % of the synchronous speed,
for below that the motor is more
likely to be unstable
 Inthe conventional approach three
external variable resistors (or three-
phase resistor) are connected in the
rotor circuits.
 Inthe solid state control approach, the
three-phase resistor is replaced by
uncontrolled 3-phase bridge converter,
a filtering inductor, a parallel chopper,
and a fixed resistor as shown below.
The GTO operates as a chopper
switch, the inductor acts as a current
source, and the chopper varies the
resistance that appears at that the
output of the bridge (effective
resistance) given by R  R (1   ).
e 0

The effective resistance can be

changed by changing δ which is the
duty cycle of the chopper.
We assume that Ld is very large and
its current Id has negligible ripple.
The dc voltage at the rectifier output
Vo  I d Re  dc voltageacross Ro  I d R0 (1   )

If the stator leakage impedance is

neglected or air gap flux is assumed
to be constant, the rotor voltage per
phase at slip s is given by
Er  sEoc
Where Eoc is the rotor voltage at
standstill.
 With the stator leakage impedance
neglected
N2
Eoc  Vs  amVs
N1

Where Vs is the stator voltage per

phase and am is the effective turns
ratio of the rotor to stator windings
For a three-phase uncontrolled
rectifier
Vo 
3 2

 
3Er 
3 6

am sVs

Neglecting copper losses in the rotor

winding, the portion of the air gap
power, which is not converted into
mechanical power, called slip power
is
3 6
Pjr  Vo I d  am sVs I d

The gross output power
(1  s) 3 6
Pm  Pjr  am (1  s)Vs I d
s 
The gross output power is also
given by
Pm  Ter  Tes (1  s)

From the two output power

equations (You may also use Pr = Pjr/s)
3 6
Tes  amVs I d

Solving for the filtering inductor
current gives
Te s
Id 
3 6
amVs


The equation indicates that the

inductor current is independent of
speed
From the above two rectifier output
voltage equations, we obtain
3 6
am sVs  I d R0 (1   )


I d R0 (1   ) Tes R0 (1   )
s  2
3 6 3 6 
amVs  a V 
   m s 
 

Tes R0 (1   )
s
2.3391amVs  2
The speed of the motor is given by
r  s (1  s)
 Te s R0 (1   ) 
 r   s 1  2 
 2.3391a mVs  
The equation shows that for a fixed
duty cycle, the speed decreases with
load torque
And by varying the duty cycle
from 0 to 1, the speed can be
varied from a minimum value to
ωs.
Example 16
A 3-phase, star-connected, 30 hp, 480
V, 6-pole, 60 Hz, slip ring induction
motor has a stator resistance
R1  0.6  and a rotor resistance
referred to stator R2  0.4  . The
rotational losses are 500 W and the
core losses are 600 W. The motor
load is a constant-torque type.
(a) At full-load torque, calculate the
speed of the motor.
(b) Calculate the external resistance
needed in the rotor to reduce the
speed by 20 %.
(c) Calculate the motor efficiency with
and without the external resistance.
Assume that the change in rotational
losses due to the change in speed is
minor. Use the small-slip
approximation
Solution
(a) Gross output power
Pm  PL  P  30  746  500  22.8 kW
VL2 s VL r s VL s(1  s)
2 2
From Te  , Pm   ,
 s R2 s R2 R2
480 s (1  s )
2
22,800 
0.4
The equation has two solutions. Since the motor
speed is always close to synchronous, the
smaller one is taken, i.e. s  0.0417
N r  N s (1  s)  1200(1  0.0417)  1150rev/min
Rotor copper loss
s 0.0417
Pjr  Pg  22.8  0.9921kW
1 s 1  0.0417
Total copper loss
 R1   0.6 
Psj  Pjr  1   Pjr  1    0.9921
 R2   0.4 
 2.4803kW
Input power = 22.8 + 2.48 + 0.6 = 25.88 kW
Motor efficiency
0.746 30
  0.8648  86.48 %
25.88
(b) N r  0.8 1150  920 rev/min
N s  N r ,new 1200  920
snew  
Ns 1200
 0.233
From
2
Te, new  V1,new   s new  R2 ,old 
  

 
 R


Te,old  V1,old   old  2,new
s 
Te, new  0.233  0.4 

1   
Te,old  0.0327  R2 ,new 

R2,new  2.85 and

Rex  2.85  0.4  2.45 

(c) Since load torque is constant, output
power ( speed)
920
PL  30  746  17.904 kW
1150
Gross output power
Pm  PL  P  17.904  0.5  18.404 kW
Rotor copper loss
0.233
Pjr  18.904  5.7427 kW
1  0.233
Total copper loss
 0.6 
 1    5.7427  14.3568kW
 0.4 
Input power
= 18.404 + 5.7427 + 0.6
= 24.7467 kW
Motor efficiency
17.904
  0.7235  72.35 %
24.7467
 72.35 %
Example 17
A 50-Hz induction motor has the following
speed-torque curve:
ω 1470 1440 1410 1300 1100
Te 3 6 9 13 15
900 750 350 0 rev/min
13 11 7 5 Nm

It drives a load requiring a torque, including

loss of 4 Nm at starting and which increases
linearly with speed to be 8 Nm at 1500 rev/min
(a) Determine the range of speed control
obtainable without stalling, by providing
supply-voltage reduction
(b) If the rotor was replaced by one having the
same leakage reactance but with a doubled
resistance, what would then be the
possible range of speed variation with
voltage control?
(c) For each case, give the voltage variation
required
(d) List the advantages of speed control by
supply-voltage variation
Solution
Part (a)
(i) Plot the motor torque Te against its Nr
(ii) On the same axes, plot the load characteristic
(TL-Nr). It should be a straight line passing
through (0 rev/min, 4 Nm) and
(1500 rev/min, 8 Nm)
(iii) Note the point of intersection
(1420 rev/min, - )
(iv) Reduce motor characteristic proportionally
until maximum motor torque intersects the
load characteristic (1100 rev/min, 6.9 Nm)
(v) The range of speed obtainable is
1100-1420 rev/min
(vi) Motor torque Te  V for a given speed.
2

