Ｓｏｃｆａｌ　ｓｃｉｅｎｔｕｓｔｓ　ｗｈｏ　ｓｔｕｄｙ　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉｅ　ｓｈａｅ　　ｗｉｄｅｌｙ　ｈｅｋｄ＂ｉｄｅａｔ　ｏｆ

Social scientists who study the mass media share widely held "ideal of
a
ｃｐｎｓｅｒｖａｔｉｏｎ＂ｗｈｉｃｈ　ａｑｔｕｍｅｓ　ｔｈａｔ　ｆａｃｅ－ｔｏ－ｆａｃｅ　ｉｎｔｅｒｐａｒｓｅｎａｔ　ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｃ－
conservation" which assumes that face-to-face interpersonal communica-
ｔｉｏｎ　ｉｓ　ｃｈｅｒｅｃｔｅｒｉｚｅｄ　ｂｙ　ｃａａｔｉｎｕａｕｓ　ｆｅｅｄｂａｃｋ　ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ　ｐａｒｔｉｃｉｐａｎｔｓ，　ｍｕｔｉ
tion is characterized by continuous feedback between participants, multi-
ｃｈ新ｎｎｅ　ｃａｒｎｍｔｎｉｃａｔｉａｎ，　６ｐｏｒｔａｎｅｏｕ￥　ｕｒｔｒａｎｃａ。ａｎｄ　８ｇａｓｉａｉａｎ　ｎｏｖｍｓ．
channel communication, spontaneous utterance, and egalitarian norms.
Ｃｏｎｐａｒａｄ　ｔｏ　ｔｈｉｓ　ｉｍａｇｅ　ｏｆ　ｗｈａｔｆａｃｅ－ｔｏ－１ａｃｅ　ｃｏｒｖａｒｓｅｔｉａｎ　ｉ　ｔｉｋｅ，　ｃｏｍ－
Compared to this image of what face-to-face conversation is like, com-
ｔｔｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎ　ｂｙ　ｍｅｓＥ　ｍｅｄｉａ　ｓｅｅｍｓ　ｉｎｆｒｉｏｒ．ｈｉｓ　ａｒｇｕｅｄ，　ｈｏｗｗｖｅｒ．ｔｈａｔ　ｔｈｉｓ
munication by mass media seems inferior. It is argued, however, that this
＂ｉｄｔａａｆ　ｏｆ　ｃｏｎｖａｒｓｅｔｉｏｎ＂ｄｏｅｓ　ｎａｔ　ｅｏｒｒｅｓｐｏｎｄ　ｃｌｏｓｅｈｙ　ｔｅ　ｍｏｓｔ　ａｃｔａｆ　ｃｏｎ－
"ideal of conversation" does not correspond closely to most actual con-
ｖｅｒａａｔｉｏｎｓ．　ｈ　ｉｓ　ａｒｑｕｅｄ　ｆｕｒｔｈａｒ　ｔｈｇｔ　ｔｈｅ　ｎｉｓｅ　ａ　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｒｅｄｉｅ　ｉｓ　ｉｓｅｌ
versations. It is argued further that the rise of the mass media is itself
ｒａｓｐａｎ金》ｌｅ　ｆｅｒ　ｔｈｅ　ｄｖｅｆｏｏｍｅｎ　ｏｆ　ｗｎ　ｉｆ　ｏｆ　ｃ０ｎｖｅＳｅｔｉｏｎ　ａｎｄ　ｉｒｒｐｏｎ－
responsible for the development of an ideal of conversation and is respon-
ｓｉｂｖｅ　ｆｏｒ　ｒｍａｔｉｎｇ　ｉｄｅａｌ　ｅｏｎｖｅｒｓ前ｔｉｏｎｓ　ｍｏｒｅ　ｏｆｔｅｎ　ｒｅａｌｉｚｅｄ　ｉｎ　ｐｒａｅｔｉｃｏ．Ｔｈｅ
sible for making ideal conversations more often realized in practice. The
ｃｏｎｔｒｉｂｕｔｉｏｎ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ　ｍｅｓｓ　ｍｅｂｉｏ　ｔｏ　ｆｏｅｓ－ｔｏ－１ａｃｔ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ　ｈｓｓ　ｂｅ８ｎ　ｔｏ
contribution of the mass media to face-to-face conversation has been to
ｍａｋｅ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ．　ｐａｒｔｉｃｕｔｅｒｌｔｙ　ｂｅｆｗｅｅｎ　ｎａｎ　ａｎｄ　ｗｏｍｅｎ　ａｎｄ　ｂｅｈｗｅｅｎ
make conversation, particularly between and
men and between
women
ｄｕｔｓ　ａｎｄ　ｅｈｉｈｄｒｅｒ　ｍｏｒｅ　吸ｇａｉｔａｒｉａｎ　ａｎｄ　ｔｏ　ｅｒｌａｒｇｅ　ｔｈｅ　ｐｏｓｓｉｉｌｉｙ　ｏｆ
adults and children, more egalitarian and to enlarge the possibility of
ｓｐａｎｔａｒｅｅｕｓ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｆｉｏｎ．　ｋ　ｉｓ　ｓｕｇｇｏｓｔｅｄ，　ｆｉｎａｌｔｙ，　ｔｈａ　ｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈ　ａｎ　ｔｈｅ
spontaneous conversation. It is suggested, finally, that research on the
ｍａｓＥ　ｍｅｄｉａ　ｗｉｌｌ　ｂｅ　ｉｍｐｒｏｖｅｄ　ｉｔ　ｉ　ｅｐｐｒａｉｓｅｓｔｈｅ　ｎａｔｕｒｅ　ｏｆ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ　ｍｐｒｅ
mass media will be improved if it appraises the nature of conversation more
ｒｅａｔｉｓｔｉｃｅｌｌｙ．
realistically.

ＴＨＥ　ＩＤＥＡＬ　ＯＦ　ＣＯＮＶＥＲＳＡＴＩ０Ｎ
THE IDEAL OF CONVERSATION
ＩＮ　ＴＨＥ　ＳＴＵＤＹ　ＯＦ　ＭＡＳＳ　ＭＥＤＩＡ
IN THE STUDY OF MASS MEDIA

ＭＩＣＨＡＥＬ　ＳＣＨＵＤＳＯＮ
MICHAEL SCHUDSON
Ｕｎｉｖｅｒｓｔｙ　ｏｆ　Ｃｈｉｃａｇｏ
University of Chicago

Ａｍｅｒｉｃａｎ　ｓｏｃｉａｌ　ｔｈｉｎｋｅｒｓ　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ　１９２Ｏｓ　ｓｐｏｋｅ　ｗｉｔｈ　ｇｒｅａｔ　ｓｙｍ－
American social thinkers in the 1920s spoke with great sym-
ｐａｔｈｙ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ．　Ｄｅｗｅｙ（１９２０：６８６），Ｍｅａｄ（１９２６：３８２－
pathy of the mass media. Dewey (1920: 686), Mead (1926: 382-
３９３），Ｐａｒｋ［１９２３：２７３－２８９）　ａｌｌ　ｗｒｏｔｅ　ｏｆ　ｎｅｗｓｐａｐｅｒｓ　ｗｉｔｈ　ｃｏｎ－
393), Park (1923: 273-289) all wrote of newspapers with con-
ｓｉｄｅｒａｂｌｅ　ａｆｆｅｃｔｉｏｎ．Ｓｏｃｉａｌ　ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｓｔｓ　ａｎｄ　ｓｏｃｉａｌ　ｐｈｉｌｏｓｏｐｈｅｒｓ　ｓｉｎｃｅ
siderable affection. Social scientists and social philosophers since
ｔｈｅｎ　ｈａｖｅ　ｐｒａｉｓｅｄ　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ　ｏｒ　ｂｌａｍｅｄ　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ　ｂｕｔ
then have praised the mass media or blamed the mass media but
ｒａｒｅｌｙ　ｄｅｒｏｎｓｔｒａｔｅｄ　ａａｙｔｈｉｎｇ　ｗｅ　ｃｏｕｌｄ　ｃａｌｌ　ａｆｆｅｃｔｉｏｎ．　Ｔｈｅｙ　ｓｅｅｍ
rarely demonstrated anything we could call affection. They seem
ｔｏ　ｆｅｅｌ　ｔｈａｔ　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ　ｈａｖｅ　ｎｏｔ　ｐｒｏｖｉｄｅｄ　ｎｅｗ　ｗａｙｓ　ｔｏ　ｃｏｍ－
to feel that the mass media have not provided new ways to com-
ｍｕｎｉｃａｔｅ　ｓｏ　ｍｕｃｈ　ａｓ　ｉｎｔｅｒｒｕｐｔｅｄ　ｔｈｅ　ｏｌｄ　ｗａｙ　ｏｆ　ｆａｃｅ－ｔｏ－ｆａｃｅ，
municate so much as interrupted the old way of face-to-face,
ｉｎｔｅｒｐｅｒｓｏｎａｌ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ．　Ｉｔ　ｉｓ　ａ　ｓｔｏｃｋ　ｉｍａｇｅ　ｉｎ　ｃａｒｔｏｏｎｓ—ｔｈｅ
interpersonal conversation. It is a stock image in cartoons-the
ｈｕｓｂａｎｄ　ａｔ　ｂｒｅａｋｆａｓｔ　ｗｉｔｈ　ｈｉｓ　ｆａｃｅ　ｂｕｒｉｅｄ　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｎｅｗｓｐａｐｅｒ　ｗｈｉｌｅ
husband at breakfast with his face buried in the newspaper while
ｈｉｓ　ｗｉｆｅ　ｔｒｉｅｓ　ｖａｉｎｌｙ　ｔｏ　ｔａｌｋ　ｔｏ　ｈｉｍ．１
his wife tries vainly to talk to him.’

ＡＵＴＨＯＲ＇ｓ　ＮＯＴＥ∶！　ｗｏｕｌｄ　旅ｅ　ｔｏ　ｔｈｅｎｔ　Ｐａｕｌ　Ｈｉｒｓｃｈ，　Ｓｕｓａｎ　Ｎｏａｋｅｓ　ａｎｄ
AUTHOR’S NOTE: I would like to thank Paul Hirsch, Susan Noakes, and
Ｄｓｖｉｄ　Ｒｉｅｓｍａｎ　ｆｏｒ　ｃｏｍｍｅｎｔｓ　ｏｎ　ａｎ　ｅａｒｉｅｒ　ｄｒａｆｔ　ａｆ　ｉｔｈｉ　ｐａｐｅｒ．
David Riesman for comments on an earlier draft of this paper.

ＣＯＭＭＫＩＮＣＡＴＩＯＮ　ＲＥＳＥＡＲＣＨ，　Ｖｅｌ．５　ＮＯ．３，Ｊｕｈ　１９７８
１９７８　Ｓａｇｅ　Ｐｕｂｌｃａｔｉｏｎｇ，　Ｉｎｅ

［３２０］
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 Ｓｃｈｕｄｓｏｎ　／ＩＤＥＡＬ　ＯＦ　ＣＯＮＶＥＲＳＡＴＩＯＮ　［３２１］
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Ｔｈｅ　ｄｉｓｔｉｎｃｔｉｏｎ　ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ　ａｎｄ　ｆａｃｅ－ｔｏ－ｆａｃｅ　ｃｏｍ－
The distinction between media and face-to-face
mass com-
ｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎ　ｓｅｅｍｓ　ｔｏ　ｂｅ　ｉｎｖｉｄｉｏｕｓ．　Ｆｏｒ　ｉｎｓｔａｎｃｅ，　ｔｙｐｉｃａｌ　ｌｉｓｔｓ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ
munication seems to be invidious. For instance, typical lists of the
ｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｉｓｔｉｃｓ　ｏｆ　＂ｉｎｔｅｒｐｅｒｓｏｎａｌ＂ｃｈａｎｎｅｌｓ　ｏｆ　ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎ
characteristics of &dquo;interpersonal&dquo; channels of communication
ａｎｄ＂ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ＂ｃｈａｎｎｅｌｓ　ｅｍｐｈａｓｉｚｅ　ｔｈａｔ　ｔｈｅ＂ｍｅｓｓａｇｅ　ｆｌｏｗ＂
and &dquo;mass media&dquo; channels emphasize that the &dquo;message flow&dquo;
ｉｎ　ｉｎｔｅｒｐｅｒｓｏｎａｌ　ｃｈａｎｎｅｌｓ　ｉｓ　ｔｗｏ－ｗａｙ，　ｔｈｅ　ｍｅｓｓａｇｅ　ｆｌｏｗ　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ
in interpersonal channels is two-way, the message flow in the
ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ　ｏｎｅ－ｗａｙ．　Ｉｎ　ｉｎｔｅｒｐｅｒｓｏｎａｌ　ｃｈａｎｎｅｔｓ　ｔｈｅｒｅ　ｉｓ　ａ　ｈｉｇｈ
mass media one-way. In interpersonal channels there is a high
ａｍｏｔｎｔ　ｏｆ　ｆｅｅｄｂａｃｋ　ｒｅａｄｉｌｙ　ａｖａｉｌａｂｌｅ，ｗｈｉｌｅ　ｉｎ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ　ｃｈａｎ－
amount of feedback readily available, while in mass media chan-
ｎｅｌｓ　ｔｈｅ　ａｍｏｕｎｔ　ｉｓ　ｌｏｗ．Ｇｉｖｅｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｃｕｌｔｕｒａｌ　ａｓｓｕｍｐｔｉｏｎｓ　ｏｆ　ａ
nels the amount is low. Given the cultural assumptions of a
ｄｅｍｏｃｒａｔｉｃ　ｓｏｃｉｅｔｙ，　ｔｈｉｓ　ｃｏｎｔａｓｔ　ｉｓ　ｎｅｃｅｓｓａｒｉｌｙ　ｔｏ　ｔｈｅ　ｄｉｓａｄｖａｎ－
democratic society, this contrast is necessarily to the disadvan-
ｔａｇｅ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ．Ｗｈｏ　ｃｏｕｌｄ　ａｐｐｒｏｖｅ　ｏｆ　ａｎｅ－ｗａｙ　ｏｖｅｒ　ｔｗｏ－
tage of the mass media. Who could approve of one-way over two-
ｗａｙ　ｍｅｓｓａｇｅ　ｆｌｏｗ？　Ｏｒ　ｌｏｗ　ｒａｔｈｅｒ　ｔｈａｎ　ｈｉｇｈ　ｐｏｓｓｉｂｉｌｉｔｉｅｓ　ｆｏｒ　ｉｍ－
way message flow? Or low rather than high possibilities for im-
ｍｅｄｉａｔｅ　ｆｅｅｄｂａｃｋ？
mediate feedback?
Ｂｕｔ　ｗｈｉｌｅ　ｉｔ　ｉｓ　ｔｒｕｅ　ｔｈａｔ　ｏｒｄｉｎａｒｉｌｙ　ｍｅ８ｓａｇｅｓ　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ
But while it is true that ordinarily messages in the mass media
ｍｏｖｅ　ｉｎ　ｏｎｅ　ｄｉｒｅｃｔｉｏｎ　ｗｉｔｈ　ｌｉｔｔｌｅ　ｏｐｐｏｒｔｕｎｉｔｙ　ｆｏｒ　ｆｅｅｄｂａｃｋ，　ｉｔ　ｉｓ　ｎｏｔ
move in one direction with little opportunity for feedback, it is not
.
ｔｒｕｅ　ｔｈａｔ　ｏｒｄｉｎａｒｉｌｙ　ｍｅｓｓａｇｅｓ　ｉｎ　ｆａｃｅ－ｔｏ－ｆａｃｅ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ　ｍｏｖｅ
true that ordinarily messages in face-to-face conversation move
ｉｎ　ｔｗｏ　ｄｉｒｅｃｔｉｏｎｓ　ｗｉｔｈ　ｇｒｅａｔ　ｏｐｐｏｒｔｕｎｉｔｙ　ｆｏｒ　ｆａｅｄｂａｃｋ，　Ｔｈｅｒｅ　ｉｓ　ａｎ
in two directions with great opportunity for feedback. There is an
ｕｎｓｐｏｋｅｎ　ｓｅｎｓｅ　ａｍｏｎｇ　ｓｔｕｄｅｎｔｓ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ　ｔｈａｔ　ｔｈｅ
unspoken sense among students of the mass media that the
ｗｏｒｌｄ　ｏｆ　ｆａｃｅ－ｔｏ－ｆａｃｅ　ｃａｍｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎ　ｉｓ　ｔｈｅ　ｗｏｒｌｄ　ｏｆ　ｒｉｃｈ　ａｎｄ
world of face-to-face communication is the world of rich and
ｃｏｍｐｌｉｃａｔｅｄ　ｉｎｔｅｒａｃｔｉｏｎ　ｔｈａｔ　ｗｏｕｌｄ　ｂｅ　ｐｏｓｓｉｂｔｅ　ｉｆ　ｔｈｅ　ｃａｒｔｏｏｎ
complicated interaction that would be possible if the cartoon
ｈｕｓｂａｎｄ　ｐｕｔ　ｄｏｗｎ　ｈｉｓ　ｍｏｒｎｉｎｇ　ｐａｐｅｒ　ａｎｄ　ｔａｌｋｅｄ　ｔｏ　ｈｉｓ　ｃａｒｔｏｏｎ
husband put down his morning paper and talked to his cartoon
ｗｉｆｅ．
wife.
Ｂｕｔ　ｗｈａｔ　ｗｏｕｌｄ　ｔｈａｔ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ　ａｃｔｕａｌｌｙ　ｂｅ　ｌｉｋｅ？　Ａｓ　ａｎ
But what would that conversation actually be like? As an
ｅｘａｍｐｌｅ，ｔａｋｅ　ｔｈｅ　ｏｐｅｎｉｎｇ　ｓｃｅｎｅ　ｉｎ　Ｐｉｎｔｅｒ＇ｓ　｛１９６２｝　ｐｌａｙ，＂Ａ
example, take the opening scene in Pinter’s (1962) play, &dquo;A
Ｓｌｉｇｈｔ　Ａｃｈｅ．＂Ｆｌｏｒａ　ａｎｄ　Ｅｄｗａｒｄ　ａｒｅ　ａｔ　ｂｒｅａｋｆａｓｔ．Ａｓ　ｔｈｅ　ｓｃｅｎｅ
Slight Ache.&dquo; Flora and Edward are at breakfast. As the scene
ｏｐｅｎｓ，　Ｅｄｗａｒｄ，　ａｓ　ｗｅ　ｍｉｇｈｔ　ｅｘｐｅｃｔ，　ｉｓ　ｒｅａｄｉｎｇ　ｔｈｅ　ｐａｐｅｒ，　ｂｕｔ
opens, Edward, as we might expect, is reading the paper, but
Ｆｌｏｒａ　ｍａｎａｇｅｓ　ｔｏ　ｅｎｇａｇｅ　ｈｉｍｎ　ｉｎ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ：
Flora manages to engage him in conversation:

