Functions

1.1
1
Functions Given by
Formulas

1.2 Functions Given by

Tables

1.3 Functions Given by

Graphs

1.4 Functions Given by

Words

Summary
Chapter Review
Exercises
The heights of winning pole vaults in the Olympic Games
can be modeled by functions. See Exercise 2 on page 29.
The Quick Reference section
of your Technology Guide

A fundamental idea in mathematics and its applications is that of a

function, which tells how one thing depends on others. One exam-
ple of a function is the interest incurred on a loan after a certain number
contains TI83, TI83+, and
TI84+ keystrokes that
correspond to specific tables,
of years. In this case there is a formula1 that allows you to calculate pre- graphs, and expressions
cisely how much you owe, and the formula makes explicit how the debt within the text. Look for the
0.00 icon to help you find
depends on time. Another example is the value of the Dow Jones Industrial
the necessary keystrokes.
Average at the close of each business day. In this case the value depends
on the date, but there is no known formula. This idea of a function is the
cornerstone to understanding and using mathematics.
This icon will direct you
In applications of mathematics, functions are often representations of to Lab Experiments and
real phenomena or events. Thus we say that they are models. Obtaining other student resources
a function or functions to act as a model is commonly the key to under- on the website
standing physical, natural, and social science phenomena. In this chapter http://college.hmco.com/
we look at functions given by formulas, by tables, by graphs, and by words. pic/crauderAT1e.

Analyzing a function from each of these perspectives will be essential as

we progress.

1 See Example P.2 of the Prologue. 19

20 Chapter 1 Functions

1.1 Functions Given by Formulas

We look first at functions given by formulas, since this provides a natural context for
explaining how a function works.

Functions of One Variable

If your job pays $7.00 per hour, then the money M (in dollars) that you make depends on
the number of hours h that you work, and the relationship is given by a simple formula:
Money = 7 × Hours worked , or M = 7h dollars .
The formula M = 7h shows how the money M that you earn depends on the number
of hours h that you work, and we say that M is a function of h. In this context we are
thinking of h as a variable whose value we may not know until the end of the week.
Once the value of h is known, the formula M = 7h can be used to calculate the value
of M. To emphasize that M is a function of h, it is common to write M = M(h) and to
write the formula as M(h) = 7h.
Functions given in this way are very easy to use. For example, if you work 30 hours,
then in functional notation, M(30) is the money you earn.2 To calculate that, you need
only replace h in the formula by 30:
M(30) = 7 × 30 = 210 dollars .
It is important to remember that h is measured in hours and M is measured in dollars.
You will not be very happy if your boss makes a mistake and pays you 7 × 10 = 70 cents
for 10 hours worked. You may be happier if she pays you 7 × 30 = 210 dollars for 30
minutes of work, but both calculations are incorrect. The formula is not useful unless
you state in words the units you are using. A proper presentation of the formula for this
function would be M = 7h, where h is measured in hours and M is measured in dollars.
The words that give the units are as important as the formula.
We should also note that you can use different letters for variables if you want.
Whatever letters you use, it is critical that you explain in words what the letters mean.
We could, for example, use the letter t instead of h to represent the number of hours
worked. If we did that, we would emphasize the functional relationship with M = M(t)
and present the formula as M = 7t, where t is the number of hours worked, and M is
the money earned in dollars.

Key Idea 1.1

Notation for Functions
To represent a function in an economical way, choose letters to stand for the function and
variables. Be sure to explain what the letters represent and to include units.

2 The
parentheses in functional notation indicate the dependence of the function on the variable. They do not represent multiplication. For example,
M(30) is not the same as M × 30.
 1.1 Functions Given by Formulas 21

Functions of Several Variables

Sometimes functions depend on more than one variable.Your grocery bill G may depend
on the number a of apples you buy, the number s of sodas you buy, and the number p
of frozen pizzas you put in your basket. If apples cost 60 cents each, sodas cost 50 cents
each, and pizzas cost $3.25 each, then we can express G = G(a, s, p) as
Grocery bill = Total cost of apples + Total cost of sodas + Total cost of pizzas
G = 0.6a + 0.5s + 3.25p ,
where G is measured in dollars. The notation G = G(a, s, p) is simply a way of em-
phasizing that G is a function of the variables a, s, and p—that is, that the value of
G depends on a, s, and p. We could also give a correct formula for the function as
G = 60a + 50s + 325p, where G is measured this time in cents. Either expression is
correct as long as we explicitly say what units we are using.

