Professional Documents
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Unit Conversions
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Exponents.
Scientific Notation.
Scientific notation is a short-hand form to write numbers which would have a lot of
zeros when written as decimals. For example, instead of writing 1230000, you can
just write 1.23 · 1000000 or 1.23 · 106. The familiar powers of ten include:
10-3 = 0.001
10-2 = 0.01
10-1 = 0.1
100 = 1
101 = 10
102 = 100
103 = 1000
To go from scientific notation to a plain decimal number, move the decimal to the
right or left according to the sign of the exponent, putting a zero down when you
have no other digits there.
To go from a plain decimal number to scientific notation, just move the decimal to
the right or left (counting how many places you move) until there is only one digit to
the left of the decimal point, then add “· 10n ” where n is the number of places you
moved the decimal point (positive if you went left and negative if you went right).
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Examples of Length, Mass and Time
Time (sec)
Age of the universe 1017
Age of the Earth 1017
Time of travel by light to nearby star 108
One year 107
One day 105
Period of a heartbeat 1
Period of red light 10-15
Time of passsage of light across a nucleus 10-24
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Metric multipliers (SI)
Fundamental Units: Seven units of basic quantities from which all other
units can be derived (eg. metre, second, kilogram).
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Significant figures
Rule Examples
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Scalars Vectors
Speed Velocity
Temperature Acceleration
Distance Displacement
Area Force
Entropy Momentum
Volume Drag
1. Vector Addition.
• Vectors are added ‘head to tail’ to find the resultant vector.
• For example, a + b:
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How to add any number of vectors
F2
F3
F4
F1
F5
1. To add any number of vectors, the first step is to place the vectors in a
suitable system of axis. The goal is to have as many as possible of the vectors fall into
one of the two axis . In the example above, we will define the axis by F1 and F5 .
F2
F3
θ
φ
ω
F4
F1
F5
2. In our newly-defines x-y axis, we use trigonometry to split those vectors that
are not already on the axis, to two perpendicular components. In the example
above,, F2 , F3 and F4 need to be analyzed in two x and y components .
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F2Χ
F2Ψ
F3
F3ψ
F4χ F3χ θ
φ
ω F2Χ
F4 F4ψ
F1
F5
To be able to do so, we need to know the angle each vector forms with the axis. Let’s
take as our test case F4. We know ω, so we can analyze F4 to F4x and F4y by using cosω
and sinω.
Tip: The component that creates the angle gets the cos.
Thus, F2χ , F3ψ and F4ψ will be calculated through cosφ, cosθ and cosω respectively.
4. Knowing Fx and Fψ, we use the Pythagoras Theorem to find the net vector.
F = Fx2 + Fy2
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3. Multiplying a Vector by a Scalar.
• To multiply a vector by a scalar, keep the direction of the vector the same
and multiply the magnitude by the scalar.
• For example, 3 x a:
• The dot product is when two vectors are multiplied to give a scalar.
• For example W = F · d.
• Work is a scalar, but force and displacement are vectors.
• Work is calculated by:
W = F · d = |F| |d| cosθ, where θ is the angle between F and d .
• The cross product is when two vectors are multiplied to give another vector.
• For example, F = qvxB.
• Force, velocity and magnetic field strength are all vectors (charge is a scalar).
• The cross product vxB is calculated by:
vxB = |v| |B| sinθ, where θ is the angle between F and d.
• The direction of the resultant is at right angles to both v and B, given by the
right-hand rule.
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• A vector can be resolved into its horizontal and vertical components.
Random errors
Systematic errors
A systematic error, is an error which occurs at each reading.
Sources of systematic errors include:
• The observer being less than perfect in the same way every time
• An instrument with a zero offset error
• An instrument that is improperly calibrated
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Precision
A measurement is said to be accurate if it has little systematic errors. It is an
indication of how close a value is to the true value.
Accuracy
A measurement is said to be precise if it has little random errors. It is an indication of
how similar repeated measurements are.
A measurement can be of great precision but be inaccurate (for example, if the
instrument used had a zero offset error).
Uncertainty propagation
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• When raising a value to a power, multiply the percentage uncertainty by the
absolute value of the power.
Q= a + b → ΔQ = Δa + Δb
Q= a - b → ΔQ = Δa + Δb
ΔQ Δa Δb
Q= a · b → = +
Q a b
ΔQ Δa Δb
Q= a / b → = +
Q a b
ΔQ Δa
Q= an → =n
Q a
Graph uncertainties:
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Linear Function & Slope
m2 <0
m1 >0
b2= y-intercept
b1= y-intercept
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