On the original curve, the maximum

torque is 15 Nm. Therefore voltage
reduction is
15 1.47 1 1
  1  or
6.9 1 1.47
0.68
100% to 68%
Part (b)
(i) Use the fact that for a given motor torque
the rotor resistance is proportional to slip
(i.e. for a given torque when rotor resistance
doubles, the slip must also double) to obtain
the corresponding motor characteristic
below.
(ii) Repeat part (a) using the table above.
Speed range: 700-1350 rev/min.
Voltage reduction is
15 1.59 1 1
  1  or 100% to 63%.
5.9 1 1.59
0.63
speed 1470 1440 1410 1300
torque 3 6 9 13
Initial slip 30 60 90 200
New slip 60 120 180 400
New speed 1440 1380 1320 1100
speed 1100 900 750 rpm
torque 15 13 11 Nm
Initial slip 400 600 750 rpm
New slip 800 1200 1500 rpm
New speed 700 300 0 rpm
Example 18
The speed of a three-phase, 460-V,
60-Hz, 6-pole star-connected wound-
rotor induction motor is controlled by
slip power. The rotor to stator turns
ratio am = 0.9. The filtering
inductance Ld is very large. The load
torque, which is proportional to speed
squared, is 750 Nm at 1175 rev/min.
(a) If the motor has to operate with a
minimum speed of 800 rev/min,
determine the resistance Ro
(b) With this value of resistance, if the
desired speed is 1050 rev/min,
calculate
(i) the inductor current Id
(ii) the duty cycle of the chopper δ
(iii) the dc voltage Vo
Solution
(a) The synchronous speed of the motor
60 f 60  60
Ns    1200rev/min
p 3

The slip at 800 rev/min is therefore

N s  N r 1200 800
s   0.3333
Ns 1200
The torque at 800 rev/min is
2
 800 
TL     750  347.67 Nm
 1175 
For a star-connected motor, the rotor
line voltage at standstill
Eoc  0.9  460  414 V
The rotor line voltage at 800 rev/min is
E  sEoc  0.3333 414  138 V
The dc output voltage of the rectifier
3 2E
Vo   186.37 V

The power delivered to the rotor
1200
Pr  TL S  347.67  2 
60
 43.69 kW
Slip power
Pjr  sPr  0.3333 43.69  14.562 kW
Slip power  Vo I d  14,562 ►
14,562
Id   78.135 A
186.37
Vo 156.37
Re    2.00 
I d 78.135
The speed will be minimum when
the duty cycle δ is zero. Therefore
Ro = Re = 2.00 Ω
(b) The slip at 1050 rev/min is
1200 1050
s  0.125
1200
The rotor line voltage at 1050 rev/min is
E  sEoc  0.125 414  51.75 V
The dc output voltage of the rectifier
3 2
Vo   51.75  69.89 V

The torque at 1050 rev/min is
2
 1050 
TL     750  598.91 Nm
 1175 
The power delivered to the rotor
1200
Pr  TL S  598.91 2 
60
 75.261kW
Slip power Pjr  sPr  0.125 75.261
 9.408 kW
 slip power 9408
(i) I d    134.6 A
Vo 69.89
(ii) Effective resistance
Vo 69.89
Re    0.519 
I d 134.6
Re 0.519
(1   )    0.2595
Ro 2
  1 0.2595  0.741
(iii) Vo  69.89 V
Controlling speed by slip power
recovery method
The slip power is dissipated in the
resistance Ro in the above method
of speed control.
The slip power may be returned to
the supply by replacing the chopper
and resistance Ro with a three-phase
full converter as shown below
The converter is operated in the
inverter mode with delay angle
from 90o to 180o.
The variation of the delay angle
permits speed control.
This type of drive is known as
static Scherbius drive.
In very large power ratings, this
drive may compete with adjustable
frequency drive if the speed is to be
adjusted over a very limited range.
A small speed range results in a
smaller rating of the converter
required, thus making this drive
competitive.
Inthe dc link, we can write the loop
voltage equation as
Vdro  Vdio

3 6
Vdro  am sVs

Similarly
3 6
Vdio   atVs cos

where at is the transformer
secondary to primary turns ratio, the
primary being the side connected to
the ac supply.
From the above three equations
3 6 3 6
am sVs   atVs cos or
 
at
s   cos
am
Therefore the speed of the machine
is given by
 at 
N r  N s 1  cos 
 am 

The torque will be given by the

equation
3 6
Tes  amVs I d

The speed equation on the previous
slide shows that the speed of the
machine can be controlled by
changing the firing angle of the dc-
ac converter.
The range of α is from 90 o to o
180 .
In this range, the induction machine
operates as a motor with the speed
less than the synchronous speed.
The usual range of inverter firing
angle for wide speed regulation
down to standstill is 90o to 160o,
allowing a safe interval for
commutation.
The main disadvantage of this speed
control scheme is its low
fundamental power factor, especially
at high speeds:
  The ratio (active/reactive) power
of the inverter varies from zero at
90o firing angle corresponding to
maximum speed up to 0.9 lagging
for 160o, the low-speed condition.
The power factor (= cosα),
according to the speed equation, is
dependent on the turns ratio of the
transformer.
 Thesystem is most often used where
only a modest range of speeds is
required.
 Say,
from 80% of synchronous and
above as in large pump, blower and
compressor drives.
 Speeds above the synchronous speed
may also be obtained by reversing the
direction of power flow in the rotor
circuit.
To reverse the direction of power
flow, the inverter must operate as
rectifier and the rectifier as an
inverter.
Thus, to have both sub-synchronous
and super-synchronous speeds of
operation, it is necessary to use two
fully controlled bridge rectifiers
One of them works at slip frequency
as a rectifier or inverter and the
other works at line frequency as an
inverter or rectifier.
The cost of the converter increases
considerably due to replacement of
six diodes by SCRs.
A slip frequency gating is also
required.
In fact, the advantages of simplicity
and economy inherent in a sub-
synchronous drive vanish when it is
required to have super-synchronous
speed control.
Example 19
The induction motor in Example 18 is
controlled by a Scherbius drive. The
turns ratio of the converter ac voltage to
supply voltage is at = 0.40. If the motor
is required to operate at a speed of 1050
rev/min, calculate
(a) the inductor current Id
(b) the dc voltage Vdro
(c) the delay angle of the converter α
Solution
(a) Using the same procedure as in Example
18, Id = 134.6 A
(b) Using the same procedure as in Example
16, Vdro = 69.9 V
at 0.4
(c) From s   cos , 0.125   cos ,
am 0.9
 0.9 
  cos  
1
 0.125  106. 3o