EXAMPLE 1.1 A Grocery Bill

Suppose your grocery bill is given by the function G = G(a, s, p) above (with G measured in
dollars).

Part 1: Use functional notation to show the cost of buying 4 apples, 2 sodas, and 3 pizzas, and
then calculate that cost.
Part 2: Explain the meaning of G(2, 6, 1).

Part 3: Calculate the value of G(2, 6, 1).

Solution to Part 1: Since we are buying 4 apples, we use a = 4. Similarly, we are buying 2 sodas
and 3 pizzas, so s = 2 and p = 3. Thus in functional notation our grocery bill is G(4, 2, 3).
To calculate this we use the formula G = 0.6a + 0.5s + 3.25p, replacing a by 4, s by 2, and
p by 3:
G(4, 2, 3) = 0.6 × 4 + 0.5 × 2 + 3.25 × 3
= 13.15 dollars .
Thus the cost is $13.15.
Solution to Part 2: The expression G(2, 6, 1) is the value of G when a = 2, s = 6, and p = 1.
It is your grocery bill when you buy 2 apples, 6 sodas, and 1 frozen pizza.

Solution to Part 3: We calculate G(2, 6, 1) just as we did in part 1, but this time we use a = 2,
s = 6, and p = 1:
G(2, 6, 1) = 0.6 × 2 + 0.5 × 6 + 3.25 × 1

= 7.45 dollars .
Thus the cost is $7.45.

Even when the formula for a function is complicated, the idea of how you use it
remains the same. Let’s look, for example, at f = f (x), where f is determined as a
function of x by the formula
x2 + 1
f = √ .
x
22 Chapter 1 Functions

The value of f when x is 3 is expressed in functional notation as f (3). To calculate

f (3), we simply replace x in the formula by 3:
32 + 1
f (3) = √ .
3

You should check 1.1 to see that the calculator gives an answer of 5.773502692, which
we round to 5.77. Do not allow formulas such as this one to intimidate you. With the aid
of the calculator, it is easy to deal with them.

EXAMPLE 1.2 Borrowing Money

When you borrow money to buy a home or a car, you pay off the loan in monthly payments,
but interest is always accruing on the outstanding balance. This makes the determination of your
monthly payment on a loan more complicated than you might expect. If you borrow P dollars at
a monthly interest rate3 of r (as a decimal) and wish to pay off the note in t months, then your
monthly payment M = M(P , r, t) in dollars can be calculated using
P r(1 + r)t
M= .
(1 + r)t − 1
Part 1: Explain the meaning of M(7800, 0.0067, 48) and calculate its value.
Part 2: Suppose you borrow $5000 to buy a car and wish to pay off the loan over 3 years. Take
the prevailing monthly interest rate to be 0.58%. (That is an annual percentage rate, APR,
of 12 × 0.58 = 6.96%.) Use functional notation to show your monthly payment, and then
calculate its value.
1.0067^48-1
.3778542919
Solution to Part 1: The expression M(7800, 0.0067, 48) gives your monthly payment on a $7800
loan that you pay off in 48 months (4 years) at a monthly interest rate of 0.67%. (That is
an APR of 12 × 0.67 = 8.04%.) To get its value, we use the formula above, putting 7800 in
place of P , 0.0067 in place of r, and 48 in place of t:

7800 × 0.0067 × 1.006748

M(7800, 0.0067, 48) = .
1.006748 − 1
FIGURE 1.1 The first step This can be entered all at once on the calculator, but to avoid typing errors, we do the
in calculating a loan
payment calculation in pieces. The calculation 1.2 of the denominator 1.006748 − 1 is shown in
Figure 1.1. To complete the calculation 1.3 we need to get
1.0067^48-1 7800 × 0.0067 × 1.006748
.3778542919 .
7800*.0067*1.006 Answer from first calculation
7^48/Ans
190.5672817 We round the answer shown in Figure 1.2 to get the monthly payment of $190.57.

