PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS

OF CORONA DISCHARGE

Mario Della Santa

ME.RO, Ponte a Moriano, (LU)

Corona discharge is fundamental for the working of plastic films, and therefore its
operational principles and the most important parameters affecting the discharge
process must be well understood.
This report sets out, as straightforwardly as possible, to analyse and help to
understand the essential elements and operating magnitudes, so that the
equipment can be properly used and the discharge process optimized.

Purpose of use

Particular importance attaches, in the treatment of plastics, to pressing, matching,

spreading and metallizing.

These operations require strong adhesion of the plastic

surface to the matching material (inks, adhesives, lacquers, metallization).
It is therefore an absolute requirement that the surface has such wettability as to
allow stable, safe attachment.

Sometimes the physical and chemical characteristics of two materials cause them to
adhere spontaneously, but most often the plastic surface, which acts as a support, has
to be worked on physically to increase its wettability and make it suitable for the sort
of working it is to undergo.
This is where corona discharge is used.

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Corona discharge operating principles.

The figure gives a breakdown of the main elements of a corona discharge system.

As can be seen, these comprise a generator, with operating frequency usually

between 15 and 40 kHz, a step-up transformer, and a discharge unit.
The discharge unit includes one or more electrodes and a
roller, electrically earthed, clothed in dielectric material, that supports the film to be
treated.
Depending on the application, the air-gap between the
electrode and the film to be treated can vary from a minimum of 1.5 mm to a
maximum of 2.5 mm. Such air-gap sizes as 2 to 2.5 mm are used on discharge units
for treating very wide films (even up to 10 m) because in these cases it is difficult to
maintain air-gap sizes that are too low.
The use of a system called AIR-GAP-CONTROL is advised for
units of this type. This system keeps the air-gap constant over the entire length of
the electrode.
When voltage is applied to the electrode a discharge effect starts in the air-gap
between the film and the electrode, leading to film activation.
The resulting phenomenon is shock ionization, in the sense that some ions, which are
always present in air, are accelerated by the electrical field that is applied and strike
some neutral molecules, causing them to ionize.

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In their turn, the new charged particles so formed ionize other molecules, and so on.
So we can say that there is movement of particles ionized under the influence of an
electrical field. As the electrical field increases, so also does the speed of movement,
and therefore also the kinetic energy, of the ionized particles.
When the energy from the electrical field is high enough, the phenomenon
avalanches up to the point of causing dielectric breakdown in the air.
The air-gap between electrode and film becomes a conductor as a consequence of
ionization due to the passage of current.
As a result, we will see a blue corona discharge indicating that the average air-gap
insulation has broken down.
At each shock, some of the kinetic energy of the ions turns into heat energy, with
intense heating of the air gap.
As generator output power increases, more ionized particles will be created, and the
increase in kinetic energy is shown by the change in intensity of the corona
discharge.

Corona discharge on plastic surfaces is caused by bombardment and penetration of

the ions into the surface molecular structure, with oxidation and the creation of a
polar unit, increasing the surface tension of the material being treated.
The oscillation frequency of the ionized particles is not particularly significant in
treatment terms, unlike the energy of impact of the ions on the material.
An ion requires some time to pass through the cloud of ionized particles in order to
reach the surface of the
material to be discharged. However long this may seem, it is a very short time for
the ions that reach their target, compared to the alternation in the electrical field
generated.
Particle transit time is closely linked to their mass, the amplitude of the electrical
field, the density of the space charge, and the size of the air-gap.
The energy of the charged particles that strike the surface of the treated material is
proportional to the power of the generator multiplied by the time of exposure. Even
if the physical and chemical effects of the corona discharge are fairly complex, they
can easily be verified and made repeatable by working on the various magnitudes of
the system, thus allowing us to establish, for a given type of material to be treated,
the specific power to be applied to obtain the surface tension desired.
The specific power applied is given by:

Psp. = Pout/Prod.

where:
Psp. = Specific power in W. min/sq.m
Pout = Output power of the generator
Prod. = production of plant in sq.m/min.

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Unfortunately the specific power to be applied to obtain the desired surface tension
depends on the characteristics of the material to be treated and particularly on the
quantity and nature of the additives contained in it.
To determine the exact specific power to be applied to that type of film to obtain a
given wettability, we must always carry out preliminary tests, which can be done on
a small laboratory sample, or on the production film itself.