 0.4 
Controlling speed by varying
supply frequency
If the voltage is maintained constant
at its rated value and frequency is
reduced below its rated value,
 the air gap flux increases and
 magnetic saturation occurs
resulting in high iron losses.
Again at low frequencies, the
reactances will decrease and the
motor current may be too high.
Therefore this type of frequency
control is not normally used.
If the frequency is increased above
its rated value, the air gap flux will
decrease and consequently the
torque will decrease.
Let the synchronous speed at the
rated frequency fb be ωb.
Then the synchronous speed at any
other frequency (f = β fb) is
ωs=βωb and the slip is given by
b  r r
s  1
b b
The torque expression becomes

3 V 2
R2
Te  1

b  R2 
2
 s
 R1     Xe 
2 2

 s  
2
V 1 
 
Te 
3    R2  1
 
b  R  R   1  2   s
 1   2    Xe 
2

     s  
Comparing this equation with the
normal torque equation, the slip at
which maximum torque occurs
R2

smax 
2
 R1 
   X e
2

 
 And the value of maximum torque
2
 V1 
3 
Tmax   
R  R1 
2 

2     X e
1 2 
    b
  
Typical speed-torque characteristics
are shown below.
We observe that an increase in
frequency results in
 an increase in synchronous speed
(ideal no load speed),
 a decrease in the maximum torque
(roughly, it varies inversely
proportional with frequency
squared) and
 a decrease in the starting torque.
Itcan also be shown that an
increase in frequency results in a
decrease in the starting current.
In this type of control, the motor is
said to be operating in field
weakening mode.
The controller may consist of a
simple three-phase inverter bridge
with variable switching intervals.
Example 20
A 480-V, 2-pole, 60-Hz, star-
connected induction motor has the
following parameters: R1 = 0.2 Ω,
Xe1 = 4 Ω and R2’ = 0.3 Ω. The
motor is driving a constant torque
load of 60 Nm at a speed of 3500
rev/min.
(a) Compute the maximum frequency of
the supply voltage that would not
result in stalling the motor. Neglect
stator resistance.
(b) Calculate the motor current at 60 Hz,
and at the maximum frequency.
(c) Calculate the power delivered to the
load at 60 Hz, and at the maximum
frequency.
Solution
(a) If the stator resistance is neglected, the
maximum torque equation becomes
2
 V1 
3 
  VL2
Tmax  
2 X e1b 2 X e1b
2

Base synchronous speed

60 f 60  60
N sb  
p 1
 3600rev/min  376.99 rad/s
 2
480
From 60  or
2  4  376.99
2

76.3946
60 
 2

76.3946
  1.1284
60
and f  f b  1.1284 60  67.7 Hz
(b) The motor current can be calculated
using the equation
V1
I1 
 R2 
2

 R1     X e 
2 2

 s   or
V1

I1 
 R R 1
2

 1
 2
  X e 
2

   s 
The slip at the base frequency 60 Hz,
r r 3500
s  1  1  1
b b 3600
 0.0278
480
Therefore I1 
3
 0.3 
2

 0.2   4 
2

 0.0278  
 23.69 A
At the maximum frequency, the maximum
torque is developed. Therefore the slip is
given by
R2 0.3
 1 . 1284
s 
max 
2 2
 R1   0.2 
   X e   4
2 2

   1.1284 
 0.0664
 V1

I1 
 R R 1
2

 1
 2
  X e 
2

   s 
480
I1  1.1284 3
 0.2 0.3 1 
2

    4 
2

 1.1284 1.1284 0.0664  

 42.44 A
(c) At the base frequency the output
power
 2  3500 
Po  Ter  60 
 60 
 21.99 kW
At the maximum frequency, the
synchronous speed
N s  1.1284 3600
 4062.24 rev/min
The new motor speed
N r  (1  0.0664)  4062.24
 3793rev/min
The output power
 2  3793
Po  60   23.83 kW
 60 
At the maximum frequency the current
is higher because the output power
increases and also the slip increases
Controlling the speed by varying
both voltage and frequency

The ratio voltage to frequency is

kept constant to maintain the air
gap flux approximately constant.
This method of speed control
known as voltage/frequency
control has become so popular
because
 a high torque can be developed
from zero to full load speed and
 regenerative braking can be
applied.
If ωs=βωb, and the voltage-to-
frequency ratio is constant, then the
applied voltage V1 = βVs where Vs
is the rated terminal voltage per
phase.
Substitutingthis in the Te, smax and
Tmax equations yields
 3 V 2
 R2  1
Te  s

 

b  R  R  1  2  s
 1   2    X e2 
     s  
R2

s max 
2
 R1 
   X e 2

 
2
3V
Tmax  s

  
2 
2     X e2 b
 R1 R1
   
 
Typical speed–torque characteristics
are shown below.
The changes in the maximum
torque are not substantial except at
very low frequencies where the
effect of stator resistance in
reducing the flux becomes very
pronounced.
The low-frequency performance can
be improved by increasing the V/f
ratio at low frequencies in order to
restore full flux, a technique which
is referred to as ‘low-speed voltage
boosting’.
Most drives incorporate provision
for some form of voltage boost,
either
 by way of a single adjustment to
allow the user to set the desired
starting torque or

 by means of more complex

provision for varying the V/f ratio
over a range of frequencies.
When accelerating the motor from
rest, the inverter operates at
minimum frequency (e.g. 5 Hz)
initially, the frequency being raised
at a rate appropriate to the inertia
and load torque.
Itcan be shown that the starting
current remains almost constant in
this control method.
Excessive voltage can cause instant
damage to the winding insulation,
leading to short-circuits and internal
faults.