Ｆｌｏｒａ：　Ｈａｖｅ　ｙｏｕ　ｎｏｔｉｃｅｄ　ｔｈｅ　ｈｏｎｅｙｓｕｃｋｌｅ　ｔｈｉｓ　ｍｏｒｎｉｎｇ？
Flora: Have you noticed the honeysuckle this morning?
Ｅｄｗａｒｄ：Ｔｈｅ　ｗｈａｔ？．
Edward: The what?
Ｆｌｏｒａ：　Ｔｈｅ　ｈｏｎｅｙｓｕｃｋｌｅ．
Flora: The honeysuckle.
Ｅｄｗａｒｄ：　Ｈｏｎｅｙｓｕｃｋｌｅ？　Ｗｈｅｒｅ７
Edward: Honeysuckle? Where?
Ｆｌｏｒａ：　Ｂｙ　ｔｈｅ　ｂａｃｋ　ｇａｔｅ，Ｅｄｗａｒｄ．
Flora: By the back gate, Edward.
Ｅｄｗａｒｄ：ｌｓ　ｔｈａｔ　ｈｏｎａｙｓｕｃｋｌｅ？Ｉｔｈｏｕｇｈｔ　ｉｔ　ｗａｓ．．．Ｃｏｎｖｏｌｖｕｌｕｓ，ｏ
Edward: Is that honeysuckle? I thought it was ... convolvulus, or
Ｓｏｒｎｅｌｈｉｎｇ．
something.
Ｆｌｏｒａ；　Ｂｕｔ　ｙｏｕ　ｋｎｏｗ　ｉｔ＇　ｈｏｒｅｙｓｕｃｋｌｅ．
Flora: But you know it’s honeysuckle.
Ｅｄｗａｒｄ：　１ｔｅｌｌ　ｙｏｕ　Ｉ　ｔｈｏｕｇｈｔ　ｉｔ　ｗａｓ　ｃｏｎｖｏｔｖｕｌｕｓ．
Edward: I tell you I thought it was convolvulus.
［Ｐａｕｓｏ．］
[Pause.]
Ｆ）ｏｒａ：　ｈ＇ｓ　ｉｎ　ｗｏｎｄｅｒｆｕｌ　ｆｌｏｗｅｒ．
Flora: It’s in wonderful flower.
Ｅｄｗａｒｄ：１ｍｕｓｔ　ｊｏｏｋ
Edward: I must look.
Ｆｌｏｒａ；　Ｔｈｅ　ｗｈｃｌｅ　ｇａｒｄｅｎ＇ｓ　ｉｎ　ｆｌｏｗｅｒ　ｉｎ　ｔｈｉｓ　ｍｏｒｎｉｎｇ．Ｔｈｅ　ｃｌｅｍａｔｉｓ．
Flora: The whole garden’s in flower in this morning. The clematis.
Ｔｈｅ　ｃｏｎｖｏｌｖｕｌｕｓ．Ｅｖｅｒｙｔｈｉｎｇ．Ｉ　ｗａ８　ｏｕｔ　ａｔ　ｓｅｖｅｎ．Ｉｓ１ｏｏｄ　ｂｙ　ｔｈｅ
The convolvulus. Everything. I was out at seven. I stood by the
ｐｏｏｌ．，
pool.
１３２２］　ＣＯＭＭＵＮＩＣＡＴＩＯＮ　ＲＥＳＥＡＲＣＨ　／ＪＵＬＹ　１９７８
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Ｅｄｗａｒｄ；　Ｄｉｄ　ｙｏｕ　ｓａｙ—ｔｈａｔ　ｔｈｅ　ｃｏｒｏｌｖｕｌｕｓ　ｗａｓ　ｉｎ　ｆｏｗｅｒ？
Edward: Did you say-that the convolvulus was in flower?
Ｆｌｏｒａ：　Ｙｅｓ．
Flora: Yes.
Ｅｄｗａｒｄ：　Ｂｕｔ　ｇｏｏｄ　Ｇｏｄ，　ｙｏｕ　ｊｕｓｔ　ｄｅｎｉｅｄ　ｔｈｅｒｅ　ｗａ３　ａｎｙ．
Edward: But good God, you just denied there was any.
Ｆｌｏｒａ：Ｉ　ｗａｓ　ｔａｋｉｎｇ　ａｂｏｕｔ　ｔｈｅ　ｈｏｎｅｙｓｕｃｋｌｅ．
Flora: I was talking about the honeysuckle.
Ｅｄｗａｒｄ：　Ａｂｏｕｔ　ｔｈｅ　ｗｈａｔ？
Edward: About the what?
Ｆｌｏｒａ　［ｃａｔｍｌｙ］；Ｅｄｗａｒｄ—ｙｏｕ　ｋｎｏｗ　ｔｈａｔ　ｓｈｔｕｂ　ｏｕｔｓｉｄｅ　ｔｈｅ　ｔｏｏｌ－
Flora [calmly]: Edward-you know that shrub outside the tool-
ｓｈｅｄ．．
shed
Ｅｄｗａｒｄ：　Ｙｅｓ，　ｙｅｓ．
...

Edward: Yes, yes.

Ｆｌｏｒａ：　Ｔｈａｔ＇ｓ　ｃｏｎｖｏｌｖｕｌｕｓ，
_

Flora: That’s convolvulus.

Ｅｄｗａｒｄ：　Ｔｈａｔ？
Edward: That?
Ｆｌｏｒａ：　Ｙｅｓ．
Flora: Yes.
’ ’

Ｅｄｗａｒｄ：Ｏｈ．
Edward: Oh.
［Ｐａｕ８ｅ．］
[Pause.] .

　ｔｈｏｕｇｈｔ　ｉｔ　ｗａｓ　ｊａｐｏｎｉｃａ．
I thought it was japonica..
Ｆｌｏｒａ：Ｏｈ，　ｇｏｏｄ　Ｌｏｒｄ　ｎｏ．
Flora: Oh, good Lord no.
Ｅｄｗａｒｄ；　Ｐａｓ５　ｔｈｅ　ｔｅａｐｏｔ，　ｐｌｅａｓｅ；
’

Edward: Pass the teapot, please;

Ａｎｄ　ｓｏ　ｏｎ，　ｆｏｒ　ｐａｇｅｓ．ｌｓ　ｔｈｉｓ　ｔｈｅ　ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ
And so on, for pages. Is this the communication the mass media
ｉｎｔｅｒｆｅｒｅ　ｗｉｔｈ？　Ｐｉｎｔｅｒ＇ｓ　ｄｉａｌｏｇｕｅ　ｈａｓ　ａ　ｔｏｕｃｈ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ　ｃｙｉｃａｔ，　ｅｖｅｎ
interfere with? Pinter’s dialogue has a touch of the cynical, even
ｔｈｅ　ｓｉｎｉｓｔｅｒ，ｂｕｔ　ｔｈｅｒｅ　ｉｓ　ｎｏ　ｄｏｕｂｔ　ｔｈａｔ　ｗｅ　ｒｅｃｏｇｎｉｚｅ　ｔｈｅ　ｓｐｅｅｃｈ　ｈｅ
the sinister, but there is no doubt that we recognize the speech he
Ｃａｐｔｕｒｅｓ．
captures.
Ａｒｏｔｈｅｒ　ｃｕｌｔｕｒｅ，ａｎｏｔｈｅｒ　ｂｒｅａｋｆａｓｔ．　Ｉｎ　ａ　Ｔｕｎｉｓｉａｎ　ｖｉｌｌａｇｅ．
Another culture, another breakfast. In a Tunisian village,
Ｎａｗａ＇ｓ　ｈｕｓｂａｎｄ　Ｍｕｈａｍｍｅｄ　ｃｏｍｅｓ　ｉｎｔｏ　ｔｈｅ　ｒｏｏｍ　ｔｏ　ｅａｔ．Ｈｅ　ｓａｙｓ
Nawa’s husband Muhammed comes into the room to eat. He says
ｔｏ　ｈｉｓ　ｗｉｆｅ，＂Ｍａｙ　Ａｌｌａｈ　ｇｒａｎｔ　ｙｏｕ　ａ　ｌｏｎｇ　ｌｉｆｅ，ａｎｄ　ｍａｙ　ｈｅ　ｌｅｔ　ｕｓ
to his wife, &dquo;May Allah grant you a long life, and may he let us
ｓｔａｙ　ｌｏｎｇ　ｔｏｇｅｔｈｅｒ，＂Ｎａｗａ　ａｎｄ　ｈｅｒ　ｄａｕｇｈｔｅｒ　ｒｅｐｈｙ，＂Ｍａｙ　ｌｉｇｈｔ
stay long .together.&dquo; Nawa and her daughter reply, &dquo;May light
ｓｈｉｎｅ　ｕｐｏｎ　ｙｏｕｒ　ｄａｙ．＂Ｅｖｅｒｙ　ｍｏｒｎｉｎｇ　ｔｈｅ　ｓａｍｅ　ｗｏｒｄｓ，　ａｎｄ　ｆｅｗ
shine upon your day.&dquo; Every morning the same words, and few
ｗｏｒｄｓ　ｉｆ　ａｎｙ　ｂｅｙｏｎｄ　ｔｈｅｍ．　Ｔｈｅ　ｓｏｃｉｏｌｏｇｉｓｔ　ＤｕｖｉｇｎＢｕｄ　ｗｒｉｔｅｓ：
words if any beyond them. The sociologist Duvignaud writes:

Ｎｏ　ｏｎｅ　ａｔｔａｃｈｅｓ　ａｎｙ　ｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｃｅ　ｔ６　ｔｈｅｓｅ　ｗｏｒｄｓ，　ｂｕｔ　ｔｈｅｙ　ｍｕｓｔ　ｂｅ
No one attaches any importance to these words, but they must be
ｓｐｏｋｅｎ．　Ｔｈｅｒｅ　ｗｏｕｌｄ　ｂｅ　ａ　ｃａｔｃｈ　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｔｈｒｏａｔ　ａｎｄ　ａｎ　ｕｎｃｏｍｆｏｒｔａｂｌｅ
spoken. There would be a catch in the throat and an uncomfortable
ｆｅｅｌｉｒｇ　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｗｈｏｌｅ　ｂｏｄｙ　ｉｆ　ｔｈｅｙ　ｗｅｒｅ　ｎｏｔ　ｍｕｍｂｌｅｄ　ｅｖｅｒｙ　ｍｏｒｎｉｎｇ．
feeling in the whole body if they were not mumbled every morning.
Ａｅｉｕａｌｌｙ　Ｍｕｈａｍｍｅｄ　ａｎｄ　Ｎａｗａ　ｈａｖｅ　ｒａｒｅｌｙ　ｓａｉｄ　ａ　ｗｏｒｄ　ｔｏ　ｅａｃｈ
Actually Muhammed and Nawa have rarely said a word to each
ｏｔｈｅｒ，ｓｉｎｃｅ　ｔｈｅ　ｔｉｍｅ　ｗｈｅｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｃｈｉｌｄｒｅｎ　ｗｅｒｅ　ｖｅｒｙ　ｓｍａｌｌ　ａｎｄ　ｏｎｅ
other, since the time when the children were very small and one
ｏｒ　ｔｈｅ　ａｔｈｅｒ　ｗａｓ　训．　Ｎｏｗ，ｅｘｃｅｐｔ　ｗｈｅｎ　ｔｈｅｙ　ａｒｅ　ｈａｒａ８８ｅｄ　ｂｙ　ａｎ
or the other was ill. Now, except when they are harassed by an
ｕｎｐａｉｄ　ｄｅｂｔ，　ｔｈｅｙ　ｈａｖｅ　ｒｏｔｈｉｎｇ　ｔｏ　ｔａｔｋ　ａｂｏｕｔ　［１９７０：１Ｏ］．
unpaid debt, they have nothing to talk about [1970: 10].