The table below gives some general values for obtaining a

surface tension of 42 dyn/cm on various types of film.

BLOWN FILMS Additives Wmin/sq.m Dyn/cm

HDPE 200 ppm 8 42

LDPE 500ppm 12 42
LLDPE 1000ppm 16 42

CAST FILMS Additives Wmin/sq.m Dyn/cm

HDPE 200 ppm 12 42

LDPE 500ppm 15 42
LLDPE 1000ppm 20 42

BOPP Coextruded 18 42
Homopolymer 26 42

PP 200ppm 14 42
500ppm 19 42
1000ppm 25 42

As already stated, these are only indicative values and

should be regarded as such.

Working conditions may occur where, even increasing the

specific power well beyond what is indicated in the table the desired wettability is
not achieved. In such cases great attention must be paid to the type and quantity of
the additives used and possibly work on these to optimize the treatment process.

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The parameters of the corona discharge

• The air-gap

As already stated, the air gap can be adjusted from a minimum of 1.5 to a maximum
of 2.5 mm according to the length of the discharge electrode. Obviously the
adjustments around 2 to 2.5 mm will be for very long electrodes where it is difficult
to maintain air-gap sizes that are too low. This is because the bearing structure of the
discharge unit is not stable vis-à-vis the temperature it assumes, both because of
ambient temperature and the power being delivered.

To keep the air-gap size constant, the air-gap control device must be fitted to the
discharge unit to constantly monitor the distance between electrode and film and
compensate for any movements of the bearing structure.

Within the measurement range described above, and with the same specific power
applied, no significant differences of treatment emerge.

• The electrodes

The electrodes are usually made of aluminium or stainless

steel. Their shape may differ according to the type of
application - roller, blade, multi-blade, insulated with
silicone or ceramic coatings.

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 With the exception of the insulated
electrodes, the others show no
appreciable differences of treatment with
comparable power applied.
We should however bear in mind the
maximum voltage applied because if
effective 13kV is exceeded the increase
in treatment is very low and there is also
the risk of counter-treating the film. According to the power to be applied, a
discharge surface must therefore be chosen that does not exceed such limit.

Insulated electrodes are usually used to treat metal or

metallized films, which, because they are conductive, do not allow a uniform
distribution of the corona discharge and are damaged in consequence. It is advised
that insulated electrodes be used only on metal or metallized films: with the same
power applied, these provide lower treatment levels than non-insulated electrodes.
Obviously, it is also possible to use them on plastic films (see, for example, printing
machines where more than one type of film needs to be treated), but where there is
no need to treat metallized films, and particularly when films with a lot of additive
are to be treated, it is advisable to use non-insulated electrodes.

Insulated electrodes must be cooled and a fan is used for

this with the dual function of cooling and of removing the ozone produced by the
corona discharge.
To achieve good cooling, the electrodes must be in a housing that allows air contact
with the outer surface, and air flow must be directed as far as possible in this
direction. Drawing air from the working environment unfortunately carries dusts,
vapours and all the impurities of the surrounding air onto the electrodes and their
insulating supports. As is known, dirt and high voltage are not compatible, and the
electrode bar should be so constructed as to be easily removable from the discharge
unit so as to allow regular cleaning.

The above description also applies to the non-insulated electrodes supported within a
similar aspirated housing. The situation is even worse in this case, insofar as the
electrodes, with no insulating cover, are directly in contact with their respective
insulating contacts. If, as usually happens, the insulating cladding of the discharge
roller is from 3 to 4 mm thick, the electrode voltage will be considerably higher, so
facilitating any discharge to earth.
(Insulated electrodes usually operate with maximum voltages of 8 to 8.5 kV, whereas
non-insulated electrodes can reach much higher voltages).

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Especial attention should also be taken with the insulating materials used. These
should be anti-arc, because any discharge to earth due to dirt must not damage the
outside surface, which would require replacement of the insulator. For this
application ceramic materials are unquestionably to be preferred.

• Dielectric cladding of the discharge roller.

In the first corona discharge units the discharge roller had no dielectric cladding, and
it was the film itself that carried out this function.
In such conditions the output voltage, and consequently the power, could not be
raised without risking perforation of the film itself.
Looking at the two systems, it can easily be seen that the voltage drop is greater
where there is no dielectric
cladding, and once its dielectric rigidity is overcome
perforation will ensue.
Furthermore, the system without dielectric cladding does not allow the edges of the
film to be treated because, since the electrode is as long as the latter, the corona
discharge exits from the film and causes a high voltage short circuit.