Therefore the voltage is usually

kept below 110 % of the rated
value.
Two main systems are used for
the v/f control:

 cycloconverter and

 rectifier-inverter systems.
The Cycloconverter
Itconverts ac power at the source
frequency into ac of a lower
frequency.
Ithas a built-in advantage that it
permits reverse power flow for
regenerative braking.
The simplest 3-phase/3-phase
cycloconverters requires 18 SCRs.
In fact to obtain an output waveform
which is very close to sinusoidal 36
SCRs have to be used.
The firing circuit is quite complex.
In practice, the working frequency
ranges from zero to about one-third
of the supply frequency.
At higher frequencies, the output
waveform becomes intolerably
distorted.
Because of the distortion of both the
output current and voltage
cycloconverter motors run about
10oC hotter than normal, and
adequate cooling must be provided.
A separate ventilating fan may be
needed at low speeds.
Itscited advantages and
disadvantages make it feasible on
motors with very low speeds and of
very high rating (up to 15 MW)
where frequency requirement is
one-half or one-third of line
frequency.
Examples are Locomotives and
cement mills.
Rectifier-inverter systems (dc link)
This system changes ac at source
frequency into dc and the dc
reconverted to ac by an inverter.
There are three possible
arrangements:
 Pulse-width-modulated voltage
source inverter (PWM-VSI) with a
diode rectifier
The dc voltage remains constant and
the PWM techniques are used to
vary both the voltage and frequency
within the inverter.
Because of the diode rectifier
regeneration is not possible and the
inverter would generate harmonics
into the ac supply.
Square-wave voltage source inverter
with a diode rectifier and a chopper
The chopper at the output of the
diode rectifier varies the dc voltage
to the inverter and the inverter
controls the frequency.
Because of the chopper, the
harmonic injection into the ac
supply is reduced.
Square-wave voltage source inverter
(square-wave VSI) with dual
converter
This arrangement permits
regenerative braking.

However, the input power factor of

the converter is low, especially at a
high delay angle.
Rectifier-inverter systems (dc link)
cont’d
In the VSI controllers, a large dc
bus capacitor is used to make the
input to the inverter appear as a
voltage source.
These controllers are feasible on
individual motors as well as group
of motors which must be connected
to a common bus.
The group of motors are connected
to a common bus because their
speeds have to move up and down
together (e.g. in Textile mills).
In the square-wave VSI, the inverter
operates in a square-wave mode
(also called the six-step).
 The inverter switching scheme (180 o

conduction) produces a motor line-to-

line voltage consisting of rectangular
pulses of 120o duration and a six-
stepped line-to-neutral voltage.
The controller is efficient, reliable
and adaptable to standard motors
operated at frequencies up to about
300 Hz.
Controlling the speed by varying
both voltage and frequency cont’d
From the approximate expression
for torque in the small slip region, it
can be shown that the slip (in rpm
but not in p.u.) is the same for the
same torque, irrespective of the
frequency:
Proof:

From the torque equation, for the

same torque
2 2
V s V s
Lnew new
 Lold old
or
snew R2 sold R2

 V s 2 2
 V s
2 2
new s new
 old s old
 newb oldb
 new s new   old s old or

 new
 N snew  N rnew 
  old
 N sold  N rold 
N snew N sold
 N snew  N rnew  N sold  N rold 
 new   old
 new N sb  old N sb

N snew  N rnew  N sold  N rold

Example 21
A standard 3-phase, 10 hp, 575 V, 1750
rev/min, 60 Hz squirrel-cage induction
motor develops a torque of 110 Nm at s
peed of 1440 rev/min. if the motor is
excited at a frequency of 25 Hz, calculate
(a) The required stator voltage to
maintain the same flux in the
machine
(b) The new speed at a torque of 110 Nm
 Solution
25
(a) The line voltage   575  240 V
60
(b) The synchronous speed at 60 Hz is 1800
rpm. Consequently, the slip at a torque of
110 Nm is
N s  N r  1800 1440  360 rev/min
The slip is the same for the same torque,
irrespective of the frequency.
The synchronous speed at 25 Hz is
25
Ns   1800  750 rev/min
60

Therefore the new speed,

Nr  750 360  390 rev/min
Example 22
For the motor described in
Example 20, for a constant v/f
control compute the motor
speed and starting current if the
frequency is decreased to 50 Hz.
Solution
When the frequency of the supply is
reduced to 50 Hz, the supply voltage
should also reduced to
Vnew  50 60 480  400 V

Synchronous speed at 50 Hz
N snew  50 60 3600  3000rev/min
Using the small slip approximation, the
slip will be given by
2
VL s
Te 
 s R2

2
400 s
60   1697.65s ,
 3000 
2    0.3
 60 
s = 0.0353
The new speed at 50 Hz is
Nr = 3000(1-0.0353) = 2894 rev/min.

