C h a p t e r S i x

Microwave Resonators

Microwave resonators are used in a variety of applications, including filters, oscillators,

frequency meters, and tuned amplifiers. Because the operation of microwave resonators is very
similar to that of lumped-element resonators of circuit theory, we will begin by reviewing the
basic characteristics of series and parallel RLC resonant circuits. We will then discuss various
implementations of resonators at microwave frequencies using distributed elements such as
transmission lines, rectangular and circular waveguides, and dielectric cavities. We will also
discuss the excitation of resonators using apertures and current sheets.

6.1 SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUITS

At frequencies near resonance, a microwave resonator can usually be modeled by either a
series or parallel RLC lumped-element equivalent circuit, and so we will now review some
of the basic properties of these circuits.

Series Resonant Circuit

A series RLC resonant circuit is shown in Figure 6.1a. The input impedance is
1
Z in = R + jωL − j , (6.1)
ωC
and the complex power delivered to the resonator is



1 ∗ 1 1
V
2
2
Pin = VI = Z in |I | = Z in



2 2 2 Z in

 
1 1
= |I |2 R + jωL − j . (6.2)
2 ωC

272
 6.1 Series and Parallel Resonant Circuits 273

R L
+
V I C
–

Zin
(a)

⎪Zin(�)⎪

R BW
0.707
R

0 1 �/�0
(b)

FIGURE 6.1 A series RLC resonator and its response. (a) A series RLC resonator circuit. (b) Input
impedance magnitude versus frequency.

The power dissipated by the resistor R is

1 2
Ploss = |I | R, (6.3a)
2
the average magnetic energy stored in the inductor L is

1 2
Wm = |I | L , (6.3b)
4
and the average electric energy stored in the capacitor C is

1 1 1
We = |Vc |2 C = |I |2 2 , (6.3c)
4 4 ω C
where Vc is the voltage across the capacitor. Then the complex power of (6.2) can be
rewritten as

Pin = Ploss + 2 jω(Wm − We ), (6.4)

and the input impedance of (6.1) can be rewritten as

2Pin Ploss + 2 jω(Wm − We )

Z in = = . (6.5)
|I |2 1
2 |I |
2

Resonance occurs when the average stored magnetic and electric energies are equal, or
Wm = We . Then from (6.5) and (6.3a), the input impedance at resonance is
Ploss
Z in = 1
= R,
2 |I |
2
274 Chapter 6: Microwave Resonators

which is purely real. From (6.3b,c), Wm = We implies that the resonant frequency, ω0 , can
be defined as
1
ω0 = √ . (6.6)
LC
Another important parameter of a resonant circuit is its Q, or quality factor, which is
defined as
average energy stored
Q=ω
energy loss/second
Wm + We
=ω . (6.7)
Ploss
Thus Q is a measure of the loss of a resonant circuit—lower loss implies a higher Q.
Resonator losses may be due to conductor loss, dielectric loss, or radiation loss, and are
represented by the resistance, R, of the equivalent circuit. An external connecting network
may introduce additional loss. Each of these loss mechanisms will have the effect of low-
ering the Q. The Q of the resonator itself, disregarding external loading effects, is called
the unloaded Q, denoted as Q 0 .
For the series resonant circuit of Figure 6.1a, the unloaded Q can be evaluated from
(6.7), using (6.3) and the fact that Wm = We at resonance, to give
2Wm ω0 L 1
Q 0 = ω0 = = , (6.8)
Ploss R ω0 RC
which shows that Q increases as R decreases.
Next, consider the behavior of the input impedance of this resonator near its resonant
frequency [1]. Let ω = ω0 + ω, where ω is small. The input impedance can then be
rewritten from (6.1) as
 
1
Z in = R + jωL 1 − 2
ω LC
 
ω − ω02
2
= R + jωL ,
ω2

since ω02 = 1/LC. Now ω2 − ω02 = (ω − ω0 )(ω + ω0 ) = ω(2ω − ω)  2ωω for
small ω. Thus,
Z in  R + j2Lω
2RQ0 ω
 R+ j . (6.9)
ω0
This form will be useful for identifying equivalent circuits with distributed element
resonators.
Alternatively, a resonator with loss can be modeled as a lossless resonator whose res-
onant frequency, ω0 , has been replaced with a complex effective resonant frequency:
 
j
ω0 ← ω0 1 + . (6.10)
2Q 0
This can be seen by considering the input impedance of a series resonator with no loss, as
given by (6.9) with R = 0:
Z in = j2L(ω − ω0 ).
 6.1 Series and Parallel Resonant Circuits 275