Ｔｈｉｓ　ｉｓ　ｃｏｍｍｏｎ：　ｆｉｒｓｔ，　ｔｈａｔ　ｓｉｌｅｎｃｅ　ｒａｔｈｅｒ　ｔｈａｎ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ　ｉｓ
This is common: first, that silence rather than conversation is
ｕｓｕａｌ　ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ　ｐｅｏｐｌｅ，　ｅｖｅｎ　ｉｎｔｉｍａｔｅｓ　ｉｎ　ａｆａｍｉｌｙ，ａｎｄ　ｓｅｃｏｎｄ，
usual between people, even intimates in a family, and second,
ｔｈａｔ　ｗｈｅｒｅ　ｓｉｌｅｎｃｅ　ｉｓ　ｂｒｏｋｅｎ，　ｉｔ　ｉｓ　ｂｒｏｋｅｎ　ｂｙ　ｒｉｔｕａｌ　ｏｒ　ｓｔｅｒｅｏｔｙｐｉｃ
that where silence is broken, it is broken by ritual or stereotypic
ｕｔｔｅｒａｎｃｅｓ．Ｉｔ　ｉｓ　ｎｏｔ　ｏｎｌｙ　ｉｎ　Ｔｕｎｉｓｉａｎ　ｖｉｌｌａｇｅｓ　ｔｈａｔ　ｃｈｉｌｄｒｅｎ　ａｒｅ
utterances. It is not only in Tunisian villages that children are
Ｓｕｐｐｏｓｅｄ　ｔｏ　ｂｅ　ｓｅｅｎ　ａｎｄ　ｎａｔ　ｈｅａｒｄ　ｏｒ　ｔｈａｔ　ｗｏｍｅｎ　ａｒｅ　ｓｕｐｐｏｓｅｄ
supposed to be seen and not heard or that women are supposed
ｔｏ　ｋｎｏｗ　ｔｈｅｉｒ　ｐｌａｃｅ．Ｏｕｒ　ｍｏｄｅｌ　ｏｆ　ｉｄｅａｌ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ　ｍａｙ　ｂｅ　ｔｈａｔ
to know their place. Our model of ideal conversation may be that
ｏｆ　ｔｗｏ　ｉｏｖｅｒｓ　ｏｒ　ｏｆ　ｈｕｓｂａｎｄ　ａｎｄ　ｗｉｆｅ　ｏｖｅｒ　ｃｏｆｆｅｅ　ａｆｔｅｒ　ｔｈｅ　ｋｉｄｓ　ａｒｅ
of two lovers or of husband and wife over coffee after the kids are
ｉｎ　ｂｅｄ．　Ｂｕｔ　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ　Ｔｕｎｉｓｉａｎ　ｖｉｌｌａｇｅ，　ｍｏｓｔ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ　ｉｓ　ｓｅｇｒｅ－
in bed. But in the Tunisian village, most conversation is segre-
 Ｓｃｈｕｄｓｏｎ　／ＤＥＡＬ　ＯＦ　ｃＯＮＶＥＲＳＡＴＯＮ　［３２３］
[323]

ｇａｔｅｄ　ｂｙ　ｓｅｘ—ｍｅｎ　ｔａｉｋｉｎｇ　ｔｏ　ｏｔｈｅｒ　ｍｅｎ　ｉｎ　ｆｒｏｎｔ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ　ｇｒｏｃｅｒ＇ｓ
gated by sex-mentalking to other in front of the grocer’s
men
ｓｈｏｐ　ｏｒ　ｗｏｍｅｎ　ｔａｌｋｉｎｇ　ｔｏ　ｗｏｍｅｎ　ｗｈｉｌｅ　ｔｈｅｙ　ｄｏ　ｔｈｅ　ｌａｕｎｄｒｙ．　Ｏｕｒ
shop or women talking to women while they do the laundry. Our
ｏｗｎ　ｕｒｂａｎ　ａｎｄ　ｃｏｒｐａｒａｔｅ　ｉｌｌａｇｅｓ　ａｒｅ　ｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔ，　ｂｕｔ　ｎｏｔ　ｓｏ　ｄｉｆｆｅｒ－
own urban and corporate villages are different, but not so differ-
ｅｎｔ　ａｓ　ｗｅ　ｍｉｇｈｔ　ｌｉｋｅ　ｔｏ　ｉｍａｇｉｎｅ—ａｔ　ｌｅ８ｓｔ，　ｎｏｔｂｅｆｏｒｅ　ｔｈｅ　ａｄｖｅｎｔ　ｏｆ
ent as we might like to imagine-at least, not before the advent of
ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ，
the mass media.
Ｗｈｅｎ　ｗｅ　ｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｚｅ　ｔｈｅ　ｒｅａｌｉｔｙ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ，　ｗｅ　ｄｏ　ｓｏ　ｂｙ
When we criticize the reality of the mass media, we do so by
ｏｐｐｏｓｉｎｇ　ｉｔ　ｔｏ　ａｎ　ｉｄｅａｌ　ｏｆ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ　ｗｈｉｃｈ　ｗｅ　ａｒｅ　ｎｏｔ　ｉｎｃｆｉｎｅｄ
opposing it to an ideal of conversation which we are not inclined
ｔｏ　ｅｘａｍｉｎｅ，Ｗｅ　ａｒｅ　ｎａｔ　ｒｅａｌｌｙ　ｉｎｔｅｒｅｓｔｅｄ　ｉｎ　ｗｈａｔ　ｆａｃｅ－ｔｏ－ｆａｃｅ
to examine. We are not really interested in what face-to-face
ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎ　ｉｓ　ｌｉｋｅ；　ｒａｔｈｅｒ，ｗｅ　ｈａｖｅ　ｄｅｖｅ！ｏｐｅｄ　ａ　ｎｏｔｉｏｎ　ｔｈａｔ
communication is like; rather, we have developed a notion that
ａｌｌ　ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎ　ｓｈｏｕｆｄ　ｂｅ　ｌｉｋｅ　ａ　ｃｅｒｔａｉｎ　ｍｏｄｅｌ　ｏｆ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ，
all communication should be like a certain model of conversation,
ｗｈｅｔｈｅｒ　ｔｈａｔ　ｍｏｄｅｉ　ｒｅａｌｌｙ　ｅｘｉｓｔｓ　ｏｒ　ｎｏｔ．　Ｔｈｅ　＂ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎａｌ
whether that model really exists or not. The &dquo;conversational
ｉｄｅａｌ＂ｏｆ　ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎ，　ａｓ　Ｉ　ｗｉｌｌ　ｃａｌｌ　ｉｔ，　ｉｎｃｌｕｄｅｓ　ｔｈｅ　ｆｏｌｌｏｗｉｎｇ
ideal&dquo; of communication, as I will call it, includes the following
ｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｉｓｔｉｃｓ．
~

characteristics.

｛１］ｃｏｒｔｉｎｕｏｕｓ　ｆｅｅｄｂａｃｋ　ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ　ｔｗｐ　ｐｅｏｐｌｅ　ｉｎ　ａ　ｆａｃｅ－ｔｏ－ｆａｃｅ　ｓｅｔｔｉｎｇ；
(1) continuous feedback between two people in a face-to-face setting;
｛２］　ｍｕｌｔｉｃｈａｎｎｅｌ　ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎｓ；ｏｎｅ　ｎｏｔ　ｏｎｌｙ　ｈｅａｒｓ　ｔｈｅ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒ－
(2) multichannel communications: one not only hears the conver-
ｓａｔｉｏｎａｌ　ｐａｒｔｎｅｒ　ｂｕｔ　８ｅｅｓ　ａｎｄ　ｔｏｕｃｈｅｓ　ｈｉｍ　ｏｘ　ｈｅｒ；
sational partner but sees and touches him or her;
｛３）ｓｐｏｎｔａｎｅｏｕｓ　ｕｔｔｅｒａｎｃｅ：　ｔｈａ　ｃｏｎｔｅｎｔ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ　ｉｓ　ｕｎｉｑｕｅ
(3) spontaneous utterance: the content of the conversation is unique
ａｒｎｄ　ｃｒｅａｔｅｄ　ｏｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｓｐｏｔ；
and created on the spot;
（４］ｔｈｅ　ｓａｍｅ　ｐｅｒｓｏｎ　ａｃ１ｓ　ａｔ　ｏｎｃｅ　ａｓ　ｓｅｎｄｅｒ　ａｎｄ　ｒｅｃｅｉｖｅｒ　ｏｆ　ｍｅｓｓａｇｅ８；
(4) the same person acts at once as sender and receiver of messages;
（５）ｔｈｅ　ｎｏｒｍｓ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ　ａｒｅ　ｅｇａｌｉｔｅｒｉａｎ；　ｗｈａｔｅｖｅｒ　ｒｕｌｅｓ　ｏｆ
(5) the norms of the conversation are egalitarian: whatever rules of
ｓｐｅａｋｉｎｇ　（ｌｉｋｅ　ａｌｔｅｒｎａｔｉｏｎ　ｏｆ　ｓｐｅｓｋｅｒ８］ｇ０ｖｅｒｎ　ｏｎｅ　ｇｏｖｅｒｎ　ｔｈｅ
speaking (like alternation of speakers) govern one govern the
.

Ｄｔｈｅｒ．
other.

Ｔｈｉｓ　ｉｄｅａｌ　ｉｓ　ｎｏｔ　ｏｎｅ　ｃｏｎｃｏｃｔｅｄ　ｂｙ　ｓｏｃｉａｌ　ｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｓｔｓ．　Ｒａｔｈｅｒ，ｉｔ
This ideal is not one concocted by social scientists. Rather, it
ｉｓ　ａ　ｗｉｄｅｌｙ　ｓｈａｒｅｄ　ｉｄｅａｌ　ｉｎ　ｃｏｎｔｅｍｐｏｒａｒｙ　Ａｍｅｒｉｃａｎ　ｃｕｌｔｕｒｅ　ｗｈｉｃｈ
is a widely shared ideal in contemporary American culture which
ｓｏｃｉａｌ　ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ　ｈａｓ　ｕｎｃｒｉｔｉｃａｌｙ　ａｄｏｐｔｅｄ．　Ｉｔ　ｉｓ　ｂｙ　ｎａ　ｍｅａｎｓ　ａｎ　ｉｄｅａｌ
social science has uncritically adopted. It is by ideal
no means an
ｏｆ　ｕｎｉｖｅｒｓａｌ　ｓｉｇｎｉｆｉｃａｎｃｅ，Ｔｈｅ　ｉｄｅａｌ　ｏｆ　ｃａｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ　ｉｎ　ｃｏｎｔｅｒｐｏ－
of universal significance. The ideal of conversation in contempo-
ｒａｒｙ　Ａｎｔｉｇｕａ，　ｆｏｒ　ｅｘａｍｐｌｅ，　ｄｏｅｓ　ｎｏｔ　ｐｒｅｓｕｍｅ　ｔｈａｔ　ｔｈｅ　ｕｔｔｅｒａｎｃｅｓ
rary Antigua, for example, does not presume that the utterances
ｏｆ　ｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔ　ｐｅｏｐｌｅ　ｉｎ　ａ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ　ａｒｅ　ｏｒ　ｓｈｏｕｌｄ　ｂｅ　ｏｒｉｅｎｔｅｄ
of different people in a conversation are or should be oriented
ｔｏ　ｏｎｅ　ａｎｏｔｈｅｒ　ａｎｄ　ｓｈａｐｅｄ　ａｓ　ｒｅｓｐｏｎｓｅｓ　ｔｏ　ｗｈａｔ　ｏｔｈｅｒｓ　ｈａｖｅ　ｊｕｓｔ
to one another and shaped as responses to what others have just
ｓａｉｄ—＂ｃｏｎｔｉｎｕｐＵｓ　ｆｅｅｄｂａｃｋ＂ｉｓ　ｎｏｔ　ａ　ｃｒｉｔｅｒｉｏｎ　ｏｆ　ｇ０ｏｄ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａ－
said-&dquo;continuous feedback&dquo; is not a criterion of good conversa-
ｔｉｏｎ．　Ｉｎ　Ａｎｔｉｇｕａ，　ｏｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｃｏｎｔｒａｒｙ，　ａｓ　ａｎｔｈｒｏｐｏｌｏｇｉｓｔ　Ｒｅｉｓｍａｎ
tion. In Antigua, on the contrary, as anthropologist Reisman
｛１９７４）　ｓｕｇｇｅｓｔｓ，　ｔｈｅｒｅ　ｉｓ＂ｎｏ　ｓｅｎｓｅ　ｏｆ　ｉｎｔｅｒｒｕｐｔｉｏｎ，　ｏｒ　ｎｅｅｄ　ｔｏ　ｆｉｔ
(1974) suggests, there is &dquo;no sense of interruption, or need to fit
ｃａｒｅｆｕｌｌｙ　ｉｎｔｏ　ａｎ　ｏｎｇｏｉｎｇ　ｐａｔｔｅｒｎ　ｏｆ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ．＂Ｒｅｉｓｍａｎ
carefully into an ongoing pattern of conversation.&dquo; Reisman
｛１９７４：１１５｝ｃｏｎｃｌｕｄｅｓ　ｔｈａｔ　ｉｎ　Ａｎｔｉｇｕａ＂ｔｈｅ　ｉｍｐｕｌｓｅ　ｔｏ　ｓｐｅａｋ　ｉｓ　ｎｏｔ
(1974: 115) concludes that in Antigua &dquo;the impulse to speak is not
ｃｕｅｄ　ｂｙ　ｔｈｅ　ｅｘｔｅｒｎａｌ　ｓｉｔｕａｔｉｏｎ　ｂｕｔ　ｃｏｍｅｓ　ｆｒｏｍ　ｗｉｔｈｉｎ　ｔｈｅ
cued by the external situation but comes from within the
ｓｐｅａｋｅｒ．＂＂Ｗｉｔｈｏｕｔ　ｔｈｅ＂ｎｏｒｍ　ｏｆ　ｉｎｔｅｒｒｕｐｔｉｏｎ＂ｃｕｓｔｏｍａｒｙ　ｉｎ　ｏｕｒ
speaker.&dquo; Without the &dquo;norm of interruption&dquo; customary in our
ｏｗｎ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎａｌ　ｉｄｅａｌ，ｉｔ　ｉｓ　ｑｕｉｔｅ　ａｃｃｅｐｔａｂｌｅ　ｉｎ　Ａｎｔｉｇｕａｎ
own conversational ideal, it is quite acceptable in Antiguan
ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ　ｆｏｒ　ｓｅｖｅｒａｌ　ｐｅｏｐｌｅ　ｔｏ　ｓｐｅａｋ　ｓｉｍｕｔａｎｅｏｕｓｌｙ．
conversation for several people to speak simultaneously.
［３２４］　ＣＯＭＭＵＮＩＣＡＴＯＮ　ＲＥＳＥＡＲＣＨ／ＪＵＬＹ　１９７８
［３２４］　ＣＯＭＭＵＮＩＣＡＴＯＮ　ＲＥＳＥＡＲＣＨ　／ＪｔＵＬＹ　１９７８
[324]