At 50 Hz, 400 V, the starting current is

400
I  3  68.5 A
2 2
 50 
0.5  4 
2

 60 
Pole changing (squirrel cage)
The pole changing is used for drives
requiring 2, 3 or 4 speeds,
The following methods are used:
Method 1:
The cage motor is provided with
two windings to be used
independently, each providing a
different number of poles
Method 2:
 The cage motor is provided with a
single tapped stator winding, the
connections of which can be changed
to give two different number of poles
in the ratio 2:1
Method 3:
 A combination of the two methods
above is used to provide 3 or 4 speeds.
Common connections for 2:1 pole
changing (method 2)
Two coil groups of a 2-pole
induction motor are shown below.
We may connect the coil groups in
series or parallel.
Reversing the current direction in
one of the coil groups yields a 4-pole
machine also shown below.
Also shown are the corresponding
series and parallel connections.
 Coil group 1 Coil group 2

S Series connection
N a bd c
1
a a b
2 Parallel connection
b
c d c
d

1 2
1 2
N S Series connection
N S N a bc d
a b
a Parallel connection
b c d
c
d
Common three-phase connections
These are the connections used for
ac drives driving the three main
motor load types, namely
 constant torque load, such as air
compressors, reciprocating pumps,
mixers, conveyors, printing
presses;
 constant power load, such as
lathes, drilling machines, millers
and other machine tools, some
wood-working tools; and
 variable torque load, such as
induced draft fans, pumps and
blowers
 Parallel-star
(high speed) / series delta
(low speed) suited to drive constant
torque load.
 Series-delta
(high speed)/ parallel star
(low speed) suited to drive constant
power load.
 Parallel-star
(high speed) / series star
(low speed) suited to drive variable
torque load.
Terminal or nameplate connections
The above three-phase connections
all require six terminals.
How the external connections for
the three drives are achieved are
shown below
Note that the stator phase sequence
is reversed on pole changing.
The constant torque drive:
For the parallel star connection (high
speed)
 Connect u1, v1 and w1 together
 Connect L1 to u2, L2 to v2 and L3 to w2
For the series delta connection (low
speed)
 Connect L1 to u1, L2 to v1 and L3 to w1
The constant power drive
For the parallel star connection (low
speed)
 Theconnection is the same as for the
constant torque drive
For the series-delta connection (high
speed)
 Theconnection is the same as for the
constant torque drive
The variable torque drive
For the parallel star connection (high
speed)
 Connect u1, v1 and w1 together
 Connect L1 to u2, L2 to v2 and L3 to w2
For the series star connection (low
speed)
 Connect L1 to u1, L2 to v1 and L3 to w1
Variable-speed ac drives
DC motor controllers providing
variable dc voltage are simple and
less expensive.
However dc motors are relatively
expensive and require more
maintenance due to the brushes and
commutators.
The ac motors are light weight (20
to 40% lighter than equivalent dc
motors) inexpensive and of low
maintenance compared to dc
motors.
However they require controllers
which are relatively complex and
more expensive.
There are two types of ac drives:
 induction motor drives and

 synchronous motor drives.

The three-phase induction motors

are commonly used in variable-
speed ac drives.
Most variable-speed ac drives
maintain constant voltage to
frequency ratio up to the rated
voltage and rated frequency of the
motor.
Then the stator voltage is maintained
at its rated value and the frequency
is increased.
As a result
 the motor operates in the constant
torque mode up to rated frequency
and then
 it operates in constant power mode
above the rated frequency.
The input line current to the motor is
sensed to ensure that a preset current
limit, which is at least equal to the
rated current of the motor, is not
exceeded.
The current limit feature imposes an
upper limit on the permissible torque
in the region below base speed.
 This will normally correspond to the
rated torque of the motor, which is
typically about half the breakdown (or
stalling) torque, as indicated by the
shaded region in the figure below.
 Inthe constant power region, like the
dc machine drive, the maximum
permissible torque reduces inversely
with the speed for a specified current
limit.
The region of constant power
normally extends to somewhere
around twice the base speed.
At the upper limit of the constant
power region, the maximum
permissible torque coincides with
the breakdown torque.
Operation at still higher speeds is
sometimes provided.
However, at these speeds constant
power is no longer available
because the maximum permissible
torque is limited to the breakdown
or stalling torque.
The stalling torque varies inversely
with the square of the frequency
In the high-speed motoring region,
the limiting speed-torque
relationship is similar to that of a dc
series motor.
Since polyphase induction motors
are essentially constant-speed
machines, it is normal to operate
variable-frequency inverters as
open-loop systems
However, if precise speed control is
required, the output speed is
monitored for feedback control.
Referring to the figure below, if the
frequency is held constant at 25 Hz,
the speed drops only modestly from
no-load (point a) to full-load (point
b).
If the application calls for the speed
to be precisely constant, this can be
achieved with the aid of closed-loop
speed control by raising the
frequency so that the full-load
operating point moves to point (c).
Control arrangements for inverter-
fed drives
Open-loop speed control
This is adequate if precise speed
control is not essential.
In the smaller sizes the simple
‘constant V/f ’ control is the most
popular.
The output frequency, and hence
the no-load speed of the motor, is
set by the speed reference signal.
In an analogue scheme the
reference signal is either an
 analogue voltage (0–10 V) or

 current (4–20 mA)

In the increasingly common
digital version the speed
reference will be set on the
keypad.

Some adjustment of the V/f

ratio and low-speed voltage
boost will be provided.
If the load is increased beyond
rated torque, an internal current
limit comes into play to prevent
the motor from reaching the
unstable region beyond the
breakdown torque.
Instead, the frequency and speed
are reduced.
Closed-loop speed control
Where precision speed control is
required a closed-loop scheme must
be used.
The speed feedback is from either
 a tachogenerator or

 a digital shaft encoder.

Basically
two control strategies are
employed.

