OPTICS: LENSES AND DISPERSION OF LIGHT

10.3 LENSES

What is a Lens?

 A lens is a transparent curved device that is used to refract light.

 A lens is usually made from glass or plastic.
 Lenses are used in optical instruments such as microscopes, magnifying glasses,
telescopes, cameras, binoculars, eyes and spectacles.

Basically there are two types of lenses:

 Convex lens (a.k.a. converging lens).
 Concave lens (a.k.a. diverging lens).

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DIAGRAM: Two types of lenses

What is a Concave Lens?

 A concave lens (a.k.a. diverging lens) is thinner in the middle than at the edges.

 A concave lens causes light rays to diverge (spread out). If the rays are traced
backwards they appear to come from a focal point or principal focus (F).
 A concave lens will disperse light and make an image that is always virtual,
upright and smaller than the object.

PICTURE: Light rays passing through a concave lens are spread out

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What is a Convex Lens?

A convex lens is thicker in the middle than at the edges.
A convex lens is also called a converging lens.
A convex (converging) lens causes light rays to converge (come together) at a point
called the focal point or principal focus (F).

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 A convex lens will focus light and make an image.
 The image formed by a convex lens is real and inverted (and can be bigger
or smaller than the object) unless it is being used as a magnifying glass
when the image will be virtual, upright and bigger than the object

Refraction of Light through a Convex Lens

 When light rays go through a convex lens the rays are refracted.
 For any ray entering the lens that is not along a normal the light will change
direction at both surfaces (see the picture below) where the air meets the glass.
 A ray entering along the normal will pass straight through.
 The normal for a lens is also called the principal axis

 The light ray is often not shown changing direction at both surfaces of the lens
but just changing direction once to give the overall effect.
 Sometimes the lens is just shown as a thin straight line instead of a curved
surface. The diagrams below give both ways of showing the same thing. Either
way is acceptable.

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What are the Principal Axis and the Focal Point (principal focus) of a Convex
Lens?

 The principal axis is a horizontal line going through the centre of a lens along
the normal.
 Any light ray parallel to the principal axis will be refracted, change direction
and cross the principal axis at the focal point, F.
 The focal point is also called the principal focus, F.
 The principal focus (F) is the point at which parallel rays converge when
refracted by a convex lens.
 Since light can pass through a lens in either direction, it can be focused on
either side of the lens. Therefore there are two principal foci equidistant from
the optical centre (C), one on either side of the lens. These are represented by
the symbols F and F’.
 2F and 2F’ means twice the focal length from the optical centre on either side
of the lens.

What are the optical centre and Focal Length of a Convex Lens?

 The optical centre (C) is the centre of the lens.

 The distance from the focal point to the centre of the lens is called the focal
length (f).
 Almost parallel rays of light come from any object that is a long way from the
lens.

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RAY DIAGRAMS

Rules for drawing ray Diagrams

To draw any ray diagram for a convex lens you only need to know three rules.

1. A ray parallel to the principal axis of a lens is refracted through the focal
point (F).
2. A ray that passes through the focal point is refracted to be parallel to the
principal axis.
3. A ray passing through the optical centre of a lens will go straight
through.

NB. By using a ray diagram, any two of the above rules can be used to
determine where an image lies in relation to the object.

PRACTICAL WORK: DRAWING RAY DIAGRAMS ON PLAIN PAPER

 We can determine where an image lies in relation to the object by using a

ray diagram. 
 We can do this by using any of the two simple rules as explained before:
 Draw a ray from the top of the image parallel to the principal axis.  This
ray bends at the lens axis and goes through the principal focus (Rule 1).
 Draw a ray from the top of the lens through the centre of the lens. This ray
goes straight through. It is undeviated (Rule 3).
 Where the two rays meet/cross, that is where the image is found. 
 The diagrams below show how we do a ray diagram step-by-step:

Step 1:  In the middle of the paper, draw a horizontal line to represent the
principal axis. Then draw a vertical line with arrowheads to represent the
convex (converging) lens.
 Where distances are given, choose appropriate scales for the object’s
height and position.
 Mark the position of F and 2F on each side of the lens to scale.

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Step 2:  From top of object (O), draw the ray parallel to the principal axis.

 
Step 3: Draw the refracted ray so that it passes through the principal focus.

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Step 4: Draw a ray from the top of the object through the optical centre of the
lens.  This ray is undeviated.

 
Step 5: Where the rays cross, that is where the image is.