The above problems have all been solved thanks to dielectric cladding. But the
choice and size of the dielectric are of fundamental importance for good system
operation and yield.

The cladding must be very rigid and have low dielectric

losses and high ozone resistance. It must not degrade over time, must be compact
and free of such impurities as might damage its dielectric characteristics.

Many types of dielectric cladding have been tested: charged epoxy resins, Pyrex,
glass weave resins, hypalon, silicones, ceramics, and so on.
At present the dieletrics most commonly used and reliable are silicone and ceramic.
The choice of dielectric is also a function, naturally, of the size of the discharge
roller and the cost/effectiveness ratio.
Most corona discharge installations, and particularly the
widest ones, use silicone cladding for the dielectric.

This type of cladding fully provides all the above-mentioned characteristics, is

reasonably priced, and is easily repaired if perforated, ensuring minimum machine
down-times. On the other hand, it is vulnerable to any blows by sharp objects or
blade cuts that may be caused by incautious workers.

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Ceramic dielectric cladding is less commonly used, especially for high width
installations, on account of its high cost and inability to be properly repaired if
perforated. In the event of perforation the situation is not machine down-time for
repair but the time required to replace the roller. In the case of wide installations this
involves several hours.

However, with the same voltage applied, both ceramic and

silicone claddings will provide the same surface tension.

The two dielectric claddings are of different thickness and with different dielectric
characteristics, and one or the other cladding will only be able to be applied after the
required operations have been carried out on the high-voltage transformer.
The ceramic cladding is 0.8 to 1 mm thick.
According to roller thickness, the silicone cladding may vary from 2.5 to 4.5 mm.
Thicknesses above 4.4 mm are not advised because, with equal power applied, the
voltage on the Vout electrodes increases and the surface unit power that can be
applied therefore decreases. On the other hand, too low a thickness of cladding is
more likely to perforation and is more difficult to achieve on wide-diameter, long-
length rollers.

• Frequency

Various tests have been carried out on this parameter. It appears that there is no
substantial treatment difference in the frequency range of 15 to 40 kHz.
With the same power applied, higher working frequencies give a lower "Vout"
voltage on the electrodes, and there are greater losses on the insulating cladding of
the discharge roller, greater heating of the electrodes and the requirement for a more
precise adjustment of the air-gap (small differences in the air-gap measurement can
lead to a non-uniform corona discharge, making it more difficult to adjust the
electrodes, especially those of longer length).

With high-frequency operation, therefore, a corona discharge of fairly uniform length

can be obtained by reducing the air-gap.

Given the above descriptions, the optimal working frequencies for most applications
of the corona discharge appear to be in the 15 to 24 kHz range.

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• "Vout" voltage

As described in the section on electrodes, the "Vout" voltage is the effective value
(Vrms) applied to the electrodes.

It is advisable not to exceed max. 13 kV (except for special applications such as

cartonplast or treatments of high thickness materials where effective values up to 20
kV can be reached), because beyond this value, treatment increase is very limited and
such problems may arise as:

º Greater risk of film contraction.

º Greater risk of insulation loss in the high-voltage

insulators and the insulating coating of the discharge
roller, particularly if the installation is operating in
conditions of high relative humidity.

The voltage value is to be understood as a generator output magnitude, and therefore,

if used as a reference, it does not of itself determine the level of treatment. The
voltage value depends on the power applied, the air-gap measurement, the thickness
of the material being treated, the thickness and type of the insulating cladding of the
discharge roller.

At the same level of power applied, this means that,

depending on air-gap adjustment and the conformation of the discharge unit, the
same levels of treatment can be obtained with different "Vout" voltages.

• "Iout" current

"Iout" current represents the intensity of the corona

discharge and, like Vout, has to be understood as a generator output magnitude and
used as a possible reference. Taken on its own, this magnitude does not determine
the level of treatment. There are several variables acting on the current: power,
working frequency, air-gap, type and thickness of the material treated, type and
thickness of the dielectric cladding of the discharge roller, discharge surface, relative
humidity and losses in the high voltage insulating systems.

For this magnitude too, we can say that, at the same level of power applied,
according to the conformation of the discharge unit and the working frequency, the
same treatment levels can be obtained with different "Iout" currents.