 The scalar or ordinary control

 The vector control

The scalar or ordinary control
A signal of a certain
voltage/frequency ratio is imposed
onto the motor terminals.
This control is based on the motor
equivalent circuit, i.e., steady state
equations.
 The scalar control method provides
satisfactory steady-state performance,
but its dynamic response is poor.
 Where very rapid changes in speed are
called for, the ordinary inverter-fed
drive compares unfavourably with dc
drive.
 Itis used when there is no need for
fast responses to torque and speed.
The vector control
For the majority of applications the
ordinary inverter-fed induction
motor is perfectly adequate,
But for some very demanding tasks,
the dynamic performance is
extremely important and ‘vector’ or
‘field-oriented’ control is warranted.
An example is high-speed machine
tool spindle drive.
Inthis control, the motor current is
decoupled into two vectors:
 one to produce the magnetizing
current and
 the other to produce torque
Each of them is regulated separately.
The vector control strategy is based
on the dynamic model of the motor.
The induction motor is seen by the
vector control as a dc motor, with
torque and flux separately
controlled.
A voltage source thyristor inverter is used
to drive a 400-V, 10-A, 4-pole, 1450-
rev/min, 50-Hz 3-phase induction motor.
The maximum and minimum speed ratio
o
desired is 10 to 1. The 180 firing scheme
is employed.
(a)Draw the basic circuit of the inverter
o
and show by diagram how the 180
firing scheme is realised. [7 marks]
(b) Obtain the minimum and
maximum dc input voltage required
for the inverter and the frequency
range. [6 marks]
(c) Find the new speed at rated torque
if the motor is excited at a
frequency of 25 Hz. [4 marks]
(d) Find the required dc input voltage
and frequency if the motor is
developing its rated torque at a
speed of 550 rev/min. [4 marks]
Take the r.m.s. value of the phase
voltage applied to the motor to be
0.45Edc where Edc is the inverter input
voltage.
A standard 3-phase, 415 V, 1440
rev/min, 50 Hz squirrel-cage
induction motor is used in a
variable-speed ac drive. The motor
drives a load whose torque is
proportional to speed squared and
develops the full-load torque at the
rated speed.
It is desired to run the motor at half
the rated speed. Assume that the
motor torque/speed curve is linear
for low values of slip.
(a)Find the frequency at which the
motor must be excited.
[8 marks]
(b) Find the required stator voltage.
[2 marks]
 Hint: Use the fact that for a
given torque slip is the same

2
T2  N 2 
   (for fan  type load)
T1  N1 

T2  N 2 
  (Hint  similarityof triangle)
T1  N1 
 Chapter Five
Rating of Motors
Temperature rise
Temperature rise
 The rating of an industrial machine is
based on specified limits of
temperature-rise above ambient
temperature.
 The ambient temperature used by
manufacturers for testing their products
must be between 10oC and 40oC.
 The limits of temperature-rise specified
by Standard Organizations depend on
1. Theinsulating material
 The hottest spot within the winding,
which a particular insulation covers,
must not exceed some established
temperature figures.
 The figures given in the table below
are based on a 20-year working life
under average condition.
 Insulation class Y A E B F H C
o
Max. temp. C 90 105 120 130 155 180 >180

2.Themethods of temperature
measurement:
measurement by thermometer
applied to accessible surface (T).
 measurement by temperature detector
(e.g. thermocouple or resistance coil)
embedded in the winding usually at or
near the hottest spot (E).
 measurement of resistance of a
winding at known temperatures and
estimation of temperature by use of
the resistance temperature coefficient
(R).
3. Type of machine
4. Machine part involved
5. The type of cooling
6. Class of duty
The International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) gives the limits
of temperature-rise for an air-cooled
dc field winding as follows:

A E B F H
T 50 65 70 85 105
R 60 75 80 100 125
When a machine is overloaded for
such a long time that its final
temperature-rise becomes higher
than the allowable limit, it is likely
to be damaged.
In worst cases, an immediate
breakdown of insulation can result
and this in turn can cause short
circuit in the machine.
In less severe cases the
insulation will deteriorate and
shorten the service life of the
machine.
Temperature-rise calculation
The temperature of a machine
becomes steady but not
immediately after switch-on.
It may take several hours.
The temperature stabilizes when the
rates of heat production and heat
dissipation are equal.
 An ideal temperature-rise/time relation
can be obtained by making the
following assumptions:
 the machine is homogeneous
 the loss in watt taking place in
machine is constant during
temperature rise
 the temperature of the cooling
medium remains unchanged.
 Let
W  loss in watt taking place in machine
M  mass of active part of the machine
C p  specific heat capacity of the material
A  area of cooling surface
  surface emissivity
 Let the surface of the machine be at a
temperature of θoC above ambient
temperature t seconds after switching it on.
 Then when the temperature rises by dθ in
very small time dt, the energy balance is
Wdt  MC p d  Adt or

d
MC p  A  W
dt
which has the solution

W  t    1  e t 
 1  e  
A    
m
where
MC p
  heating time constant
A
W
m   final temperature-rise
A
(i.e. the temperature at which whatever heat
is generated is dissipated)
The equation in general form is
t
   m  ( m  1 )e 
where 1  temperature-rise at t  0
 The heating time constant depends on
the size of the machine, the cooling
surface and the efficacy of heat transfer
to the cooling medium.
 For open machine of 10 – 20 kW rating
it may be of the order of 25 minutes and
for machine of medium power (500 –
800 kW) it may be 2 – 2.5 hours.
 With large or totally enclosed machines,
it may reach several hours or even days.
General equation of cooling curve
t 
θ  θ f  (θ m  θ f )e
τ

 f  final temperature-rise
 m  temperature-rise at t  0
If motor is disconnected completely
 f  0 and the equation becomes
t 
  m e 