Then substituting the complex frequency of (6.10) for ω0 gives

 
ω0
Z in = j2L ω − ω0 − j
2Q 0
ω0 L
= + j2L(ω − ω0 ) = R + j2Lω,
Q0
which is identical to (6.9). This is a useful procedure because for most practical resonators
the loss is very small, so the Q can be found using the perturbation method, beginning
with the solution for the lossless case. Then the effect of loss can be added to the input
impedance by replacing ω0 with the complex resonant frequency given in (6.10).
Finally, consider the half-power fractional bandwidth of the resonator. Figure 6.1b
shows the variation of the magnitude of the input impedance versus frequency. When the
frequency is such that |Z in |2 = 2R 2 , then by (6.2) the average (real) power delivered to
the circuit is one-half that delivered at resonance. If BW is the fractional bandwidth, then
ω/ω0 = BW/2 at the upper band edge. Using (6.9) gives
|R + jRQ0 (BW)|2 = 2R 2 ,
or
1
BW = . (6.11)
Q0

Parallel Resonant Circuit

The parallel RLC resonant circuit, shown in Figure 6.2a, is the dual of the series RLC
circuit. The input impedance is
 −1
1 1
Z in = + + jωC , (6.12)
R jωL

+
V C L R
–

Zin
(a)
⎪Zin(�)⎪

0.707R
BW

0 1 �/�0
(b)

FIGURE 6.2 A parallel RLC resonator and its response. (a) A parallel RLC circuit. (b) Input
impedance magnitude versus frequency.
276 Chapter 6: Microwave Resonators

and the complex power delivered to the resonator is

1 ∗ 1 1 1
Pin = VI = Z in |I |2 = |V |2 ∗
2 2 2 Z in
 
1 1 j
= |V |2 + − jωC . (6.13)
2 R ωL
The power dissipated by the resistor, R, is

1 |V |2
Ploss = , (6.14a)
2 R
the average electric energy stored in the capacitor, C, is
1 2
We = |V | C, (6.14b)
4
and the average magnetic energy stored in the inductor, L, is
1 1 1
Wm = |I L |2 L = |V |2 2 , (6.14c)
4 4 ωL
where I L is the current through the inductor. Then the complex power of (6.13) can be
rewritten as

Pin = Ploss + 2 jω(Wm − We ), (6.15)

which is identical to (6.4). Similarly, the input impedance can be expressed as

2Pin Ploss + 2 jω(Wm − We )
Z in = = , (6.16)
|I | 2 1
2 |I |
2

which is identical to (6.5).

As in the series case, resonance occurs when Wm = We . Then from (6.16) and (6.14a)
the input impedance at resonance is
Ploss
Z in = 1
= R,
2 |I |
2

which is a purely real impedance. From (6.14b) and (6.14c), Wm = We implies that the
resonant frequency, ω0 , can be defined as
1
ω0 = √ , (6.17)
LC
which is identical to the series resonant circuit case. Resonance in the case of a parallel
RLC circuit is sometimes referred to as an antiresonance.
From the definition of (6.7), and the results in (6.14), the unloaded Q of the parallel
resonant circuit can be expressed as
2Wm R
Q 0 = ω0 = = ω0 RC, (6.18)
Ploss ω0 L
since Wm = We at resonance. This result shows that the Q of the parallel resonant circuit
increases as R increases.
 6.1 Series and Parallel Resonant Circuits 277

Near resonance, the input impedance of (6.12) can be simplified using the series ex-
pansion result that
1
 1 − x + ···.
1+x
Again letting ω = ω0 + ω, where ω is small, allows (6.12) to be rewritten as [1]
 −1
1 1 − ω/ω0
Z in  + + jω0 C + jωC
R jω0 L
 −1
1 ω
 + j 2 + jωC
R ω0 L
 −1
1
 + 2 jωC
R
R R
 = , (6.19)
1 + 2 jωRC 1 + 2 j Q 0 ω/ω0
since ω02 = 1/LC. When R = ∞ (6.19) reduces to
1
Z in = .
j2C(ω − ω0 )
As in the series resonator case, the effect of loss can be accounted for by replacing ω0
in this expression with a complex effective resonant frequency:
 
j
ω0 ← ω0 1 + . (6.20)
2Q 0
Figure 6.2b shows the behavior of the magnitude of the input impedance versus
frequency. The half-power bandwidth edges occur at frequencies (ω/ω0 = BW/2)
such that
R2
|Z in |2 = ,
2
which, from (6.19), implies that
1
BW = , (6.21)
Q0
as in the series resonance case.