Step 6: Use the scales to measure the position and size of the image.
State the characteristics/nature of the image. Say whether the image is:
 Real or virtual
 Upright (erect) or inverted
 Same size, magnified or diminished
State the position of the image. Say whether the image position is:
 At F (v = f)
 Between F and 2F (f < v < 2f)
 At 2F (v = 2f)
 Beyond 2F (v > 2f)
 At infinity (v = ∞)
 Further away
 Behind object
 On the opposite side of lens
 On the same side of lens
For example in the diagram above, the nature of the image is as follows:
 Real
 Inverted
 Magnified
 On opposite side of lens
 Beyond 2F.

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PRACTICAL WORK: DRAWING RAY DIAGRAMS ON GRAPH PAPER

 It is a good idea to draw your ray diagram on graph paper as the following
ray diagram is. 
 Follow the six steps outlined previously.
 Be careful with your drawing; a small change in the angle of the undeviated
ray can lead to quite a big change in the final position of the image. 
 And PLEASE... Be a good chap and use a sharp pencil.
 The following is a ray diagram on graph paper for an object beyond 2F.

This ray diagram shows the nature of the image as follows:

 Inverted (upside down)
 Real
 Diminished (smaller).
 On opposite side
 Between F and 2F

 A ray diagram on graph paper for an object at 2F.

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 A ray diagram on graph paper for an object at F.

 A ray diagram on graph paper for an object between F and optical centre (C)

The next page summarises ALL the ray diagrams of a convex

(converging) lens, the nature of the images and their applications.

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PLEASE DO THIS EXERCISE

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MAGNIFICATION

 Magnification is a measure of how many times an object has increased (enlarged)

or decreased (diminished) in size when it comes out as an image.
 Linear magnification (m) is defined as the ratio of the height of the image to the
height of the object, or the ratio of image distance to object distance.

Height ofimage
Magnification =
Heightof object

h2
m=
h1

¿
Or magnification = Image distance ¿ lens Object distance ¿ lens¿

v
m=
u

Please note

 m less than 1 (m < 1) means the image is diminished (decreased in size).

 m equal to 1 (m = 1) means the image is the same size as the object.
 m greater than 1 (m > 1) means the image is magnified (increased in size or
enlarged).

Worked example

An object appears to be 50 cm high when viewed through a magnifying glass. The

object is actually only 20 cm high. Calculate the magnification.

Magnification = image height ÷ object height = 50 ÷ 20 = x 2.5

The image is 2.5 times larger than the object.

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THE HUMAN EYE
The eye is a natural optical instrument which contains a convex lens for focusing
images on the retina.

MYOPIA (NEARSIGHTEDNESS OR SHORTSIGHTEDNESS)

 Defect of vision in which the eye can see nearby objects clearly but cannot see
distant objects clearly.
 Short sight is a defect in which close objects are seen clearly but distant
objects are blurred.
 Close objects are in focus but distant objects are out of focus.
 This defect is due to the formation of image of distant object in front of the
retina.

Causes of myopia (shortsightedness)

1. Increase in curvature of eye lens
2. Abnormally long eyeball

Correction of Myopia

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 This defect is corrected by using spectacles having suitable concave lenses
(diverging lenses).
 The concave lens diverge the light rays, so the image is formed exactly on
the retina.

Test Your Understanding and Answer These Questions:

1. What is myopia?
2. How is myopia caused?
3. How can myopia be corrected?
4. Which type of lens is used to correct myopia?

HYPERMETROPIA OR LONGSIGHTEDNESS
 Defect of vision in which the eye can see distant (far) objects clearly but
cannot see the nearby objects clearly.
 This defect is due the image of nearby object being formed beyond the
retina.

Causes of Hypermetropia (longsightedness)

1. Decrease in curvature of eye lens
2. Abnormally short eyeball

Correction of Hypermetropia
 This defect is corrected by using spectacles having suitable convex lenses.
 The convex lens converge the light rays, so the image is formed on the
retina.

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Test Your Understanding and Answer These Questions:

1. What is hypermetropia?
2. How is hypermetropia caused?
3. How can hypermetropia be corrected?
4. Which type of lens is used to correct hypermetropia?

10.4 DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT

What is dispersion?
 Dispersion is the splitting up of white light into its seven constituent colours on
passing through a glass prism.
 Dispersion is the separation of white light into a spectrum of seven colours by
the process of refraction.