 , the cooling time constant of a

machine, is greater than the heating time
constant  if the machine cools after
shutdown because the dissipation effects
of rotation and fanning are absent.
Standard ratings of motors
The rating of electric machine
indicates its load capacity on the
basis of the specified limits of
temperature-rise.
Designers may use any of the
following recognized methods for
rating machines:
Standard ratings of motors cont’d
Continuous rating (S1):
 This is the output which the motor can
give continuously for a very long time
without exceeding the specified limits
of temperature-rise.
 Centrifugal pumps, fans, compressors
and conveyors are some examples of
equipment which run continuously
with a constant load.
Short time rating (S2):
 This is the output which a machine can
work usually for 10, 30, 60 or 90 minutes
without exceeding the specified limits of
temperature-rise.
 The rest period should be of sufficient
duration for the motor to cool down to the
ambient temperature.
 Motors used for opening and closing weirs,
lockgates and bridges are rated this way.
Duty-type rating:
It is that load which when applied
during a certain fraction of a load
cycle corresponding to any of the
last six of the internationally agreed
standard duty cycles (S3 – S8), will
not cause temperature-rise beyond
the specified limits.
The time of complete cycle is taken
as 10 minutes and the cycle duration
factor as 0.15. 0.25, 0.40 or 0.60.
The standard duty cycles and the
definition of cycle-duration factor
are given below.
We note that the cyclic load may
include overload
Cycle-duration factor

N DN
S3: S4:
NR DN R

DN F N
S5: S6:
DN F R N V
The intermittent rating (S3)
Itconsists of a sequence of
identical duty cycles each
having a constant load and a rest
period.
However, the rest period is too
short for the motor to cool down
to ambient temperature.
The starting current is also
considered not to significantly
affect the temperature-rise.
Motors used in some hoisting
mechanisms, in trams and trolley
buses are subjected to similar
duty.
N = Normal load R = standstill, de-energized
D = starting F = Braking
V = No-load, with machine rotating
Determination of the power of
motor required
for a particular application
(a) Continuous duty and constant load
2TN
P kW
60 1000
N = speed in rev/min
η = efficiency of the driven equipment and
that of the transmitting device

FV
P kW (For linear motion such as
1000
hoisting mechanism)
V = velocity of motion of load in m/s
(b) Continuous duty and variable load:
 We determine the equivalent continuous
load (i.e. a continuous load that will
produce the same heating effect).
 Heating effect is proportional to the
square of the load current, and output
power being almost proportional to
current the following method can be
used
 1
 n 2  2

  Pi ti 
Peq   i 1n 
 
 
t i 
i 1 
Note that this is rms value of P(t).
The method supposes that the
cooling conditions remain the same
during the period of operation but
this is not true.
During starting, braking and stops,
the cooling conditions differ
considerably.
To estimate the rating of motors
used in such operations, suitable
correction factors C1 for starting and
braking, and C2 for stopping are
introduced, i.e.,
 n

t
i 1
i is obtained as, say C1 t 1  t 2  C 2 t 3 +….

where t 1 and t 3 starting and stopping periods

respectively.
No fixed values are used for C1 and C2 by
motor manufacturers. The commonly used
values are:
For induction motors, C1 = 0.5 and C2 = 0.25
For dc motors, C1 = 0.75 and C2 = 0.50
Example 1
A dc motor is used to drive a small
elevator in a factory assembly line. Each
cycle of operation runs 5 min and
includes four modes of operation as
follows:
1. loading of the elevator, motor at
standstill for 2 min;
2. ascent of the elevator, motor output
power required is 75 kW for 0.75 min;
3. unloading of the elevator, motor at
standstill for 1.5 min; and
4. descent of the unloaded elevator,
motor output power (regenerative
braking) required is -25 kW for 0.75
min.
Determine the size of the motor required
for the duty cycle. Take C1 = C2 = 1.0.
Solution
1
 752  .75  (25) 2  0.75  2
Peq   
 5 
 30.6 kW
(c) Short time rating
To determine the short-time rating of a
motor when the continuous rating is given
or vice versa, the heating curve method is
used.

Let the continuous rating specifications for

a given motor be
Pr = Rated power
Wr = Loss in machine
θm = Final temperature
For the same motor, let the short time
rating specifications be
Px = Rated power
Wx = Loss in machine
t1 = Duration of load
 m = Temperature of machine after t1
m = Final steady state temperature
when Px is applied continuously
( m >  m )
The maximum temperature-rise when load is Px should
not exceed , the maximum permissible temperature-
rise for the continuous rating Pr
According to the temperature-rise
equation when the load Px is
applied

 (t )   m 1  e
 t

Therefore

 m   m 1  e

t1


 m  1  W
Hence   x
m   t1
 Wr
1  e  

Let Wc  Wcu  Wcu  Wcu or

Wc  Wcu  (  1)W cu
Where
Wc  fixed loss and
Wcu  copper loss when Pr is applied
Then
 Px 
2
  Px  
2

Wx  Wc    Wcu      Wcu
 Pr    Pr  
Therefore
  Px Pr 
2 1 
  and
 1   t1

1  e  

1
Px  1    2

 t
  
Pr 1  e  1  
Example 2
Determine the half-hour rating of
a 25 kW motor having a time
constant of 1.5 hours. Assume that
the motor cools down completely
between each load period and that
the iron losses which remain
constant are 90% of copper losses
at full load.
 1
Px  1   2

   
Pr   t1 
1  e 

  0.9, t 1  0.5 h ,   1.5 h , Pr  25 kW
1  0.9 1.9
Px  25 0.5
 0.9  25  0.9
(1  e 1.5 ) (1  0.72 )