Loaded and Unloaded Q

The unloaded Q, Q 0 , defined in the preceding sections is a characteristic of the resonator it-
self, in the absence of any loading effects caused by external circuitry. In practice, however,
a resonator is invariably coupled to other circuitry, which will have the effect of lowering
the overall, or loaded Q, Q L , of the circuit. Figure 6.3 depicts a resonator coupled to an

Resonant
circuit RL
Q

FIGURE 6.3 A resonant circuit connected to an external load, R L .

278 Chapter 6: Microwave Resonators

TABLE 6.1 Summary of Results for Series and Parallel Resonators

Quantity Series Resonator Parallel Resonator

1 1 1
Input impedance/admittance Z in = R + jωL − j Yin = + jωC − j
ωC R ωL
2RQ0 ω 1 2Q 0 ω
R+ j  +j
ω0 R Rω0
1 2 1 |V |2
Power loss Ploss = |I | R Ploss =
2 2 R
1 1 2 1
Stored magnetic energy Wm = |I |2 L Wm = |V | 2
4 4 ω L
1 2 1 1 2
Stored electric energy We = |I | 2 We = |V | C
4 ω C 4
1 1
Resonant frequency ω0 = √ ω0 = √
LC LC
ω0 L 1 R
Unloaded Q Q0 = = Q 0 = ω0 RC =
R ω0 RC ω0 L
ω L RL
External Q Qe = 0 Qe =
RL ω0 L

external load resistor, R L . If the resonator is a series RLC circuit, the load resistor R L adds
in series with R, so the effective resistance in (6.8) is R + R L . If the resonator is a parallel
RLC circuit, the load resistor R L combines in parallel with R, so the effective resistance in
(6.18) is RR L/(R + R L ). If we define an external Q, Q e , as
⎧
⎪ ω0 L
⎪
⎨ R for series circuits
L
Qe = (6.22)
⎪
⎪ R
⎩ L for parallel circuits,
ω0 L
then the loaded Q can be expressed as
1 1 1
= + . (6.23)
QL Qe Q0
Table 6.1 summarizes the above results for series and parallel resonant circuits.

6.2 TRANSMISSION LINE RESONATORS

As we have seen, ideal lumped circuit elements are often unattainable at microwave fre-
quencies, so distributed elements are frequently used. In this section we will study the use
of transmission line sections with various lengths and terminations (usually open- or short-
circuited) to form resonators. Because we are interested in the Q of these resonators, we
must consider transmission lines with losses.

Short-Circuited λ/2 Line

A length of lossy transmission line, short circuited at one end, is shown in Figure 6.4.
The line has a characteristic impedance, Z 0 , propagation constant, β, and attenuation
 6.2 Transmission Line Resonators 279

V
n=1

n=2

Zin Z0, �, �

FIGURE 6.4 A short-circuited length of lossy transmission line, and the voltage distributions for
n = 1 ( = λ/2) and n = 2 ( = λ) resonators.

constant, α. At the resonant frequency ω = ω0 , the length of the line is  = λ/2.

From (2.91), the input impedance is
Z in = Z 0 tanh(α + jβ).
Using an identity for the hyperbolic tangent gives
tanh α + j tan β
Z in = Z 0 . (6.24)
1 + j tan β tanh α
Observe that Z in = jZ 0 tan β if α = 0 (a lossless line).
In practice it is usually desirable to use a low-loss transmission line, so we assume
that α  1, and then tanh α  α. Again let ω = ω0 + ω, where ω is small. Then,
assuming a TEM line, we have
ω ω0  ω
β = = + ,
vp vp vp
where vp is the phase velocity of the transmission line. Because  = λ/2 = π vp/ω0 for
ω = ω0 , we have
ωπ
β = π + ,
ω0
and then
 
ωπ ωπ ωπ
tan β = tan π + = tan  .
ω0 ω0 ω0
Using these results in (6.24) gives
 
α + j (ωπ/ω0 ) ωπ
Z in  Z 0  Z 0 α + j , (6.25)
1 + j (ωπ/ω0 )α ω0
since ωα/ω0  1.
Equation (6.25) is of the form
Z in = R + 2 jLω,
280 Chapter 6: Microwave Resonators

which is the input impedance of a series RLC resonant circuit, as given by (6.9). We can
identify the resistance of the equivalent circuit as