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Spectrum of white light

The band of seven colours formed
on a white screen when a beam of
white light is refracted by a glass
prism is called a spectrum of white
light.
 The seven colours of the spectrum
are: Red, Orange, Yellow, Green,
Blue, Indigo and Violet.
 Mnemonics: ROYGBIV or ‘Richard
Of York Gave Battle In Vain’
PICTURE: Dispersion of white light by a glass prism

Recombination of dispersed light

 Isaac Newton performed an experiment to show that white light consists of
seven colours which can be recombined back into white light.
 He passed white light through a glass prism to split it into the seven colours of
the spectrum; Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo and Violet.
 He then passed the coloured light spectrum through an inverted second prism.
 He observed that the dispersed light was recombined by the second prism back
into white light.
 The light emerging out of the second prism was found to be white indicating
that the light ray consists of different colours.

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PICTURE: Dispersion and recombination of white light.

What causes dispersion?

 Dispersion occurs because different colours of light travel at slightly
different speeds through transparent substances.
 In glass, perspex and water, red light travels the quickest and violet the
slowest.

The amount by which a ray is refracted depends on the wavelength.

 Red light - the longest wavelength of visible light - is refracted the least,
and violet light - the shortest wavelength - is refracted the most.

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PICTURE: A rainbow is a natural spectrum which arises due to dispersion of

sunlight by raindrops into the seven colours, Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue,
Indigo and Violet.

 The spectrum of white light consists of seven colours which are: Red, Orange,
Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo and Violet.
 Mnemonics: ROYGBIV.

What is the range of white light or visible light?

 The range of visible light is from 400nm to 700nm.
 Visible light has a large number of radiations with wavelengths ranging from
400nm to 700nm.
 Red light has a largest wavelength.
 Violet light has the smallest wavelength.
 When white light is passed through a prism, Red light bends the least and
violet light bends the most.

Absorption of light

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How do we see different colours?
 Look at this picture of a ladybird. Why is it red and black? And why is the
leaf so green? How do we see the different colours? It all has to do with
what happens when light hits a surface.

A ladybird.

 When light hits a surface, some of the light is absorbed and the rest is reflected.
 It is the reflected light that reaches our eyes and allows us to see the object.
 Previously, we learned that white light is a mixture of different colours. When
white light from the Sun hits the red shell of the ladybird all of the colours are
absorbed, except red. Red light is reflected back to our eyes and so we see a
red ladybird.

 We see the red shell of the ladybird as red light is reflected and the other
colours are absorbed.
 The green leaf absorbs all the colours except green which it reflects back into
our eyes.

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 We see a green leaf as green light is reflected and the other colours are
absorbed by the leaf's surface.
 What about the black spots of the ladybird? Is black a colour? The black
spots on the ladybird absorb all the colours and no light is reflected. That is
why they appear black.
 Although we can get black paint as a pigment, black is not a colour of light.
Black is the result of the complete absorption of light.
 Black, matt (not shiny) objects absorb all of the colours of light and reflect none
and so appear black to our eyes.

What about a white object? Why do you think white objects look white? Have a
look at the following diagram for a clue.

 White objects absorb all the colours of white light and reflect all of them.
That is why they appear white.

SUMMARY – COLOUR OF OBJECTS

 We have already discussed that the white light is a mixture of seven different
colours.

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 When this white light consisting of seven colours falls on an object, then that
object absorbs all the colours of the white light except one colour, which it
reflects.
 And it is the colour of the reflected light which determines the colour of that
object.
 For example, a rose (or blood) appears red in sunlight because when white
light falls on rose (or blood), it absorbs all the colours of white light except red
colour, which it reflects. This reflected red light by rose (or blood) enters our
eyes and we feel the sensation of red colour.
 In the same way the leaves of plants appear green in sunlight because when
white light falls on leaves, they reflects green colour to our eyes and absorbs
all other colours. This reflected green light enters our eyes and we feel the
sensation of green colour.
  However, it is also observed that some objects absorb or reflect all the colours
of white light which falls over them.
 If all the colours of white light are absorbed by an object, without reflecting
any colour then such object appears black. For example, a black board appears
black, because it absorbs all the colours of light falling on it.
 On the other hand, if all the colours of white light are reflected by an object
without absorbing any colour then such object appears white. For example, the
milk appears white because it reflects all the colour of white light falling on it.

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

1. In terms of absorption of light why do:

(a). Green objects appear green in colour?

(b). Red objects appear red in colour?
(c). White objects appear white in colour?
(d). Black objects appear black?

2. Why is black not considered to be a colour?

3. Use this picture to describe how we see black, red and white objects?

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