1.648
 25  25  2.426
0.28
 60.65 kW say 60 kW
d. Intermittent rating

Let
 h1 , h 2,......... ..  temperature-rise after
heating
 c1 , c 2 ,...........  temperature-rise after
cooling
th = duration of heating
tc = duration of cooling
 = heating time constant
 = cooling time constant
m = final temperature-rise when the
intermittent load is applied
continuously
 m = permissible final temperature-rise
which is reached when motor is
loaded to its continuous full load
rating Pr
Then
 t
 h 
 h1  m 1  e 
,
 
when Px is applied and
tc

 c1   h1e
, 

when motor is disconnected

Denoting
x  t h  and

y  t c   , we obtain

 h1  
 m 1  e x
 and
 c1   h1e y

 m 1  e x
e y
 h 2  m  m   c1 e x


 1 e    e
x
m c1
x

 1  e      1  e e
x
m m
x  y x
e
  1  e 1  e e 
m
x x y

c 2   h 2e y

y

  m e 1  e x
1  e x  y
e 
  h3   x

  m 1  e   c2 e x

   1  e 
m
x

  m e e
x  y
1  e 1  e
x x  y
e 
 
 m 1  e 1  e e  e e
x x  y 2 x 2 y

For n times intermittency, we have
hn  m 1  e [1  e e  e e
x x  y 2 x 2 y

  n 1 x   n 1 y
 .........  e e ]
 1  e e 
 nx  ny
 hn   m 1  e 
x
x  y 
 1 e e 
 nx  ny
As n   both e and e will be zero.

Since  hn should not exceed  m , the

maximum permissible temperature-rise
for a continuous rating of Pr, we have
 
x 
 m   m 1  e 
1 
x  y 
1  e e 
  
th

1  e 
 m   m  
  h  c   
t
 
t
 
1  e 

And as explained in the earlier case

2
 Px 
      h  c   
t

t
 
 m Wx  Pr   1 e 

  
 m Wr 1    


th


 1 e 
Hence
 (
th

tc

(  1)1  e  )
 

Px
   
t h
Pr (1  e ) 
Alternatively, the above equation can be
derived on recognizing that under steady state
conditions, the temperature-rise at the
beginning and that at the end of a cycle are the
same.
Heating curve:
 (t )  m  m  1 e t 

m  m  m  1 e t h 

m  1e t 
h
 m 1  e t h 

Cooling curve:
t  
 (t)  me
tc  
1  me
Hence

 m   me tc   t h 
e 
 m 1  e t h 

 m 1  e e t c    t h 


m 1  e 
t  h
Example 3
The heating and cooling time
constants of a 100 kW motor are 90
and 120 minutes respectively. Find
the rating of motor when subjected
to a duty cycle of 18 minutes on
certain load and 30 minutes on no
load. Assume that the losses are
proportional to square of load.
Solution
 ( t h  c 1 ) 

t
(  1)1  e 

Px
   
t h
Pr
(1  e  )
Since the losses are proportional to the square of
the load, iron losses are negligible, i.e.   0 .
Therefore
 ( t h  c 1 ) 

t

1  e 

Px
  
t h
Pr
(1  e  )
Pr  100 kW t h  18 min;

  90 min tc  30 min

   120 min

(18  30 )
1 e 90 120
Px  Pr 18
1 e 90
 9
1 e 20
Px  Pr 1
or
1 e 5

1  0.638
Px  100 or
1  0.819

Px  141.4 kW say, 140 kW

A 746-kW motor, which has been idle
for several days, possesses a shunt-field
resistance of 22 ohms. The ambient
o
temperature is 19 C. The motor then
operates at full load and, when
temperatures have stabilized, the field
resistance is found to be 30 ohms. The
corresponding ambient temperature is
o
24 C. The motor is insulated class B.
(a) Calculate the average
temperature of the winding
when hot.
(b) Calculate the temperature-rise
by the resistance method.
(c) Does the motor meet the
temperature standard? Explain.
Take
1. the maximum permissible
temperature-rise by the
resistance method for class
o
B insulation to be 80 C and
2. 1/αo = 234, αo being the
o
coefficient of copper at 0 C.
Solution
From
R2  Ro 1   ot 2  and
R1  Ro 1   ot1 
we obtain
R2 1   ot 2 o
1
 t2
 
R1 1   ot1 o
1
 t1
  R2   1  1
t 2      t1   Or
 
R1  o   o

 R2 
t 2   234  t1   234
 1
R
Hence
 30 
t2   234  19  234  111 C
o

 22 
 o
Temperature-rise = 111-24 = 87 C
The temperature rise permitted for
o
class B insulation is 80 C by
resistance method.
Consequently, the motor does not
meet the standard.
Temperature-rise = 111-24
o
= 87 C
The temperature rise permitted
for class B insulation is 80oC by
resistance method.
Consequently, the motor does
not meet the standard.
The enclosure of 10 kW
motor is equivalent to a
cylinder of 70 cm
diameter and 100 cm
length. Efficiency of the
motor is 90 %. Mass of
the motor is 500 kg.
Assuming that the specific heat
o
capacity (Cp) is 700 J/kg/ C and that
the peripheral surface of the
enclosure of the motor alone is
capable of heat dissipation (λ) of
2 o
12.5 W/m / C, calculate
(a) the heating time constant of the
motor
(b) its final temperature-rise
Solution
Part (a)
 MC p   500 700 
Heating       
 A     0.7 112.5 
 12732.4 s  3.54 h
Part (b)
10,000
Losses in the motor W   10,000  1111W
0.9
Final temperature-rise
W 1111
f    40.4 C
o

A   0.7  1 12.5
A motor driving an equipment has to
deliver a load rising uniformly from 200
kW to 400 kW in 4 minutes during
acceleration period, 300 kW for 2
minutes during the full load period and
during deceleration period of 1 minute
when regenerative braking takes place
the kW returned to the supply falls from
an initial value of 50 kW to zero
uniformly.
The motor remains idle for 1
minute before the next load
cycle starts.
(a) Sketch the load cycle.
(b) Estimate a suitable kW
rating for the motor.
Part (b)

P
1
3 P 1
2
 P1 P2  P t1  P t  P t  0  t 4
2
2 2
3 2
1
3
2
4 3

T  t1  t 2  t3  t 4


1
3 200 2

 200 400  4002 4  3002  2  13 502 1  0 1
4  2 11
1662500

24
 263kW