［Ｔｈｅ　ｆａｃｔ　ｔｈａｔ　ｏｎｅ　ｉｓ　ｎｏｔ　ｈｅａｒｄ　ｄｏｅｓ　ｎｏｔ　ｍｅａｎ　ｏｎｅ　ｈａｓ　ｔｏ　ｓｔｏｐ．
［Ｔｈｅ　ｆａｃｔ　ｔｈａｔ　ｏｎｅ　ｉｓ　ｎｏｔ　ｈｅａｒｄ　ｄｏｅｓ　ｎｏｔ　ｍｅａｎ　ｏｎｅ　ｈｅｓ　ｔｏ　ｓｔｏｐ．
[T]he fact that one is not heard does not mean one has to stop.
Ｏｎｅ　ｃａｎ　ｇｏ　ｒｉｇｈｔ　ｏｎ　ｗｉｔｈ　ｐｅｒｈａｐｓ　ｏｎｅ　ｌｉｓｔｅｎｅｒ，　ｏｒ　ｐｅｒｈａｐｓ　ｎｏｎｅ．　Ｏｎ
Ｏｎｅ　ｃａｎ　ｇｏ　ｒｉｇｈｔ　ｏｎ　ｗｉｔｈ　ｐｅｒｈａｐｅ　ｏｎｅ　ｌｉｓｔｅｎｅｒ，　ｏｒ　ｐｅｘｈＡｐ　ｎｏｎｅ．　Ｃｎ
One can go right on with perhaps one listener, or perhaps none. On
ｓｏｍｅ　ｃｃｃａｓｉｏｎｓ，　ｐｅｒｈａｐｓ　ｍｏｒｅ　ｓｅｒｉｏｕｓ，　ｏｒ　ｐａｒｔｉｃｕｌａｒｌｙ　ｉｎ　ｍｏｒｅ
ｓｏｍｅ　ｏｃｃａｓｉｏｎｓ，　ｐｅｒｈａｐｓ　ｍｏｒｅ　ｓａｒｉｏｕｓ，　ｏｒ　ｐａｒｔｉｃｕｌａｒｌｙ　ｉｎ　ｍｏｒｅ
some occasions, perhaps more serious, or particularly in more
ｆｏｒｒｎａｌ　ｓｅｔｔｉｎｇｓ　ａｓ　ｐａｒｔ　ｏｆ　ａｎ　ａｌｍｏｓｔ　ｒｉｔｕａｌｉｚｅｄ　ｄｅｂａｔｅ　ｂａｔｗｅｅｎ　ｓｅｔｓ
ｆｏｒｍａｌ　ｓｅｒｔｉｎｇｓ　ａｓ　ｐａｒｔ　ｏｆ　ａｎ　ａｌｍｏｓｔ　ｒｉｔｕｅｌｉｚｅｄ　ｄｅｂａｔｅ　ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ　ｓｅｔｓ
formal settings as part of an almost ritualized debate between sets
ｏｆ　ｃｏｎｖｅｎｔｉｏｎｓ，　８ｏｒｍｅｏｎｅ　ｗｉｌ　ｂｅ　ｔｏｌｄ　ｔｏ　＂ｈａｖｅ　ｓｏｍｅ　ｂｅｈｅｖｉｏｒ＂ｏｒ
ｏｆ　ｃｏｎｖｅｎｔｉｏｎｓ，　ｓｏｍｅｏｎｅ　ｗｉｌｌ　ｂｅ　ｔｏｌｄ　ｔｏ　＂ｈａｖｅ　ｓｏｍｅ　ｂｅｈａｖｉｏｒ＂　ｏｆ
of conventions, someone will be told to &dquo;have some behavior&dquo; or
＂ｌｅｔ　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｎ　ｓｐｅａｋ，＂　Ｉｎ　ｍａｎｙ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎｓ，　ｈｏｗｅｖｅｒ，　ｓｅｖｅｒａｌ
＂ｌｅｔ　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｎ　ｓｏｅａｋ＂ｌｎ　ｍａｎｙ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎｓ，　ｈｏｗｅｖｅｒ，ｓｅｖｅｒａｌ
&dquo;let the man speak.&dquo; In many conversations, however, several
ｐａｒｔｉｃｉｐａｎｔｓ　ａｌｒｅａｄｙ　ｉｎｖｏｌｖｅｄ　ｍａｙ　ｆｅｅｌ　ｔｈａｔ　ｔｈｅ　ｐｏｉｎｔ　ｔｈｅｙ　ａｒｅ
ｐａｒｔｉｃｉｐａｎｔｓ　ａｌｒｅｅｄｙ　ｉｎｗｏｈｖｅｄ　ｍａｙ　ｆｅｅｌ　ｔｈａｔ　ｔｈｅ　ｐｏｉｎｔ　ｔｈｅｙ　ａｒｅ
participants already involved may feel that the point they are
ｍａｋｉｎｇ　ｉｓ　ｎｏｔ　ｒｅｃｅｉｖｉｎｇ　ｓｕｆｆｉｃｉｅｎｔ　ａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎ　ａｎｄ　ｗｉｌｌ　ｅａｃｈ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅｍ
ｍａｋｉｎｇ　ｉｓ　ｎｏｔ　ｒｅｃｅｉｖｉｎｇ　ｓｕｆｆｉｃｊｅｎｔ　ａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎ　ａｎｄ　ｗｉｌｌ　ｅａｃｈ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅｍ
making is not receiving sufficient attention and will each of them
ｃｏｎｔｉｎｕｅ　ｓｐｅａｋｉｎｇ，ｒｅｐｅａｔｉｎｇ　ｔｈｅ　ｐｏｉｎｔ　ｔｈｅｙ　ａｒｅ　ｍａｋｉｎｇ—ｓｏ　ｔｈａｔ
ｃｏｎｔｉｎｕｅ　ｓｐｅａｋｉｎｇ，　ｒｅｐｅａｔｉｎｇ　ｔｈｅ　ｐｏｉｎｔ　ｔｈｅｙ　ａｒｅ　ｍａｋｉｎｇ—ｓｏ　ｔｈａｔ
continue speaking, repeating the point they are making-so that
ｓｅｖｅｒａｌ　ｐｅｏｐｌｅ　ａｒｅ　ｓｐｅａｋｉｎｇ　ａｔ　ｏｎｃｅ　［１９７４：１１４］．
ｓｏｖｅｒａｌ　ｐｅｏｐｌｅ　ａｒｅ　ｓｐｅａｋｉｎｇ　ａｔ　ｏｎｃｅ［１９７４：１１４］．
several people are speaking at once [1974: 114].