R = Z 0 α, (6.26a)

and the inductance of the equivalent circuit as

Z0π
L= . (6.26b)
2ω0

The capacitance of the equivalent circuit can be found from (6.6) as

1
C= . (6.26c)
ω02 L

The resonator of Figure 6.4 thus resonates for ω = 0 ( = λ/2), and its input
impedance at resonance is Z in = R = Z 0 α. Resonance also occurs for  = nλ/2, n =
1, 2, 3, . . . . The voltage distributions for the n = 1 and n = 2 resonant modes are shown
in Figure 6.4. The unloaded Q of this resonator can be found from (6.8) and (6.26) as

ω0 L π β
Q0 = = = , (6.27)
R 2α 2α

since β = π at the first resonance. This result shows that the Q decreases as the attenua-
tion of the line increases, as expected.

EXAMPLE 6.1 Q OF HALF-WAVE COAXIAL LINE RESONATORS

A λ/2 resonator is made from a piece of copper coaxial line having an inner
conductor radius of 1 mm and an outer conductor radius of 4 mm. If the resonant
frequency is 5 GHz, compare the unloaded Q of an air-filled coaxial line resonator
to that of a Teflon-filled coaxial line resonator.

Solution
We first compute the attenuation of the coaxial line, using the results of Examples
2.6 or 2.7. From Appendix F, the conductivity of copper is σ = 5.813 × 107 S/m.
The surface resistivity at 5 GHz is

ωµ0
Rs = = 1.84 × 10−2 .
2σ

The attenuation due to conductor loss for the air-filled line is

 
Rs 1 1
αc = +
2η ln b/a a b
 
1.84 × 10−2 1 1
= + = 0.022 Np/m.
2(377) ln (0.004/0.001) 0.001 0.004
 6.2 Transmission Line Resonators 281

For Teflon, r = 2.08 and tan δ = 0.0004, so the attenuation due to conductor loss
for the Teflon-filled line is
√  
1.84 × 10−2 2.08 1 1
αc = + = 0.032 Np/m.
2(377) ln (0.004/0.001) 0.001 0.004
The dielectric loss of the air-filled line is zero, but the dielectric loss of the Teflon-
filled line is
√
r
αd = k0 tan δ
2 √
(104.7) 2.08(0.0004)
= = 0.030 Np/m.
2
Finally, from (6.27), the unloaded Qs can be computed as
β 104.7
Q air = = = 2380,
2α 2(0.022)
√
β 104.7 2.08
Q Teflon = = = 1218.
2α 2(0.032 + 0.030)
Thus it is seen that the Q of the air-filled line is almost twice that of the Teflon-
filled line. The Q can be further increased by using silver-plated conductors. ■

Short-Circuited λ/4 Line

A parallel type of resonance (antiresonance) can be achieved using a short-circuited trans-
mission line of length λ/4. The input impedance of a shorted line of length  is
Z in = Z 0 tanh(α + jβ)
tanh α + j tan β
= Z0
1 + j tan β tanh α
1 − j tanh α cot β
= Z0 , (6.28)
tanh α − j cot β
where the last result was obtained by multiplying both numerator and denominator by
− j cot β. Now assume that  = λ/4 at ω = ω0 , and let ω = ω0 + ω. Then, for a TEM
line,
ω0  ω π π ω
β = + = + ,
vp vp 2 2ω0
and so
 
π π ω π ω −π ω
cot β = cot + = − tan  .
2 2ω0 2ω0 2ω0
Also, as before, tanh α  α for small loss. Using these results in (6.28) gives
1 + jαπω/2ω0 Z0
Z in = Z 0  , (6.29)
α + jπ ω/2ω0 α + jπ ω/2ω0
since απω/2ω0  1. This result is of the same form as the impedance of a parallel RLC
circuit, as given in (6.19):
1
Z in = .
(1/R) + 2 jωC
282 Chapter 6: Microwave Resonators

We can identify the resistance of the equivalent circuit as

Z0
R= (6.30a)
α
and the capacitance of the equivalent circuit as
π
C= . (6.30b)
4ω0 Z 0
The inductance of the equivalent circuit can be found as
1
L= . (6.30c)
ω02 C
The resonator of Figure 6.4 therefore has a parallel-type resonance for  = λ/4, with an
input impedance at resonance of Z in = R = Z 0/α. From (6.18) and (6.30) the unloaded
Q of this resonator is
π β
Q 0 = ω0 RC = = , (6.31)
4α 2α
since  = π/2β at resonance.