Solution to Part 2: We borrow $5000, so we use P = 5000. The monthly interest rate is 0.58%, so
we use r = 0.0058, and we pay off the loan in 3 years, or 36 months, so t = 36. In functional
notation, the monthly payment is M(5000, 0.0058, 36). To calculate it we use
FIGURE 1.2 Completing
the calculation 5000 × 0.0058 × 1.005836
M(5000, 0.0058, 36) = .
1.005836 − 1

3 Herewe are assuming monthly payment and interest compounding. If you use the annual percentage rate (APR) reported on your loan agreement,
then you have r = APR
12 . See also Exercise 12 at the end of the Prologue.
 1.1 Functions Given by Formulas 23

Once again we make the calculation in two stages. First 1.4 we get 1.005836 − 1 as
shown in Figure 1.3. As before, we use this answer to complete the calculation 1.5 as
follows:
5000 × 0.0058 × 1.005836
.
Answer from the first calculation
The result in Figure 1.4 shows that we will have to make a monthly payment of $154.29.

1.0058^36-1 1.0058^36-1
.2314555099 .2314555099
5000*.0058*1.005
8^36/Ans
154.2940576

FIGURE 1.3 The first step FIGURE 1.4 Completing

in calculating the payment the calculation
on a $5000 loan

Another Look: Definition of a Function

At the most elementary level, it is sufficient to think of a function as a rule that

tells how one thing depends on another, but in more advanced mathematics, it is
important to give precise definitions of the terms we use. The precise definition of
a function actually involves three parts: a set called the domain, a set called the
range, and a correspondence that assigns to each element of the domain exactly
one element of the range. For example, let the domain be the set D = {1, 2, 3, 4},
let the range be the set R = {2, 4, 6, 8}, and let the correspondence be as indicated
below:
1 −→ 2
2 −→ 4
3 −→ 6
4 −→ 8 .
This is a function since each element of the domain corresponds to exactly one
element of the range. It is customary to give a function a name such as f and then
to write f : D −→ R. It is also customary to denote by f (x) the element assigned
to x by the function f. Thus we could indicate the above correspondence denoted
by f as follows:
f (1) = 2
f (2) = 4
f (3) = 6
f (4) = 8 .
24 Chapter 1 Functions

Another common way of presenting a function such as this one is with a table
of values:

x 1 2 3 4

f (x) 2 4 6 8

If we see a table such as this, we can interpret it as a function, provided that the
elements of the top row are distinct. The top row is the domain, the bottom row is
the range, and the columns give the function correspondence. We shall look more
closely at functions given by tables in the next section.
It is not necessary that all the elements of the range be used up, and there may
be several elements of the domain assigned to a single element of the range. The
following correspondence also gives a function from D to R, even though 4 is
used three times and 6 and 8 aren’t used at all:

1 −→ 2
2 −→ 4
3 −→ 4
4 −→ 4 .

In this case, it would also be correct to say that this correspondence defines a
function with domain D and range {2, 4}.
On the other hand, a function is not allowed to leave out elements of the
domain, nor may it assign the same element of the domain to more than one
element of the range. Thus the following assignment is not a function from D to
R. It fails to satisfy the definition on two counts, either of which would disqualify
it. The number 4 is in the domain but is assigned to nothing, and 3 is assigned to
both 6 and 8.

1 −→ 2
2 −→ 4
3 −→ 6
3 −→ 8 .

When functions are given by formulas, the domain and range may not be
specified. Consider the function f given by the formula f (x) = 1/x. If, as in this
example, we do not specify the domain or the range, then the domain is assumed to
be all real numbers for which the formula makes sense, and the range is assumed to
be all real numbers y such that f (x) = y for some x. In order to find the domain for
such a formula, it is usually best to work backwards. That is, we locate the numbers
for which the formula does not make sense. In the case of 1/x, the formula does not
make sense when x = 0, because division by 0 is not defined. Thus the domain
for this function is all real numbers except 0. In this case the range is also all
real numbers except 0, but even for relatively simple formulas, the range may be
difficult to determine.
 1.1 Functions Given by Formulas 25