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• Specific power. "W min/sq.m"

Specific power is the parameter that effectively operates on the treatment level and as
such must be constantly monitored.
The specific power to be applied to obtain a given level of treatment is not the same
for all materials: it has to be defined each time according to the chemical and
physical characteristics of the material itself. Once this magnitude has been
established the generator should always supply the same specific power in various
working conditions. An operator panel must be provided to constantly calculate this
magnitude and, through an adjustment algorithm, keep it strictly constant.
Once the various specific powers have been defined for the various types of film,
they can be stored in the operator panel for the operator to call up on display pages as
reminders.

Besides supplying the usual control panels monitoring two

input magnitudes, Idc and Vdc, and two output magnitudes,
Vout and Iout, (and therefore able to monitor the generator's essential operating
parameters), ME.RO also provides an operator panel using a microprocessor to carry
out all the above functions.
On customer request the operator panel can be personalized and adapted to specific
requirements.
For a full description of all its functions please refer to the relevant manual.

• Ambient conditions

The treatment can be affected by ambient conditions,

particularly pressure and humidity.
Experiments on installations operating above 1000 metres
a.s.l. have shown that less specific power is required than for similar installations
operating at lower altitudes.

Relative humidity can be significant if it exceeds 70%, with some decrease in

treatment usually occurring.
A propos, it is well to remember that in ambient conditions of this kind any
wettability tests (such as ASTM D2578-67) are not reliable and should be carried out
in the specified ambient conditions.

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The counter-treatment

Counter-treatment has been referred to several times, above. It is now appropriate to

explain what it is, and how it occurs.

Counter-treatment is obtained when a given level of treatment is present on the face

opposed to the one to be treated.
It is always due to the existence of: folds, wrinkles or
roughness on the insulating cladding of the discharge roller, insufficient film
drawing, and an air bubble that may form between the film and the discharge roller.

To understand how this may happen, let us imagine the film raised from the roller
and striking the electrode. The face exposed to the electrode will be minimally
treated whereas treatment will be wholly effected on the opposite side.

Figures A and B should aid us in understanding the

phenomenon.

R Va-g Air - gap

Cfilm V Vf Film

Cdiel. Va X Air

Dielectric
Vdi

FIG. A FIG. B

When there is an air-gap of thickness x between the film and the roller, the fig. A
drawing turns into fig. B. Since the overall voltage divides onto the individual
elements, a given share "Va" of the total voltage is applied to the terminals of the
condenser, made up of the air-gap with thickness x. If the "Va" value exceeds the
dielectric rigidity of air, a greater or lesser intense discharge phenomenon will start,
leading to the activation of the opposite face of the film.
Total resistance in the two circuits is the same, the only difference being that at the
counter-treatment point the voltage applied to the film, and hence the power, is
lower. This is why counter-treatment always brings about a treatment loss on
the face being treated.

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Counter-treatment is therefore most preferred with the growth of the total "Vout"
voltage applied.

Where films are to be produced with no tolerance of counter-treatment, the discharge

unit must have a pressure roller that can ensure perfect adhesion of the film to the
discharge roller.

The cladding of the pressure roller must be approximately 60 shore. So as to ensure

perfect adhesion of the film to the discharge roller, it should be located as close as
possible to the electrode, and as far as possible the film should be prevented from
winding around the discharge roller.

Ozone

Ozone (03) is produced by corona discharge. It is a highly oxidizing gas, it is toxic

and, depending on its
concentration, can represent a health risk.
Operator exposure in the immediate vicinity of the discharge unit must not exceed
0.1 ppm (0.2 mg/m3). Higher concentrations must be avoided.
The Draeger phial, a straightforward, low-cost and reliable system can be used to
measure concentration. If the applicable laws for gas discharge into the atmosphere
permit, the ozone can be extracted from the discharge unit and expelled by means of
an aspirator. Aspirator size will be a function of the output power of the generator,
the length of the discharge unit, the expulsion conduit load losses and the production
speed.
Both the aspirator and the expulsion conduit must be constructed from ozone-
resistant materials (stainless steel or plastic materials such as PVC - PET).

Where legislation for gas discharge into the atmosphere does not permit high ozone
concentrations, ozone destroyers must be used.
Ozone destroyers are devices that ensure that it is destroyed before discharge.
With these devices (properly sized according to the quantity of ozone produced)
concentrations below 0.1 ppm can be obtained, a value usually lower than what is
required by law.
In such working conditions discharge into the atmosphere is permitted.

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