Open-Circuited λ/2 Line

A practical resonator that is often used in microstrip circuits consists of an open-circuited
length of transmission line, as shown in Figure 6.5. This resonator will behave as a parallel
resonant circuit when the length is λ/2, or multiples of λ/2.
The input impedance of an open-circuited lossy transmission line of length  is
1 + j tan β tanh α
Z in = Z 0 coth(α + jβ) = Z 0 . (6.32)
tanh α + j tan β
As before, assume that  = λ/2 at ω = ω0 , and let ω = ω0 + ω. Then,
π ω
β = π + ,
ω0

n=1

n=2

Zin Z0, �, �

FIGURE 6.5 An open-circuited length of lossy transmission line, and the voltage distributions for
n = 1 ( = λ/2) and n = 2 ( = λ) resonators.
 6.2 Transmission Line Resonators 283

and so
ωπ ωπ
tan β = tan  ,
ω ω0
and tanh α  α. Using these results in (6.32) gives
Z0
Z in = . (6.33)
α + j (ωπ/ω0 )
Comparison with the input impedance of a parallel resonant circuit, as given by (6.19),
suggests that the resistance of the equivalent RLC circuit is
Z0
R= , (6.34a)
α
and the capacitance of the equivalent circuit is
π
C= . (6.34b)
2ω0 Z 0
The inductance of the equivalent circuit is
1
L= . (6.34c)
ω02 C
From (6.18) and (6.34) the unloaded Q is
π β
Q 0 = ω0 RC = = , (6.35)
2α 2α
since  = π/β at resonance.

EXAMPLE 6.2 A HALF-WAVE MICROSTRIP RESONATOR

Consider a microstrip resonator constructed from a λ/2 length of 50 open-

circuited microstrip line. The substrate is Teflon (r = 2.08, tan δ = 0.0004), with
a thickness of 0.159 cm, and the conductors are copper. Compute the required
length of the line for resonance at 5 GHz, and the unloaded Q of the resonator.
Ignore fringing fields at the end of the line.
Solution
From (3.197), the width of a 50 microstrip line on this substrate is found to be
W = 0.508 cm, and the effective permittivity is e = 1.80. The resonant length
can then be calculated as
λ vp c 3 × 108
= = = √ = √ = 2.24 cm.
2 2f 2 f e 2(5 × 109 ) 1.80
The propagation constant is
√ √
2π f 2π f e 2π(5 × 109 ) 1.80
β= = = = 151.0 rad/m.
vp c 3 × 108
From (3.199), the attenuation due to conductor loss is
Rs 1.84 × 10−2
αc = = = 0.0724 Np/m,
Z0W 50(0.00508)
284 Chapter 6: Microwave Resonators

where we used Rs from Example 6.1. From (3.198), the attenuation due to dielec-
tric loss is
k0 r (e − 1) tan δ (104.7)(2.08)(0.80)(0.0004)
αd = √ = √ = 0.024 Np/m.
2 e (r − 1) 2 1.80(1.08)
Then from (6.35) the unloaded Q is
β 151.0
Q0 = = = 783. ■
2α 2(0.0724 + 0.024)

6.3 RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE CAVITY RESONATORS

Microwave resonators can also be constructed from closed sections of waveguide. Because
radiation loss from an open-ended waveguide can be significant, waveguide resonators
are usually short circuited at both ends, thus forming a closed box, or cavity. Electric
and magnetic energy is stored within the cavity enclosure, and power is dissipated in the
metallic walls of the cavity as well as in the dielectric material that may fill the cavity.
Coupling to a cavity resonator may be by a small aperture, or a small probe or loop. We
will see that there are many possible resonant modes for a cavity resonator, corresponding
to field variations along the three dimensions of the structure.
We will first derive the resonant frequencies for a general TE or TM resonant mode of
a rectangular cavity, and then derive an expression for the unloaded Q of the TE10 mode.
A complete treatment of the unloaded Q for arbitrary TE and TM modes can be made
using the same procedure, but is not included here because of its length and complexity.

Resonant Frequencies
The geometry of a rectangular cavity is shown in Figure 6.6. It consists of a length,
d, of rectangular waveguide shorted at both ends (z = 0, d). We will find the resonant

Ey

m=1
=2

a x
y
=1

b
d

z 0
a x

FIGURE 6.6 A rectangular cavity resonator, and the electric field variations for the TE101 and
TE102 resonant modes.