√
As another example, consider f (x) = x. This formula does not make sense
as a real number if x is a negative number, so the domain is all real numbers greater
than or equal to 0.
For many common formulas, we can find the domain by ruling out numbers
that cause division by 0 or result in the square root of a negative number. As a final
example, consider the formula
x2 + x + 1
f (x) = √ .
(x − 3) x − 1
To find the domain, we look for trouble spots. The numerator causes no trouble
since the formula x 2 + x + 1 makes sense for any number x. The denominator,
however, needs a closer look. Using x = 3 or x = 1 will cause division by 0, and
using any number less than 1 will result in the square root of a negative number.
Thus the domain is the set of all real numbers greater than 1 excluding 3.

Enrichment Exercises
E-1. Determining when a correspondence is a function: Let D = {1, 2, 3, 4},
and let R = {5, 6, 7, 8}. Which of the following correspondences define a
function f with domain D and range R? Be sure to explain your answers.
a. 1 −→ 8 b. 1 −→ 8
2 −→ 7 2 −→ 8
3 −→ 5 3 −→ 5
4 −→ 6 4 −→ 6
c. 1 −→ 8 d. 1 −→ 8
1 −→ 5 2 −→ 7
2 −→ 7 4 −→ 6
3 −→ 5
4 −→ 6
E-2. Finding the domain: Find the domain of the function given by each of the
following formulas.
x4 + x − 2 x−5
a. f (x) = b. f (x) =
7 (x − 4)(x + 6)
√
x−8 √ √
c. f (x) = d. f (x) = x − 3 + x − 4
x − 10
E-3. Functions on other sets: Although the most common functions dealt with
in mathematics involve numbers, some do not. The definition of a function
remains the same. Each element of the domain must be assigned to a unique
element of the range. Which of the following correspondences are functions?
a. Define D to be the set of all U.S. presidents and R the set of all last names.
Let f : D → R be the assignment
f ( President ) = Last name of president .
b. Let D and R be as above, and let f : R → D be the assignment
f ( Last name ) = President with that last name .
➞
26 Chapter 1 Functions

c. Define D to be the collection of all new automobiles and R the collection

of all colors. Let f : D → R be the assignment
f ( Automobile ) = A color appearing on the car body .
E-4. Inverse functions: We get the inverse of a function by simply reversing
the direction of the arrows. The domain becomes the range, and the range
becomes the domain. Sometimes the inverse relation is a function and some-
times it is not. For each of the following functions, determine whether the
inverse relation is a function.
a. Define D to be the set of all positive integers and R the set of all positive
even integers. Let f : D → R be given by f (x) = 2x.
b. Define D to be the set of all real numbers and R the set of all non-negative
real numbers. Let f : D → R be given by f (x) = x 2 .
c. Define D to be the set of all U.S. presidents and R the collection of all
last names. Let f : D → R be given by
f ( President ) = Last name of president .
E-5. Finding the range: Find the minimal range of each of the following func-
tions. The domain is all real numbers for which the formula makes sense.
a. f (x) = x + 2 b. f (x) = x 2
c. f (x) = x 3 d. f (x) = x 8 + 7
E-6. One-to-one functions: A function is one-to-one, or injective, if distinct
points in the domain are matched with distinct points in the range. For ex-
ample, let both D and R be the set of all real numbers. Then f (x) = x + 1
is one-to-one since if x  = y then f (x)  = f (y). That is, distinct elements in
the domain have distinct function values. On the other hand, f (x) = x 2 is
not one-to-one since 2 = −2, but f (2) = f (−2). Two distinct elements of
the domain have the same function value. Which of the following functions
are one-to-one?
a. Let D and R be the set of all real numbers and f (x) = 3x + 2.
b. Let D and R be the set of all real numbers and f (x) = x 4 .
c. Let D = {1, 2, 3, 4} and R = D. Define f : D → R as follows:
1 −→ 4
2 −→ 3
3 −→ 2
4 −→ 1

d. Let D and R be as above, and define f as follows:

1 −→ 4
2 −→ 3
3 −→ 4
4 −→ 1