Ｉｎ　ａｎｙ　ｓｏｃｉｅｔｙ，　ｐｅｏｐｌｅ　ｔｒｙ　ｔｏ　ａｂｉｄｅ　ｂｙ　ｎｏｒｍｓ　ｏｆ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎａｌ
Ｉｎ　ａｎｙ　ｓｏｃｉｅｔｙ，　ｐｅｇｐｌｅ　ｔｒｙ　ｔｏ　ａｂｉｄｅ　ｂｙ　ｎｏｒｍｓ　ｏｆ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎａｌ
In any society, people try to abide by norms of conversational
ｐｒａｃｔｉｃｅ　ａｎｄ　ｗｉｌｌ　ｆｅｅｌ　ｄｉｓｏｒｉｅｎｔｅｄ　ｗｈｅｎ　ｔｈｅｙ　ａｒｅ　ｖｉｏｌａｔｅｄ．　Ｉｎ　ｍａｉｎ－
ｐｒａｃｔｉｃｅ　ａｎｄ　ｗｉｌｌ　ｆｅｅｌ　ｄｉｓｏｒｉｅｎｔｅｄ　ｗｈｅｎ　ｔｈｅｙ　ａｒｅ　ｖｉｏｌａｔｅｄ．ｉｎ　ｍａｉｎ－
practice and will feel disoriented when they are violated. In main-
ｓｔｒｅａｍ　Ａｍｅｒｉｃａｎ　ｃｕｌｔｕｒｅ，　ｗｈｅｎ　ａｎ　ｅｌｅｍｅｎｔ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎａｌ
５ｔｒｅａｍ　Ａｍｅｒｉｃａｎ　ｃｕｌｔｕｒｅ，　ｗｈｅｎ　ａｎ　ｅｌｅｍｅｎｔ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｒａｌ
stream American culture, when an element of the conversational
ｉｄｅａｌ　ｄｅｓｃｒｉｂｅｄ　ａｂｏｖｅ　ｉｓ　ｍｉｓｓｉｎｇ，　ｐｅｏｐｌｅ　ｆｅｅｌ　ｕｎｃｏｍｆｏｒｔａｂｌｅ．　Ｉｔ
ｉｄｅａｌ　ｄｅｓｃｒｉｂｅｄ　ａｂｏｖｅ　ｉｓ　ｍｉｓｓｉｎｇ，　ｐｅｏｐｌｅ　ｆｅｅｌ　ｕｎｃｏｍｆｏｒｔａｂｌｅ．　ｈ
ideal described above is missing, people feel uncomfortable. It
ｃａｎ　ｂｅ　ｄｉｓｔｒｅｓｓｉｎｇ，　ｆｏｒ　ｉｎｓｔａｎｃｅ，　ｔｏ　ｐａｓｓ　ａｎ　ａｃｑｕａｉｎｔａｎｃｅ　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ
ｃａｎ　ｂｅ　ｄｉｓｔｒｅｓｓｉｎｇ，　ｆｏｒ　ｉｎｓｔａｎｃｅ，ｔｏ　ｐａｓｓ　ａｎ　ａｃｑｕａｉｎｔａｎｃｅ　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ
can be distressing, for instance, to pass an acquaintance in the
ｓｔｒｅｅｔ　ｗｈｅｒｅ　ｔｈｅｒｅ　ｉｓ　ｏｐｐｏｒｔｕｎｉｔｙ　ｏｎｌｙ　ｆｏｒ　ａ　ｒｉｔｕａｌ　ｅｘｃｈａｎｇｅ　ｏｆ
ｓｔｒｅｅｔ　ｗｈｅｒｅ　ｔｈｅｒｅ　ｉｓ　ｏｐｐｏｒｔｕｎｉｔｙ　ｏｎｌｙ　ｆｏｒ　ａｒｉｔｕａｌ　ｅｘｃｈａｎｇｅ　ｏｆ
street where there is opportunity only for a ritual exchange of
ｇｒｅｅｔｉｎｇｓ　ｒａｔｈｅｒ　ｔｈａｎ　ｆｏｒ　ａ　ｓｐｏｎｔａｎｅｏｕｓ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ．　Ｉｔ　ｉｓ　ｅｑｕａｌｌｙ
ｇｒｅｅｔｉｎｇｓ　ｒａｔｈｅｒ　ｔｈａｎ　ｆｏｒ　ａ　ｓｐｏｎｔａｎｅｏｕｓ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒ容ａｔｉｏｎ．　Ｉｔ　ｉｓ　ｅｑｕａｌｌｙ
greetings rather than for a spontaneous conversation. It is equally
ａｗｋｗａｒｄ　ｗｈｅｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｓａｍｅ　ｐｅｒｓｏｎ　ｉｓ　ｎｏｔ　ｓｅｎｄｅｒ　ａｎｄ　ｒｅｃｅｉｖｅｒ—ｆｏｒ
ａｗｋｗａｒｄ　ｗｈｅｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｓａｍｅ　ｐｅｒｓｏｎ　ｉｓ　ｎｏｔ　ｓｅｎｄｅｒ　ａｎｄ　ｒｅｃｅｉｖｅｒ—ｆｏｒ
awkward when the same person is not sender and receiver-for
ｉｎｓｔａｎｃｅ，　ｏｎｅ　ｐｅｒｓｏｎ　ｗｉｌ　ｎｏｔ　ｓｔｏｐ　ｔａｌｋｉｎｇ　（ｓｏｍｅｔｈｉｎｇ　ｔｈａｔ　ｗｏｕｌｄ
ｉｎｓｔａｎｃｅ，　ｏｎｅ　ｐｅｒｓｏｎ　ｗｉｌｌ　ｎｏｔ　ｓｔｏｐ　ｔａｌｋｉｎｇ　（ｓｏｍｅｔｈｉｎｇ　ｔｈａｔ　ｗｏｕｌｄ
instance, one person will not stop talking (something that would
ｂｅ　ｔａｋｅｎ　ａｓ　ｎｏｒｍａｌ　ｉｎ　Ａｎｔｉｇｕａ）　ｏｒ　ｅｌｓｅ，　ｗｈｅｎ　ｏｎｅ　ｐｅｒｓｏｎ　ｐａｕｓｅｓ
ｂｅ　ｔａｋｅｎ　ａｓ　ｎｏｒｍａｌ　ｉｎ　Ａｎｔｉｇｕａ｝ｏｒ　ｅｉｓｅ，ｗｈｅｎ　ｏｎｅ　ｐｅｒｓｏｎ　ｐａｕｓｅｓ
be taken as normal in Antigua) or else, when one person pauses
ｆｏｒ　ｔｈｅ　ｏｔｈｅｒ　ｐｅｒｓｏｎ＇ｓ　ｒｅｓｐｏｎｓｅ，　ｔｈｅｒｅ　ｉｓ　ｎｏ　ｒｅｓｐｏｎｓｅ．　Ｏｒ　ｓｕｐｐｏｓｅ
ｆｏｒ　ｔｈｅ　ｏｔｈｅｒ　ｐｅｒｓｏｎ＇ｓ　ｒｅｓｐｏｎｓｅ，　ｔｈｅｒｅ　ｉｓ　ｎｏ　ｒｅｓｐｎｓｅ．　Ｏｒ　ｓｕｐｐｏｓｅ
for the other person’s response, there is no response. Or suppose
ａ　ｃｈａｎｎｅｌ　ｏｆ　ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎ　ｈａｓ　ｂｅｅｎ　ｃｕｔ　ｏｆｆ．　Ｒｅｃｅｎｔｌｙ　Ｉ　ｔａｌｋｅｄ　ｔｏ
ａ　ｃｈａｎｎｅｌ　ｏｆ　ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎ　ｈａｓ　ｂｅｅｎ　ｃｕｔ　ｏｆｆ．Ｒｅｃｅｎｔｌｙ　１　ｔａｌｋｅｄ　ｔｏ
a channel of communication has been cut off. Recently I talked to
ａ　ｍａｎ　ｗｈｏｓｅ　ｆａｃｅ　ｗａｓ　ａｌｔｏｇｅｔｈｅｒ　ｉｍｐａｓｓｉｖｅ—ｅｖｅｒｙｔｈｉｎｇ　Ｉ　ｓａｉｄ
a man whose face was altogether impassive-everything I said
ｓｕｎｋ　ｉｎｔｏ　ｉｔ　ａｓ　ｉｆ　ｉｔ　ｗｅｒｅ　ａ　ｂｌａｃｋ　ｈｏｌｅ．　Ｔｈｉｓ　ｗａｓ　ｍｏｓｔ　ｄｉｓｃｏｎｃｅｒｔ－
ｓｕｎｋ　ｉｎｔｏ　ｉｔ　ａｓ　ｉｆ　ｉｔ　ｗｅｒｅ　ａ　ｂｌａｃｋ　ｈｏｌｅ．Ｔｈｉｓ　ｗａｓ　ｍｏ８ｔ　ｄｉｇｃｏｎｃｅｒｔ－
sunk into it as if it were a black hole. This was most disconcert-
ｉｎｇ．　Ｏｒ　ｔａｋｅ　ｔｈｅ　ｆａｍｉｌｉａｒ　ｃａｓｅ　ｗｈｅｒｅ　ｔｈｅ　ｒｕｌｅｓ　ｏｆ　ｓｐｅａｋｉｎｇ　ｄｏ　ｎｏｔ
ing. Or take the familiar case where the rules of speaking do not
ａｐｐｌｙ　ｅｑｕａｌｌｙ．　Ｗｈｅｎ　ｐｅｏｐｌｅ　ｗｈｏ　ａｒｅ　ｕｎｅｑｕａｌ　ｉｎ　ｓｔａｔｕｓ　ｔａｌｋ，　ｔｈｅｒｅ
ａｐｐｌｙ　ｅｑｕａｌｌｙ．Ｗｈｅｎ　ｐｅｏｐｌｅ　ｗｈｏ　ａｒｅ　ｕｎｅｑｕａｌｔ　ｉｎ　ｓｔａｔｕｓ　ｔａｌｋ，　ｔｈｅｒｅ
apply equally. When people who are unequal in status talk, there
ａｒｅ　ｓｐｅｃｉａｌ　ｒｕｌｅｓ—ｆｏｒ　ｉｎｓｔａｎｃｅ，　ｔｈａｔ　ｔｈｅ　ｐｅｒｓｏｎ　ｏｆ　ｈｉｇｈｅｒ　ｓｔａｔｕｓ
are special rules-for instance, that the person of higher status
ｓｈｏｕｌｄ　ｂｅ　ｔｈｅ　ｏｎｅ　ｔｏ　ｓｉｇｎａｌ　ｔｈｅ　ｃｌｏｓｅ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ．Ｉｎ　ｓｏｍｅ
ｓｈｏｕｌｄ　ｂｅ　ｔｈｅ　ｏｎｅ　ｔｏ　ｓｉｇｎａｌ　ｔｈｅ　ｃｌｏｓｅ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ．　Ｉｎ　ｓｏｍｅ
should be the one to signal the close of the conversation. In some
ｃａｓｅｓ　ｔｈｅ　ｐｅｒｓｏｎ　ｏｆ　ｉｎｆｅｒｉｏｒ　ｓｔａｔｕｓ，　ｆｅｅｌｉｎｇ　ｄｉｓａｒｍｅｄ　ｉｎ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａ－
ｃａｓｅｓ　ｔｈｅ　ｐｅｒｓｏｎ　ｏｆ　ｉｎｆｅｒｉｏｒ　ｓｔａｔｕｓ，ｆｅｅｌｉｎｇ　ｄｉｓａｒｍｅｄ　ｉｎ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａ－
cases the person of inferior status, feeling disarmed in conversa-
ｔｉｏｎ　ｗｉｔｈ　ｓｕｐｅｒｉｏｒｓ，　ｗｉｌｌ　ｃｈｏｏｓｅ　ｗｈｅｒｅ　ｐｏｓｓｉｂｌｅ　ｓｏｍｅ　ｌｅｓｓ　ｉｎｔｉ－
ｔｉｏｎ　ｗｉｔｈ　ｓｕｐｅｒｉｏｒｓ，　ｗｉｌｌ　ｃｈｏ０ｓｅ　ｗｈｅｒｅ　ｐｏｓｓｉｂｌｅ　ｓｏｍａ　ｌｅｓｓ　ｉｎｔｉ－
tion with superiors, will choose where possible some less inti-
ｍａｔｅ　ｍｅａｎｓ　ｏｆ　ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎ．　Ａ　ｗｏｍａｎ　ｏｆ　ｍｙ　ａｃｑｕａｉｎｔａｎｃｅ
ｍａｔｅ　ｍｅａｎｓ　ｏｆ　ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎ．　Ａ　ｗｏｍａｎ　・ｏｆ　ｍｙ　ａｃｑｕａｉｎｔａｎｃｅ
mate means of communication. A woman of my acquaintance
ｗｈｏ　ｄｏｅｓ　ｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈ　ｉｎ　ｌｉｂｒａｒｉｅｓ　ｉｎ　Ｅｕｒｏｐｅ　ｐｒｅｆｅｒｓ　ｔｏ　ｈａｖｅ　ａ　ｃａｌｌ－
ｗｈｏ　ｄｏｅ８　ｒｅａｅａｒｃｈ　ｉｎ　ｌｉｂｒａｒｉｅｓ　ｉｎ　Ｅｕｒｏｐｅ　ｐｒｅｆｅｒｓ　ｔｏ　ｈａｖｅ　ａ　ｃａｌｌ－
who does research in libraries in Europe prefers to have a call-
ｉｎｇ　ｃａｒｄ　ｔｏ　ａｎｎｏｕｎｃｅ　ｈｅｒ　ａｐｐｅａｒａｎｃｅ　ｔｏ　ａ　ｃｕｒａｔｏｒ　ｏｒ　ｌｉｂｒａｒｉａｎ
ing card to announce her appearance to a curator or librarian
ｂｅｃａｕｓｅ　ｔｈｉｓ　ｐｕｔｓ　ｈｅｒ　ｏｎ　ａ　ｍｏｒｅ　ｅｑｕａｌ　ｆｏｏｔｉｎｇ　ｗｉｔｈ　ｔｈｅ　ｏｆｆｉｃｉａｌ
ｂｅｃａｕｓｅ　ｔｈｉｓ　ｐｕｔｓ　ｈｅｒ　ｏｎ　ａ　ｍｏｒｅ　ｅｑｕａｌ　ｆｏｏｔｉｎｇ　ｗｉｔｈ　ｔｈｅ　ｏｆｆｉｃｉａｌ
because this puts her on a more equal footing with the official
ｔｈａｎ　ｄｏｅｓ　ｈｅｒ　ｐｅｒｓｏｎａｌ　ａｒｒｉｖａｌ　ｉｎ　ａ　ｗｏｒｉｄ　ｏｆ　ｍｅｎ．
ｔｈａｎ　ｄｏｅｓ　ｈｅｒ　ｐｅｒｓｏｎａｌ　ａｒｒｉｖａｌ　ｉｎ　ａ　ｗｏｒｋｄ　ｏｆ　ｍｅｎ．
than does her personal arrival in a world of men.
Ｔｈｅ　ｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｉｓｔｉｃ　ｏｆ　＂ｓｐｏｎｔａｎｅｏｕｓ　ｕｔｔｅｒａｎｃｅ＂　ｄｅｓｅｒｖｅｓ　ｆｕｒ－
Ｔｈｅ　ｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｉｓｔｉｃ　ｏｆ＂ｓｐｏｎｔａｎｅｏｕｓ　ｕｔｔｅｒａｎｃｅ＂　ｄｅｓｅｒｖｅｓ　ｆｕｒ－
The characteristic of &dquo;spontaneous utterance&dquo; deserves fur-
ｔｈｅｒ　ｃｏｍｍｅｎｔ．　Ｉｔ　ｓｕｇｇｅｓｔｓ　ｔｈｅ　ｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎ　ｏｆ　ａｕｔｈｅｎｔｉｃ　ｏｒ　ｔｒｕｅ
ｔｈｅｒ　ｃｏｍｍｅｎｔ．　ｈｔ　ｓｕｇｇｅｓｔｓ　ｔｈｅ　ｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎ　ｏｆ　ａｕｔｈｅｎｔｉｃ　ｏｒ　ｔｒｕｅ
ther comment. It suggests the expression of authentic or true
ｆｅｅｌｉｎｇｓ．　Ｔｈｉｓ　ｉｓ　ａ　ｍｏｄｅｒｎ　ｖｉｅｗ　ｏｆ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ．　Ｉｆ　ｏｎｅ　ｌｏｏｋｓ　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ
ｆｅｅｌｉｎｇｓ．　Ｔｈｉｓ　ｉｓ　ａ　ｍｏｄｅｒｎ　ｖｉｅｗ　ｏｆ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ．Ｉｆ　ｏｎｅ　ｌｏｏｋｓ　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ
feelings. This is a modern view of conversation. If one looks in the
ｃａｒｄ　ｃａｔａｌｏｇ　ｕｎｄｅｒ　＂ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ，＂　ｗｈａｔ　ｏｎｅ　ｆｉｒｉｄｓ　ａｒｅ　ｅｉｇｈｔｅｎｔｈ
ｃａｒｄ　ｃａｔａｌｏｇ　ｕｎｄｅｒ＂ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ，＂ｗｈａｔ　ｏｎｅ　ｆｉｒｄｓ　ａｒｅ　ｅｉｇｈｔｅｅｎｔｈ
card catalog under &dquo;conversation,&dquo; whatone finds eighteenth
are
ｃｅｎｔｕｒｙ　ｇｕｉｄｅｓ　ｔｏ　ｔｈｅ　＂ａｒｔ　ｏｆ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ＂　ｗｈｉｃｈ　ｈａｄ　ｎｏｔｈｉｎｇ
ｃｅｎｔｕｒｙ　ｇｕｉｄｅｓ　ｔｏ　ｔｈｅ＂ａｒｔ　ｏｆ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ＂　ｗｈｉｃｈ　ｈａｄ　ｎｏｔｈｉｎｇ
century guides to the &dquo;art of conversation&dquo; which had nothing
ａｔ　ａｌｌ　ｔｏ　ｄｏ　ｗｉｔｈ　ａｕｔｈｅｎｔｉｃｉｔｙ．　Ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ　ｗａｓ　ａ　ｓｏｃｉａｌ　ｇｒａｃｅ　ｆｏｒ
ａｔ　ａｌｌ　ｔｏ　ｄｏ　ｗｉｔｈ　ａｕｔｈｅｎｔｉｃｉｔｙ．Ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ　ｗａｓ　ａ　ｓｏｃｉａｌ　ｇｒａｃｅ　ｆｏｒ
at all to do with authenticity. Conversation was social grace for
a
 Ｓｅｈｕｄｓｏｎ　／　ＩＤＥＡＬ　ＯＦ　ＣＯＮＶＥＳＡＴＯＮ　［３２５］
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ｐｅｏｐｌｅ　ｏｆ　ｌｅｉｓｕｒｅ，　ｌｉｋｅ　ｐｌａｙｉｎｇ　ｔｈｅ　ｐｉａｎｏ，　ａｎｄ　ｗａｓ　ｃｕｌｔｉｖａｔｅｄ　ａｓ　ａ
people of leisure, like playing the piano, and was cultivated as a
ｈｉｇｈｌｙ　ａｒｔｉｆｉｃｉａｌ　ｐｕｒｓｕｉｔ　｛ｓｅｅ　Ｓｅｎｎｅｔ，１９７７：８２．　Ｗｅ　ｓｔｉｌ　ｒｅｃｏｇ－
highly artificial pursuit (see Sennett, 1977: 82). We still recog-
ｎｉｚｅ　ｔｈａｔ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ　ｃａｎ　ｂｅ　ａｒｔｆｕｌ　ｏｒ　ｅｖｅｎ　ａｒｔｉｆｉｃｉａｌ　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｎｏｔｉｏｎ
nize that conversation can be artful or even artificial in the notion
ｏｆ　ａ＂ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ　ｐｉｅｃｅ＂ｏｒ　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｇｒｕｄｉｎｇ　ｒｅｃｏｇｎｉｔｉｏｎ　ｏｆ　ｓｏｍｅ
of a &dquo;conversation piece&dquo; or in the gruding recognition of some
ｐｅｏｐｌｅ　ｗｈｏ　ａｒｅ　ｅｓｐｅｃｉａｔｌｙ　ｓｋｉｌｌｅｄ　ａｔ　ｃｏｃｋｔａｉｌ－ｐａｒｔｙ　ｔａｌｋ，
people who are especially skilled at cocktail-party talk.
Ｓｏｍｅｔｉｍｅｓ　ｔｈｅ　ｉｄｅａｌ　ｏｆ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ　ｉｓ　ｖｉｏｌａｔｅｄ　ａｎｄ　ｉｔ　ｄｏｅｓ　ｎｏｔ
Sometimes the ideal of conversation is violated and it does not
ｄｉｓｔｕｒｂ　ｕｓ．　Ｉｔ　ｉｓ　ａｓ　ｉｆ　ｗｅ　ｈａｖｅ　ｓｏｍｅ　ｔａｃｉｔ　ｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇ　ｔｈａｔ　ｔａｌｋ
disturb us. It is as if we have some tacit understanding that talk
ｃｏｍｅｓ　ｉｎ　ｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔ　ｆｏｒｍｓ，ｅａｃｈ　ｗｉｔｈ　ｔｈｅｉｒ　ｏｗｎ　ｒｕｌｅｓ．Ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｉｄｅａｌ
comes in different forms, each with their own rules. In the ideal
ｓｉｔｕａｔｉｏｎ，　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ　ｉｓ　ａ　ｃｏｎｓｔａｎｔｌｙ　ｅｖｏｌｖｉｎｇ　ｓｏｃｉａｌ　ｃｏｎｔｒａｃｔ
situation, conversation is a constantly evolving social contract
ｄｅｔｅｒｍｉｎｅｄ　ｂｙ　ｔｈｅ　ｔｗｏ　ｐａｒｔｉｅｓ　ａｎｄ　ｔｈｅ　ｔｗｏ　ｐａｒｔｉｅｓ　ａｌｏｎｅ．　Ｂｕｔ　ｉｎ
determined by the two parties and the two parties alone. But in
ｆａｃｔ，　ｔｈｅｒｅ　ａｒｅ　ｏｒｄｉｎａｒｉｌｙ　ｍａｎｙ　ｃｏｎｓｔｒａｉｎｔｓ　ｗｈｉｃｈ　ｄｉｒｅｃｔ　ｏｒ　ａｌｍａｓｔ
fact, there are ordinarily many constraints which direct or almost
ｄｅｔｅｒｍｉｎｅ　ｔｈｅ　ｏｕｔｃｏｍｅ，　ｒｅｄｕｃｉｎｇ　ｔｈｅ　ｐｏｓｓｉｂｉｌｉｔｙ　ｏｆ　ｓｐｏｎｔａｎｅｒｎｏｕｓ
determine the outcome, reducing the possibility of spontanenous
ｕｔｔｅｒａｎｃｅ．Ｔａｌｋ　ｗｉｔｈ　ｔｈｅ　ｓｔｏｒｅ　ｃｌｅｒｋ　ｏｒ　ｔｈｅ　ｂａｎｋ　ｔｅＭｌｅｒ　ｉｓ　ｏｒｄｉｎａｒｉｌｙ
utterance. Talk with the store clerk or the bank teller is ordinarily
ｓｔｅｒｅｏｔｙｐｉｃ－－ｉｎｄｅｅｄ，　ｂａｎｋ　ｔｅｌｌｅｒｓ　ｃａｎ　ｂｅ　ｒｅｐｌａｃｅｄ　ｂｙ　ｃｏｍｐｕｔｅｒｓ，
stereotypic-indeed, bank tellers can be replaced by computers,
ｃａｎｄｙ　ｓｔｏｒｅ　ｏｗｎｅｒｓ　ｂｙ　ｖｅｎｄｉｎｇ　ｍａｃｈｉｎｅｓ，　ｃｏｒｎｅｒ　．ｎｅｗｓｓｔａｎｄ
candy store owners by vending machines, corner .newsstand
ｏｐｅｒａｔｏｒｓ　ｂｙ　ｎｅｗｓｂｏｘｅｓ，ａｎｄ　ｍｏｓｔ　ｉｎｔｅｒａｃｔｉｏｎ　ｗｉｔｈ　ｓａｌｅｓ　ｐｅｏｐｌｅ
operators by newsboxes, and most interaction with sales people
ｂｙ　ｓｅｌｆ－ｓｅｒｖｉｃｅ　ｓｔｏｒｅｓ，Ｗｈｅｎ　ｗｅ　ｄｏ　ｔａｌｋ　ｔｏ　ａ　ｓａｌｅｓ　ｐｅｒｓｏｎ，　ｔｈｅ
by self-service stores. When we do talk to a sales person, the
ｓｔｅｒｅｏｔｙｐｉｃ　ｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ　ｔａｌｋ　ｍａｙ　ｎｏｔ　ｄｉｓｔｕｒｂ　ｕｓ—ｉｎｄｅｅｄ，　ｔｏｏ
stereotypic character of the talk may not disturb us-indeed, too
ｍｕｃｈ　ｓｐｏｎｔａｎｅｉｔｙ　ｍｉｇｈｔ．　Ｔｈｅ　ｄｅｎｔａｌ　ｈｙｇｉｅｎｉｓｔ　ｗｉｌｌ　ｗａｎｔ　ｔｏ　ｔａｌｋ　ｔｏ
much spontaneity might. The dental hygienist will want to talk to
ｔｈｅ　ｐａｔｉｅｎｔ　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｃｈａｉｒ　ｔｏ　ｅｓｔａｂｌｉｓｈ　ｒａｐｐｏｒｔ，　ｂｕｔ　ｉｆ　ｔｈｉｓ　ｌｅａｄｓ　ｔｈｅ
the patient in the chair to establish rapport, but if this leads the
ｔｗｏ　ｔｏ　ｇｅｔ　ｉｎｔｏ　ａ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ－ｎｏｔｅ　ｈｏｗ　ｔｈｅ　ｉｄｅａｌ　ｉｓ　ｐｒｅｓｕｍｅｄ　ｉｎ
two to get into a conversation-note how the ideal is presumed in
ｔｈａｔ　ｐｈｒａｓｅ—ｔｈｅ　ｈｙｇｉｅｎｉｓｔ　ｗｉｌｌ　ｗｉｔｈｄｒａｗ　ｔｏ　ｇｅｔ　ｏｎ　ｗｉｔｈ　ｔｈｅ　ｗｏｒｋ．
that phrase-the hygienist will withdraw to get on with the work.
Ｗｅ　ｈａｖｅ，　ｔｈｅｎ，　ａｎ　ｉｄｅａｌ　ｏｆ　ｗｈａｔ　ｉｓ　ｔｈｅ　ｂｅｓｔ　ｋｉｎｄ　ｏｆ　ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｃａ－
We have, then, an ideal of what is the best kind of communica-
ｔｉｏｎ．Ｗｅ　ｍａｙ　ｎｏｔ　ｗａｎｔ　ｔｏ　ｇｉｖｅ　ｉｔ　ｕｐ，　ｂｕｔ　ｗｅ　ｓｈｏｕｌｄ　ｂｅ　ａｗａｒｅ　ｔｈａｔ　ｉｔ
tion. We may not want to give it up, but we should be aware that it
ｉｓ　ａｎ　ｉｄｅａｌ，　ｏｎｅ　ｔｈａｔ　ｍｏｓｔ　ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎ，　ｉｎｃｌｕｄｉｎｇ　ｍｏｓｔ　ｃｏｎ－
is an ideal, one that most communication, including most con-
ｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ，　ｒａｒｅｌｙ　ａｃｈｉｅｖｅｓ．　Ｉｔ　ｉｓ　ｎｏｔａｂｌｅ　ｔｈａｔ　ｗｅ　ｄｏ　ｎｏｔ　ｈａｖｅ　ａ
versation, rarely achieves. It is notable that we do not have a
ｓｅｐａｒａｔｅ　ｉｄｅａｌ　ｏｆ　ｗｈａｔ　ｇｏｏｄ　ｍａｓｓ　ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎ　ｍｉｇｈｔ　ｂｅ．　Ｎｏｔ
separate ideal of what good mass communication might be. Not
ｔｈａｔ　ｗｅ　ｄｏ　ｎｏｔ　ｈａｖｅ　ｇｏｏｄ　ｅｘａｍｐｌｅｓ　ｏｆ　ｉｔ：　Ｓｈａｋｅｓｐｅａｒｅ　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅａｔｅｒ，
that we do not have good examples of it: Shakespeare in theater,
Ｔｏｓｔｏｙ　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｎｏｖｅｌ，　Ｂｅｒｇｍａｎ　ｉｎ　ｆｉｍ．　Ｔｈｅｒｅ　ａｒｅ　ｏｕｔｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇ　ｉｎ－
Tolstoy in the novel, Bergman in film. There are outstanding in-
ｓｔａｎｃｅｓ　ｏｆ　ｎｅｗｓｐａｐｅｒ　ｃｏｒｒｅｓｐｏｎｄｅｎｃｅ．　Ｔｅｌｅｖｉｓｉｏｎ　ｈａｓ　ｈａｄ　ｏｕｔ－
stances of newspaper correspondence. Television has had out-
ｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇ　ｍｏｍｅｎｔｓ，　ｔｈｏｕｇｈ　ｔｈｅｒｅ　ｉｓ　ｎｏｔ　ｙｅｔ　ｃｏｎｓｅｎｓｕｓ　ｏｎ　ｗｈａｔ
standing moments, though there is not yet consensus on what
ｔｈｅｓｅ　ｈａｖｅ　ｂｅｅｎ．Ｂｕｔ　ｉｍｐｌｉｃｉｔ　ｉｎ　ｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ
these have been. But implicit in studies of the mass media in the
ｓｏｃｉａｌ　ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅｓ　ｉｓ　ｔｈｅ　ｏｌｄ　ｉｄｅａｌ　ｏｆ　ｐｅｒｆｅｃｔ　ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎ　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ
social sciences is the old ideal of perfect communication in the
ｆａｃｅ－ｔｏ－ｆａｃｅ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ，　Ｂｙ　ｔｈｉｓ　ｓｔａｎｄａｒｄ，ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ　ａｒｅ
face-to-face conversation. By this standard, the mass media are
ｊｕｄｇｅｄ　ａｎｄ　ｆｏｕｎｄ　ｗａｎｔｉｎｇ．
judged and found wanting.
Ｑｎｅ　ｍｉｇｈｔ　ｃｏｎｃｌｕｄｅ　ｔｈａｔ　ｆｏｒ　ｍｏｓｔ　ｄｅｃｅｒｔ　ｈｕｍａｎ　ｐｕｒｐｏｓｅｓ　ｔｈｅ
One might conclude that for most decent human purposes the
ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ　ａｒｅ　ｉｎｆｅｒｉｏｒ　ｔｏ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ，　ｂｕｔ　ｔｈａｔ　ｉｓ　ｎｏｔ　ｓｏｍｅｔｈｉｎｇ
mass media are inferior to conversation, but that is not something
ｔｏ　ａｓｓｕｍｅ　ｆｒｏｍ　ｔｈｅ　ｏｕｔｓｅｔ．　Ｉｎｄｅｅｄ，　Ｉ　ｗｏｕｌｄ　ｇｏ　ｆｕｒｔｈｅｒ　ｔｏ　ｓｕｇｇｅｓｔ
to assume from the outset. Indeed, I would go further to suggest
ｔｈａｔ　ｔｈｅ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎａｌ　ｉｄｅａｌ　ｗｅ　ｎｏｗ　ｓｕｂｓｃｒｉｂｅ　ｔｏ　ｈａｓ　ｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｅｄ
that the conversational ideal we nowsubscribe to has developed
ｏｎｌｙ　ｉｎ　ａ　ｗｏｒｉｄ　ｓｈａｐｅｄ　ｂｙ　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ．Ｂｏｔｈ　ｔｈｅ　ｉｄｅａｆ　ｏｆ　ｃｏｎ－
only in a world shaped by the mass media. Both the ideal of con-
３２６］　ＣＯＭＭＵＮＩＣＡＴＩＯＮ　ＲＥＳＥＡＲＣＨ　／ＪＵＬＹ　１９７８
[326]

ｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｒ，ａｎｄ　ｉｔｓ　ｏｃｃａｓｉｏｎａｌ　ｒｅａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎ，ａｒｅ　ｉｎ　ｐａｒｔ　Ｂ　ｃｏｎｓｅ－
versation, and its occasional realization, are in part a conse-
ｑｕｅｎｃｅ　ｏｆ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｎｅｄｉａ．
’

quence of mass media.

Ｔｈｉｓ　ｉｓ　ｓｏ　ｉｎ　ａｔ　ｌｅａｓｔ　ｔｗｏ　ｒｅｓｐｅｃｔｓ．　Ｆｉｒｓｔ，　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ　ｈａｖｅ
This is so in at least two respects. First, the mass media have
ｃｏｎｔｒｉｂｕｔｅｄ　ｔｏ　ｍａｋｉｎｇ　ｔｈｅ＂ｅｇａｌｉｔａｒｉａｎ＂ｃｒｉｔｅｒｉｏｎ　ｏｆ　ｉｄｅａｌ　ｃｏｍ－
contributed to making the &dquo;egalitarian&dquo; criterion of ideal com-
ｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎ　ｍｎｏｒｅ　ｐｒｏｍｉｎｅｎｔ　ａｎｄ　ｍｏｒｅ　ｐｏｓｓｉｂｔｅ　ｔｏ　ｒｅａｌｉｚｅ．Ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ
munication more prominent and more possible to realize. In the
Ｕｎｉｔｅｄ　Ｓｔａｔｅｓ　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｌａｔｅ　ｎｉｎｅｔｅｅｎｔｈ　ｃｅｎｔｕｒｙ，　ｆｏｒ　ｉｎｓｔａｎｃｅ，ｎｏｔ　ｏｎｌｙ
United States in the late nineteenth century, for instance, not only
ｗｅｒｅ　ｗｏｍｅｎ　ａｇｉｔａｔｉｎｇ　ｆｏｒ　ｆｏｒｍａｌ　ａｃｃｅｓｓ　ｔｏ　ｔｈｅ　ｐｏｌｉｔｉｃａｌ　ｓｙｓｔｅｍ
were women agitating for formal access to the political system
ｔｈｒｏｕｇｈ　ｓｕｆｆｒａｇｅ，　ｂｕｔ　ｔｈｅｙ　ｗｅｒｅ　ａｃｈｉｅｖｉｎｇ　ａ　ｃｅｒｔａｉｎ　ａｍｏｕｎｔ　ｏｆ
through suffrage, but they were achieving a certain amount of
ｐｏｌｉｔｉｃａｌ　ｃｏｍｐｅｔｅｎｃｅ　ｔｈｒｏｕｇｈ　ｎｅｗｓｐａｐｅｒ　ｒｅａｄｉｎｇ．Ｎｅｗｓｐａｐｅｒｓ，
political competence through newspaper reading. Newspapers,
ｂｅｆｏｒｅ　ｔｈｅ　１８３０ａ，　ｗｅｒｅ　ｇｅｎｅｒａｌｌｙ　ｒｅａｄ　ａｎｌｙ　ｂｙ　ｍａｌｅｓ　ａｔ　ｏｆｆｉｃｅｓ　ｏｒ
before the 1830s, were generally read only by males at offices or
ｃｌｕｂｓ．　Ｐａｐｅｒｓ　ｗｅｒｅ　ｍｏｒｅ　ｗｉｄｅｌｙ　ａｖａｉｌａｂｌｅ　ｔｈｅｒｅａｆｔｅｒ．　Ｔｈｅ　ｍａｊｏｒ
clubs. Papers were more widely available thereafter. The major
ｉｎｃｒｅａｓｅ　ｉｎ　ｃｉｒｃｕｌａｔｉｏｎ　ａｆｔｅｒ　１８８０，ｔｈｅ　ｈｅｙｄａｙ　ｏｆ　ｎｅｗｓｐａｐｅｒ
increase in circulation after 1880, the heyday of newspaper
ｇｒｏｗｔｈ，　ｃａｍｅ　ｉｎ　ｅｖｅｎｉｎｇ　ｐａｐｅｒｓ　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｎ　ｒｅａｄ　ａｔ　ｈｏｍｅ　ｒａｔｈｅｒ
growth, came in evening papers the man read at home rather
ｔｈａｎ　ｏｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｗａｙ　ｔｏ　ｗｏｒｋ　ｏｒ　ａｔ　ｗｏｒｋ—ａｎｄ　ｓｏ　ｈｉｓ　ｗｉｆｅ　ｒｅａｄ　ｔｏｏ．７
than on the way to work or at work-and so his wife read too.2
Ｔｅｌｅｖｉｓｉｏｎ，　ｅｖｅｎ　ｍｏｒｅ　ｔｈａｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｅｖａｎｉｎｇ　ｐａｐｅｒ，　ｈａｓ　ｍａｄｅ　ｐｏｌｉｔｉｃａｌ
Television, even more than the evening paper, has made political
ａｎｄ　ｃｕｌｔｕｒａｌ　ｉｎｆｏｒｍａｔｉｏｎ　ａｖａｉｌａｂｌｅ　ｔｏ　ｌａｒｇｅ　ｎｕｍｂｅｒｓ　ｏｆ　ｗｏｍｅｎ　ａｓ
and cultural information available to large numbers of women as
ｎｅｖｅｒ　ｂｅｆｏｒｅ．　Ｉｔ　ｓｅｅｍｓ　ｒｅａｓｏｎａｂｌｅ　ｔｏ　ａｓｓｕｍｅ　ｔｈａｔ　ｔｈｉｓ　ｈａｓ　ｃｈａｎｇｅｄ
never before. It seems reasonable to assume that this has changed
ｔｈｅ　ｐｏｓｓｉｂｉｌｉｔｉｅｓ　ｆｏｒ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ　ｂｅｔｖｗｅｅｎ　ｍｅｎ　ａｎｄ　ｗｏｍｅｎ
the possibilities for conversation between men and women
ａｎｄ，　ｆｏｒ　ｔｈａｔ　ｍａｔｔｅｒ，ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ　ｗｏｍｅｎ　ａｎｄ　ｃｈｉｌｄｒｅｎ．　Ｓｏｃｉｏｌｏｇｉｓｔ
and, for that matter, between women and children. Sociologist
ｗａｎｓｋａ　ｏｂｓｅｒｖｅｄ　ｉｎ　ｈｅｒ　ｓｔｕｄｙ　ｏｆ　ａｒｕｒａｌ　ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｔｙ　ｉｎ　Ｗａｓｈｉｎｇ－
lwanska observed in her study of a rural community in Washing-
ｔｏｎ　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｅａｒｌｙ　１９５０ｓ　ｔｈａｔ　ｗｏｍｅｎ　ｈａｄ　ｍｏｒｅ　ｔｉｍｅ　ｆｏｒ　ｔｅｌｅｖｉｓｉｏｎ
ton in the early 1950s that women had more time for television
ｔｈａｎ　ｍｅｎ　ａｎｄ，ｔｈａｎｋｓ　ｔｏ　ｔｈｅ　ｔｕｂｅ，ｇａｉｎｅｄ　ｍｏｒｅ　ｋｎｏｗｌｅｄｇｅ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ
than men and, thanks to the tube, gained more knowledge of the
ｏｕｔｓｉｄｅ　ｗｏｒｌｄ　ｔｈａｎ　ｔｈｅｉｒ　ｈｕｓｂａｎｄｓ．　Ｔｈｅ　ｒｅｓｕｌｔ　ｗａｓ　ｓｉｇｎｉｆｉｃａｒｔ：＂Ｉｔ
outside world than their husbands. The result was significant: &dquo;it
ｉｓ　ｍｏｒｅ　ｌｉｋｅｌｙ　ｔｏｄａｙ　ｔｈａｔ　ａ　ｃｈｉｌｄ　ｗｉｌ　ｇｏ　ｔｏ　ｔｈｅ　ｍｏｔｈｅｒ　ｔｈａｎ　ｔｏ　ｔｈｅ
is more likely today that a child will go to the mother than to the
ｆａｔｈｅｒ　ｔｏ　ａｓｋ　ａｂｏｕｔ　ｆｏｒｅｉｇｎ　ｃｏｕｎｔｒｉｅｓ　ｏｒ　ａｂｏｕｔ　ｔｈｅ　Ｕｎｉｔｅｄ　Ｎａｔｉｏｎｓ＂
father to ask about foreign countries or about the United Nations&dquo;
（ｗａｎｓｋａ，１９５８：　２９］．
(Iwanska, 1958: 29).
Ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ　ｈｅｌｐｅｄ　ｄｅｍｏｃｒａｔｉｚｅ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ　ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ　ｔｈｅ
The mass media helped democratize conversation between the
ｓｅｘｅｓ．　Ｉｔ　ｈａｓ　ｄｅｍｏｃｒａｔｉｚｅｄ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ　ｂｅｔｗｅｅｎ　ｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔ　ａｇｅ
sexes. It has democratized conversation between different age
ｇｒｏｕｐｓ，ａｓ　ｗｅｌｌ．Ｆｉｉｍ　ａｎｄ　ｔｅｌｅｖｉｓｉｏｎ　ｈａｖｅ　ｍａｄｅ　ａ　ｃｏｍｍｏｎ　ｃｕｌｔｕｒｅ
groups, as well. Film and television have made a common culture
ａｖａｉｌａｂｌｅ　ｔｏ　ｃｈｉｌｄｒｅｎ　ｗｈｏ　ｐａｒｔａｋｅ　ｏｆ　ｉｔ　ａｓ　ｅｑｕａｌｓ　ｗｉｔｈ　ａｄｕｌｔｓ．
available to children who partake of it as equals with adults.
Ｉｎｄｅｅｄ，　ｃｈｉｌｄｒｅｎ　ａｒｅ　ｏｆｔｅｎ　ｗｅｌｔ　ａｈｅａｄ　ｏｆ　ａｄｕｌｔｓ　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅｉｒ　ｋｎｏｗｌｅｄｇｅ
Indeed, children are often well ahead of adults in their knowledge
ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ　ｃｕｌｔｕｒｅ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ，　Ｔｈｉｓ　ｓｕｒｅｌｙ　ｈａｓ　ｈａｓｔｅｎｅｄ　ｔｈｅ
of the culture of the mass media. This surely has hastened the
ｄｅｍｉｓｅ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ　ｒｕｌｅ　ｔｈａｔ　ｃｈｉｌｄｒｅｎ　ａｒｅ　ｔｏ　ｂｅ　ｓｅｅｎ　ａｎｄ　ｎｏｔ　ｈｅａｒｄ．
demise of the rule that children are to be seen and not heard.
Ｃｈｉｌｄｒｅｎ　ａｒｅ　ｓｉｍｐｌｙ　ｍａｒｅ　ｃｏｍｐｅｔｅｎｔ　ｔｈａｎ　ｔｈｅｙ　ｏｎｃｅ　ｗｅｒｅ　ｔｏ　ｐａｒ－
Children are simply more competent than they once were to par-
ｔｉｃｉｐａｔｅ　ｉｎ　ｍａｎｙ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎｓ　ａｄｕｌｔｓ　ｅｎｊｏｙ．３
ticipate in many of the conversations adults enjoy.3
Ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ　ｈａｖｅ　ｈａｄ　ａ　ｓｅｃｏｎｄ　ｅｆｆｅｃｔ　ｉｎ　ｍａｋｉｎｇ　ｔｈｅ　ｃｏｎ－
The mass media have had a second effect in making the con-
ｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎａ！　ｉｄｅａｌ　ｍｏｒｅ　ｆｒｅｑｕｅｎｔｌｙ　ｒｅａｌｉｚａｂｌｅ．　Ｔｈｅｙ　ｈａｖｅ　ｍａｄｅ
versational ideal more frequently realizable. They have made
ｓｐｏｎｔａｎｅｏｕｓ　ｕｔｔｅｒａｎｃｅ　ｍｏｒｅ　ｐｏ８ｓｉｂｌｅ．Ｏｆ　ｃｏｕｒｓｅ，　ｗｅ　ａｒｅ　ｆａｍｉｌｉａｒ
spontaneous utterance more possible. Of course, we are familiar
ｗｉｔｈ　ｔｈｅ　ｗａｙｓ　ｉｎ　ｗｈｉｃｈ　ｏｎｅ　ｃａｎ　ｐａｒｒｏｔ　ａ　ｂｏｏｋ　ｏｒ　ｆｉｌｒｍ　ｏｒ　ｔｅｌｅｖｉｓｉｏｎ
with the ways in which one can parrot a book or film or television
ｉｎ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ．Ｂｕｔ，　ｅｖｅｎ　ｔｈｅｎ，　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ　ｂｒｉｎｇ　ｉｎｔｏ　ｃｏｎ－
in conversation. But, even then, the mass media bring into con-
 Ｓｃｈｕｄｓｏｎ　／ＩＤＥＡＬ　ＯＦ　ＣＯＮＶＥＲＳＡＴＩＯＮ　［３２７
[327]

ｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ　ａ　ｔｈｉｒｄ　ｐａｒｔｙ，ａ　ｔｏｐｉｃ　ｏｆ　ｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅ　ｏｕｔｓｉｄｅ　ｔｈｅ　ｉｍｍｅｄｉａｃｙ
versation a third party, a topic of discourse outside the immediacy
ｏｆ　ｗｈｅｔ－Ｉ－ｄｉｄ－ｔｏｄａｙ－ｗｈａｔ－ｄｉｄ－ｙｏｕ－ｄｏ・ｔｏｄａｙ．Ｔｈｉｓ　ｅｘｐａｎｄｓ　ｔｈｅ
of what-I-did-today-what-did-you-do-today. This expands the
ｇｒａｍｍａｔｉｃａｌ　ｐｏｓｓｉｂｉｌｉｔｉｅｓ　ｏｆ　ｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅ—ｎｏｔ　ｊｕｓｔ　ｔｈｅ　ｆｉｒｓｔ　ａｎｄ
grammatical possibilities of discourse-not just the first and
ｓｅｃｏｎｄ　ｐｅｒｓｏｎ　ｂｕｔ　ｔｈｅ　ｔｈｉｒｄ　ｐｅｒｓｏｎ　ｉｓ　ｉｎｖｏｌｖｅｄ，　Ｔｈｉ８　ａｄｄｓ　ｔｏ　ｔｈｅ
second person but the third person is involved. This adds to the
ｃｏｍｐｌｅｘｉｔｙ，ｔｈｅ　ｔｈｉｃｋｎｅａｓ　ｏｆ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ，
complexity, the thickness of conversation.
Ｂｕｔ　ｃｏｕｌｄｎ＇ｔ　ｔｈｅ＂ｔｈｉｒｄ　ｐｅｒｓｏｎ＂ｂｅ，　ｉｎ　ｆａｃｔ，ａ　ｔｈｉｒｄ　ｐｅｒｓｏｎ？７　Ａ
But couldn’t the &dquo;third person&dquo; be, in fact, a third person? A
ｒｅａｌ　ｈｕｍａｎ　ｂｅｉｎｇ　ｒａｔｈｅｒ　ｔｈａｎ　ａ　ｍａ８ｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ　ｍｅｓｓａｇｅ？　Ｃｅｒｔａｉｎｌｙ．
real human being rather than a mass media message? Certainly.
Ｎｅｖｅｒｔｈｅｌｅｓｓ．ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ　ｈａｖｅ　ａｎ　ａｄｖａｎｔａｇｅ　ｈｅｒｅ．Ｉｆ　ｏｎｅ
Nevertheless, the mass media have an advantage here. If one
ｐｅｒｓｏｎ　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ　ｒｅｃｏｕｎｔｓ　ｓｏｍｅｔｈｉｎｇ　８　ｔｈｉｒｄ　ｐｅｒｓｏｎ　ｄｉｄ
person in the conversation recounts something a third person did
ｏｒ　ｇａｉｄ，　ｔｈｅ　ｂｕｒｄｅｎ　ｏｆ　ｐｕｔｔｉｎｇ　ｔｈｅ　ｔｈｉｒｄ　ｐｅｆｓｏｎ＇８　ｗｏｒｄｓ　ｏｒ　ｄｅｅｄｓ
or said, the burden of putting the third person’s words or deeds
ｉｎｔｏ　ｓｏｍｅ　ｆｏｒｍｔ，　ａ　ｓｔｏｒｙ　ｗｈｉｃｈ　ｃａｎ　ｂｅ　ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｃａｔｅｄ，　ｉｓ　ｓｔｉｌｌ　ｏｎ
into some form, a story which can be communicated, is still on
ｔｈｅ　ｆｉｒｓｔ　ｐｅｒｓｏｎ，Ｈｏｗｅｖｅｒ，ｉｆ　ｔｈａｔ　ｐｅｒｓｏｎ　ｒｅｃｏｕｎｉｓ　ｓｏｍｅｔｈｉｎｇ
the first person. However, if that person recounts something
ｈｅａｒｄ　ｏｒ　ｓｅｅｎ　ｏｒ　ｒｅａｄ　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ，ｉｔ　ｉｓ　ｍｏｒｅ　ｌｉｋｅｌｙ　ｔｈａｔ　ｔｈｅ
heard or seen or read in the mass media, it is more likely that the
ｔｈｉｎｇ　ｒｅｃｏｕｎｔｅｄ　ｗｉｌｌ　ａｌｒｅａｄｙ　ｈａｖｅ　ａ　ｆｏｒｍ　ｏｆ　ｉｔｓ　ｏｗｎ．Ｏｆ　ｃｏｕｒｓｅ，
thing recounted will already have a form of its Of course,
own.
ｔｈｅ　ｍｅｓｓａｇｅ　ｆｒｏｍ　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ　ｗｉｌｌ　ａｌｓｏ　ｂｅ　ｓｅｌｅｃｉｖｅｌｙ　ｐｅｒ－
the message from the mass media will also be selectively per-
ｃｅｉｖｅｄ　ａｎｄ　ｒｅｔｏｌｄ　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｇａｔｉｏｎａｌｉｓｔ＇ａ　ｆｒａｍｅ　ｏｆ　ｒｅｆｅｒｅｎｃｅ，
ceived and retold in the conversationalist’s frame of reference,
ｂｕｔ　ｉｔ　ｗｉｌｌ　ｂｅ　ｒｅｌａｔｉｖｅｌｙ　ｍｏｒｅ　ｒｅｓｉｓｔａｎｔ　ｔｏ　ｄｉｓｔｏｒｔｉｏｎ．Ｔｈｅ　ｍａ８ｓ
but it will be relatively more resistant to distortion. The mass
ｍｅｄｉａ　ｍｅｓｓａｇｅ　ｈａｓ　ａ　ｂｅｔｔｅｒ　ｃｈａｎｃｅ　ｏｆ　ｂｅｉｎｇ　ａ　ｇｅｎｕｉｎｅｌｙ＂ｔｈｉｒｄ
.

media message has a better chance of being a genuinely &dquo;third

ｐｅｒｓｏｎ＂　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｆｉｏｎ　ｔｈａｎ　ａｎ　ａｃｔｕａｌ　ｔｈｉｒｄ　ｐｅｒｓｏｎ．
person&dquo; in the conversation than an actual third person.
Ｔｈｉｓ　ｗｉｌｌ　ｎｏｔ　ａｌｗａｙｓ　ｂｅ　ｔｒｕｅ，Ｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈ　ｏｎ　ｔｈｅ＂ｔｗｏ－ｓｔｅｐ　ｆｏｗ＂
This will not always be true. Research on the &dquo;two-step flow&dquo;
ｏｆ　ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎ　８ｕｇｇｅｓｔｓ　ｔｈａｔ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ　ｍｅｓｓａｇｅｓ　ｈａｖｅ
of communication suggests that mass media messages have
ｍｏｓｔ　ｐｏｗｅｒ　ｉｎ　ｉｎｆｌｕｅｎｃｉｎｇ　ａｔｔｉｔｕｄｅｓ　ｗｈｅｎ　ｔｈｅｙ　ａｒｅ　ｍｅｄｉａｔｅｄ　ｂｙ　ａ
most power in influencing attitudes when they are mediated by a
ｐｅｒｓｏｎ．　Ｅｖｅｎ　ｔｈａｔ　ｉｆ　ｉｓ　ｔｈｅ　ｃａｓｅ，ｔｈｅｒｅ　ｍａｙ　ｓｔｉｌｌ　ｂｅ　ａｎｏｔｈｅｒ　ｋｉｎｄ
person. Even that if is the case, there may still be another kind
ｏｆ＇ｔｗｏ－８ｔｅｐ＂ｉｎ　ｗｈｉｃｈ　ａｎｏｔｈｅｒ　ｐｅｒｓｏｎ＇ｓ　ｍｅｓｓａｇｅ　ｇａｉｎｓ　ｐｏｗｅｒ
of &dquo;two-step&dquo; in which another person’s message gains power
ｏｎｌｙ　ｗｈｅｎ　ｍｅｄｉａｔｅｄ　ｏｒ　ｌｅｇｉｔｉｍａｔｅｄ　ｂｙ　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ．　Ｆｏｒ　ｉｎ－
only when mediated or legitimated by the mass media. For in-
￥ｔａｎｃｅ，ａ　ｎｅｉｇｈｂｏｒ　ｍａｙ　ｔｅｌ　ｕｓ　ｔｈａｔ　ｈｅ　ｈａｓ　ｔｒａｃｅｄ　ｈｉｓ　ａｎｃｅｓｆｒｙ．
stance, a neighbor may tell us that he has traced his ancestry.
Ｂｕｔ　ｗｉｌｌ　ｔｈａｔ　ｍｅｓｇａｇｅ　ｒｅｇｉｓｔｅｒ？　Ｗｉ　ｗｅ　ｔａｋｅ　ｉｔ　ｓｅｒｉｏｕｓｌｙ　ａｓ　ａ　ｃｏｍ－
But will that message register? Will we take it seriously as a com-
ｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎ　ｔｏ　ｕｓ　ｒａｔｈｅｒ　ｔｈａｎ　ａｓ　ａｎ　ａｄｄｉｔｉｏｎａｌ　ｑｕｉｒｋｙ　ｉｔｅｍ　ａｂｏｕｔ
munication to us rather than as an additional quirky item about
ｔｈｅ　ｎｅｉｇｈｂｏｒ？　Ｖｅｒｙ　ｌｉｋｅｌｙ　ｎｏｔ一ｕｎｌｅｓｓ，ｏｆ　ｃｏｕｒｓｅ，　ｗｅ　ｈａｖｅｗａｔｃｈｅｄ
the neighbor? Very likely not-unless, of course, we have watched
ｏｒ　ｔａｌｋｅｄ　ａｂｏｕｔ　ｔｈｅ　ｔｅｌｅｖｉｓｉｏｎ　ｓｅｒｉｅｓ，＂Ｒｏｏｔｓ．，＂Ｔｈｅｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｎｅｉｇｈｂｏｒ＇ｇ
or talked about the television series, &dquo;Roots.&dquo; Then the neighbor’s
ｑｕｉｒｋ　ｇａｉｎｓ　ａ　ｃｏｎｔｅｘｔ，ａ　ｓａｌｉｅｎｃｅ，ａ　ｐｌａｃｅ　ｉｎ　ａｗｉｄｅｒ　ｒｅａｌｍ　ｏｆ　ｃｕｌ－
quirk gains a context, a salience, a place in a wider realm of cul-
ｔｕｒｅ　ａｎｄ　ｍｅａｎｉｎｇ．　Ｗｅ　ｍａｋｅ　ｍｅａｎｉｎｇ　ｃｏｌｌｅｃｔｉｖｅｌｙ，　ｂｕｔ　ｗｅ　ｏｆｔｅｎ
ture and meaning. We make meaning collectively, but we often
ｄｏ　ｎｏｔ　ｋｎｏｗ　＂ｗｈａｔ　ｔｏ　ｍａｋｅ　ｏｆ＂ｔｈｅ　ｉｎｆｏｒｍａｔｉｏｎ　ｅｒｏｕｎｄ　ｕａ　ｕｎｔｉｌ　ｉｔ
do not know &dquo;what to make of&dquo; the information around us until it
ｈａｓ　ａ　ｓｅｔｔｉｎｇ．　Ｔｈｅ　ｍａ８８　ｍｅｄｉａ，　Ｉ　ｔｈｉｎｋ．　ｗｉｌｌ　Ｂｓ　ｏｆｔｅｎ　ｐｒｏｖｉｄｅ　ｔｈｅ
has a setting. The mass media, I think, will as often provide the
ｅｔｔｉｎｇ　ｆｏｒ　ａ　ｍｅｓｓａｇｅ　ｆｒｏｍ　ａｎ　８ａｃｑｕａｉｎｔａｎｃｅ　ａｓ　ｔｈｅ　ａｃｑｕａｉｎｔａｎｃｅ
setting for a message from an acquaintance as the acquaintance
.

ｗｉｌｌ　ｏｆｆｅｒ　ａｎ　ａｕｔｈｏｒｉｔａｔｉｖｅ　ｉｎｔｅｒｐｒｅｔａｔｉｏｎ　ｆｏｒ　ａ　ｍｅｓｓｅｇｅ　ｆｒｏｍ　ｔｈｅ
will offer an authoritative interpretation for a message from the
ｒｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ
mass media.
Ｎｏｎｅ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｉｓ　ｉｓ　ｍｅｅｎｔ　ｔｏ　ｄｉｍｉｎｉｓｈ　ｔｈｅ　ｓｕｐｒｅｍｅ　ｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｃｅ　ｏｆ
None of this is meant to diminish the supreme importance of
ｔａｌｋ　ｉｎ　ｈｕｍａｎ　ｌｉｆｅ．Ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓｅｔｉｏｎ　ｈｏｌｄｓ　ａ　ｐｒｉｍａｒｙ　ｐｌａｃｅ　ｉｎ　ｏｕｒ　ｌｉｖｅｓ
talk in human’ life. Conversation holds a primary place in our lives
ａｎｄ　ｕｒ　ｓｅｎｓｅ　ｏｆ　ｒｅａｌｉｔｙ　ｗｈｉｃｈ　ｎｅｉｔｈｅｒ　ｎｏｖｅｌｓ　ｎｏｒ　ｎｅｗｓｐａｐｅｒｓ　ｎｏｒ
and our sense of reality which neither novels nor newspapers nor
［３２８］　ＣＯＭＭＵＮＩＣＡＴＩＯＮ　ＲＥ８ＥＡＲＣＨ／　ＪＵＬＹ　１９７８
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ｆｉｌｍ　ｎｏｒ　ｔｅｌａｖｉｓｉｏｎ　ｃａｎ　ｍａｔｃｈ．　Ｄｅｗｅｙ　（１９４８：２）　ｗｒｏｔｅ，　ｗｉｔｈ　ｈａｎｔ－
film nor television can match. Dewey (1948: 2) wrote, with hunt-
ｉｎｇ　ａｎｄ　ｇａｔｈｅｒｉｎｇ　８ｏｃｉｅｔｉｅ８　ｉｎ　ｍｉｎｄ，＂ｔｈｅ　ｃｏｎｓｃｉｏｕｓ　ａｎｄ　ｔｒｕｌｙ
ing and gathering societies in mind, &dquo;the conscious and truly
ｈｕｍａｎ　ｅｘｐｅｒｉｅｎｃｅ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ　ｃｈａｓｅ　ｃｏｍｅｓ　ｗｎｅｎ　ｉｔ　ｉｓ　ｔａｌｋｅｄ　ｏｖｅｒ　ａｎｄ
human experience of the chase comes when it is talked over and
ｒｅ－ｅｎａｃｔｅｄ　ｂｙ　ｔｈｅ　ｃａｍｐ　ｆｉｒｅ．＂Ｏｎｅ　ｃａｎ　ｂｅｅｖｅ　ｔｈｉｓ　ａｎｄ　ｓｉｌｌ　ａｄｍｉｔ
re-enacted by the camp fire.&dquo; One can believe this and still admit
ｔｈａｔ　ｔｈｅ　ｃｈａｓｅ　ｗｉｌｌ　ｏｆｔｅｎ　ｈａｖｅ　ｂｅｅｎ　ｕｎｅｖｅｎｔｆｕｌ　ａｎｄ　ｔｈｅ　ｔａｌｋ　ａｂｏｕｔ
that the chase will often have been uneventful and the talk about
ｉｔ　ｔｒｉｖｉａｌ．Ｅｖｅｎ　ａｒｏｕｎｄ　ｔｈｅ　ｃａｍｐ　ｆｉｒｅ，　ｔａｌｋ　ｉｓ　ｔｔｋｅｌｙ　ｔｏ　ｂｅ　ｏｆ　ｃｏｎｖｏｌ－
it trivial. Even around the camp fire, talk is likely to be of convol-
ｖｕｌｕ３　ａｎｄ　ｈｏｎｅｙｓｕｃｋｌｅ，４
vulus and honeysuckle.4
Ｔｈｅｒｅ　ｉｓ　ｎｏｔｈｉｎｇ　ｗｒｏｎｇ　ｗｉｔｈ　ｔｈａｔ．　Ｂｕｔ　ｔｏ　ｒｅｃｏｇｎｉｚｅ　ｉｔ　ｓｈｏｕｌｄ
There is nothing wrong with that. But to recognize it should
ｍａｋｅ　ｕ８　ｒｎｏｒｅ　ｒｅａｌｉｓｔｉｃ　ｉｎ　ｗｈａｔ　ｗｅ　ｅｘｐｅｃｔ　ｆｒｏｍ　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ．
make us more realistic in what we expect from the mass media.
Ｗｅ　ｓｈｏｕｌｄ　ｂｅ　ｍｏｒｅ　ａｗａｒｅ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ　ｉｒｏｎｙ　ｉｎ　ｃｏｎｄｅｍｎｉｎｇ　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ
We should be more aware of the irony in condemning the mass
ｍｅｄｉａ　ｆｏｒ　ｆａｉｌｉｎｇ　ｔｏ　ｌｉｖｅ　ｕｐ　ｔｏ　ａ　ｓｔａｎｄａｒｄ，　ｔｈｅ　ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎａｌ　ｉｄｅａｌ，
media for failing to live up to a standard, the conversational ideal,
ｗｈｉｃｈ　ｔｈｅ　ｍａ８ｓ　ｍｅｄｉａ　ｈａｖｅ　ｈｅｌｐｅｄ　ｍａｋｅ　ｃｏｎｃｅｉｖｅｂｌｅ．
which the mass media have helped make conceivable..

ＮＯＴＥ８
~

.. NOTES

．Ｗｈｙ　ｉｔ　ｉ　ｅｔｗａｙ　ｔｈｅ　ｈｕ实ａｎｄ　ａｎｄ　ｓｏ　ｒａｒｅｔｙ　ｔｈｅ　ｗｉｆｅ　ｗｈｅ　ｒｅａｄｔｔｈｅ　ｍｏｒｎｉｎｇ
1. Why it is always the husband and so rarely the wife who reads the morning
ｐａｐｅｒ　ｉｎ　ｔｉｓ　ａｔｏｃｋ　２ｃｅｎｅ？　Ｔｈｅ　ｄｉｆｆｅｒａｎｔ　ｐａ献断ｒｎａ　ｏｆ　ｂｏｔｈ　ｃｏｎｖｅｗａｔｉｏｎ　ａｎｄ　ｏｒｉｅｎ－
paper in this stock scene? The different patterns of both conversation and orien-
ｔｔｉｏｎ　ｔｏ　ｔｈｅ　ｍ温ｓｓ　ｒｄｋｓ　ｏｆ　ｍｎｅｎ　ｎｄ　ｗｒｍａｎ　ｔｏｆ　鱼　ｔｏｐｉｅ　ｏｆ　ｇｒｅａｔｉｍｐｏｒｔａｒｃｅ．Ｉ
tation to the mass media of men and women is of a topic of great importance.I
ｔｈｉｎｋ．　ｔ　ｄｅｓｅｒｖｅ　ｍｏｒｅ　ｓｙｓｔｅｍａｔｉｃ　ａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎ．　Ｏｎ　ｃｏｎｖｏｒａａｔｉｏｎ　ｓｅｅ　Ｋｏｅｎａｎ　｛１９７４：
think. It deserves more systematic attention. On conversation see Keenan (1974:
１２５－１４３．
125-143).
２．Ｏｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｒｉｓｅ　ｏｆ　ｅｖｅｎｉｎｇ　ｐａｐｅｒｓ，客ｅｅ　Ｅｍａｒｙ（１９７２∶２９２；　ｏｎ　ｔｈｅ　ｏｒｉｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎ　ｏｆ
2. On the rise of evening papers, see Emery (1972: 292); on the orientation of
ｎｅｖｖａｐａｐ２ｒ靠　ｉｎ　ｔｈｅ　１８８０　ｔｏ　ａ　行ｅｍａｌｅ　ｒｅａｄｅｒｓｈｉｐ，　８Ｄ　Ｊｕａｒｇｅｎｓ｛１９６６）　ａｎｄ
newspapers in the 1880s to a female readership, see Juergens (1966) and
Ｓｃｈｕｄｘｏｎ　（１９７８）．
Schudson (1978).
３．Ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ　ｍｅｄａ　ａｌｓｏ　ｃａｎ　ｄａｍｏｃｒａｔｉｚｅ　ｓｏｃｉａｌ　ｒｅｌａｔｌｏｎｓ　ｂｙ　ｓｕｂａｓｔｔｕｔｉｎｇ　ｆｏｒ
3. The mass media also democratize social relations by substituting for
can
ｃｏｎｖｅｒｓａｔｉｏｎ　ｂｏｔｗｏｏｎ　ｐｅｏｐｔｅ　ｕｎｅｑｕａｌ　Ｉｎ　Ｓ１能ｔｕｇ．Ｆｏｒ　ｉｎｓａｎｃ，ａｎｅ　ｇｔｕｂｙ　ｉｎｄｉｃａｅ
conversation between people unequal in status. For instance, one study indicates
ｔｈａｔ　ｃｏｌｌｅｐｅ－ｅｄｕＧａｔｄ　ｐｅＫｅｎｔ　ｒｅｈｙ　ｍｏｒ・　ｏｎ　ｄｒｅｃｔ　ｐｅｒｇｏＮａｔ　ｃｏｎｔｅｃｔ　ｗｉｔｈ　ａｃｈｏｏ｝
that college-educated parents rely more on direct personal contact with school
ａｆｉｅｉａｌｓ　ｔｏ　ｌｅａｒｎ　ａｂｏｕｔ　ｌｏｃａｌ　ｓｃｈｏｏｔ，　ｗｈｉｌｏ　ｐｒｒａｎ诱　ｗｉｔｈｏｕｔ　ｃｏｌｌｏｇｅ　ｅｄｕｃａｔｉｏｎ
officials to learn about local schools, while parents without college education
ｐｒｅｆｅｒ　ｎｅｗｓｐａｐｅｒｓ　ａｓ　　ｓｏｕｒｃｅ　ｏｆ　ｉｎｆｏｒｍａｔｉｏｎ　Ｔｈｅ　ｓｔｕｏｙ　ｈｏｌｄａ　ｔｈａｔ＂ｔｈｅ　ｍｅｓｓ
prefer newspapers of information. The study holds that "the
as a source mass
ｍｅｄｉｍ　ｇｏｅｍ　ｔｏ　ｂｅ　ｒｅｌａｔｉｖｏｌｙ　ｍｏｒｅ　ｕｓｅｆｕｌ　ｃｈｕｎｎａｌ；　ｆｏｒ　ｔｈａｔ　ｌａｒｇｅ　ｓｏｇｍｅｎｔ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ
media seem to be relatively useful channels for that large segment of the
more
ｃｉｔｉｚｗｎｒｙ　ｔｈａｔ　ｉｓ　ｌｅｓｓ　ｅｄｕｃａｔｅｄ　ｔｈａｎ　ａｒｅ　ｓｃｈｏｏｌ　ｐｅｒｓｏｎｎｅｌ．　Ｏｎｅ　ｎｉｇｈｔ　ｅｖｅｎ　ｄｅｓｃｒｉｂｅ
citizenry that is less educated than are school personnel. One might even describe
ｔｈｅ　ｍｏｄａ　ａｓ　ｔｈｅ　ｌｅａ弊＇ｅｌｉｔｒ＇ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ　ｓｖｅｒａｌ　ｐｏｔｅｎｔｉａｌ　ｓｏｕｒｃｅｓｏｆ　ｐｕｂｉｃ　ｉｎｆｏｒｍａｔｉｏｎ
the media as the least ’elitist’ of the several potential sources of public information
ａｂｏｕｔ　ｓｃｈｏｏｌｓ＂［Ｃｈａｆｆｏｏ，１９６７：７３２），
about schools" (Chaffee, 1967: 732).
４．Ｎａｒｓｈａｌｌ，ｆａｒ　ｉｎｎａｎｃａ，　ｒｅｐｏｒａ　ｔｈｓｔ　ｔｈｅ　ＫＤｎｇ　ｂｕａｈｍｅｎ　ａｒｅ　ａｎ　ｅｓｐｅｃｉａｌｙ
4. Marshall, for instance, reports that the Kung bushmen are an especially
ｌｏｑｕａｃｉｏｕｓ　ｐｅｏｐｌｅ一ｐａｒｉｃｕｌａｒｔｈｙ　ｔｈｅ　ｎｅｉｅ．　Ｔｈｅｙ　ｔａｌｋ　ｆｒｅｑｕｅｎｔｙ，０ｅｎｅｒｅｌｌｙ　ａｂｕｔ
loquacious people—particularly the males. They talk frequently, generally about
ｆｏｏｄ．　Ｔｈｅｙ　ｄｉｏ　ｎｏｔ　ｇｅｎａｒａｌｌｙ　￥ｐａｅｋ　ｏｐａｎｌｙ　ｏｆ　ｇａｘｕａｌ　ｍａｔｔａｒｓ　ｏｒ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ　ｇｏｄｓ．Ｔｈｅｙｄ
food. They do not generally speak openly of sexual of the gods. They do
ｎｏｔ　ｔｅｌｌ　ｍｙｔｈａ．　Ｔｈｅｙ　ｄｏ　ｐｏｔ　ｉｎｖｅｎｔ　ｓｉｏｒｉｖｅｓ：＇Ｔｈｅｙ　ｓａｉｄ　ｔｈｅｙ　ｈｕａｄ　ｎｏ　ｉｎｔａｒｅｓｔ　ｉｎ　ｈｅａｒｌｎｇ
matters or
not tell myths. They do notinvent stories: "They said they had
no interest in hearing
ｔｈｉｎｇ３ｔｈ血Ｌ　８ｒｅ　ｎｏｔ　ｔｒｕｅａｎｄ　ｗｏｎｄｅｒｗｈｙ　ａｎｙｂｏｄｙ　ｈｓ＂（Ｍｅｒａｈａｌｌ，１９６８∶１７９－１８４．
things that are not true and wonder why anybody has" (Marshall, 1968: 179-184).
 Ｓｃｈｕｄ３ｏｎ　／　ＩＤＥＡＬ　ＯＦ　ＣＯＮＶＥＲＳＡＴＩＯＮ　［３２８］
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ＲＥＦＥＲＥＮＣＥＳ
REFERENCES

ＣＨＡＦＦＥＥ，　Ｓ．Ｈ．（１９６７＂Ｔｈｅ　ｐｕｂｉｅ　ｖｉｌｅｗ　ｏｆ　助ｈｅ　ｍｅｄｉａ　ａＥ　ｃａｒｒｉｏａ　ｏｆ　ｉｎｌｏｒｍａｔｉｏｎ
CHAFFEE, S. H. (1967) "The public view of the media as carriers of information
ｂｅｔｗｅａｎ　ｓｄｈｏｏｌ　血ｎｄ　ｃａｍｍｕｎｉｔｙ．＂Ｊｏｕｒｎａｌｉｅｍ　Ｇ．　４４　Ｗｉｎｔｅｒ）；　７３２．
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ＤＥＷＥＹ，Ｊ．［１９４５　Ｒｅｃｏｎｓｔｒｕｃｔｉｏｎ　ｉｎ　Ｐｈｉｌｏｇｏｐｈｙ．　Ｂｏｇｔｏｎ：　Ｂｅｅｃｎ　Ｐａ．
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—　｛１９２０＂Ａｍｎｗｉｃａｎｉｇｍ　ａａｄ　ｆｏｃａｌｉａｍ．＂　Ｔｈｅ　Ｄｉａｌ　６８〔Ｕｕｎｅｋ　６８０
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ＤＵｖＧＮＡＵＤ．Ｊ．｛１９７０　Ｃｈａｎｇｅ　ａｔ　Ｓｈｅｂａａ、Ｎｅｗ　Ｙｏｒｋ：Ｒａｒｕｄｏｍ　Ｈｏｕ８．
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ＥＭＥＡＹ，Ｅ（１９７２）Ｔｈｅ　Ｐｒｅ８ｓ泉ｎｄ　Ａｍｒｉｃｅ．Ｅｒｇｌｅｗｏｏｄ　Ｃｉｆｔ∶　Ｐｒｅｎｔｉｃｅ－Ｈａｌｌ．
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ＷＡＮＳＫＡ　Ａ．｛１９５６）　Ｃｏｏｄ　Ｆｏｒｔｕｎｅ：　Ｓｅｅａｎｄ　Ｃａｎｃａ　Ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｔｙ．　Ｗａｇｈｉｎｇｔｏｎ
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ｗｏｍｅｎ　ｉｎ　ａ　Ｍａｌｏａｓｙ　ｃｏｎｍｕｎｉｔｙ．＂　ｐｐ．１２５－１４３　ｉｎ　Ｒ．Ｂａｕｍａｎ　ａｎｄＪ．Ｓｈ８ｒｃｅｒ
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ＰＩＮＴＥＲ，　Ｈ．１９８２）＂Ａ　Ｓｌｇｈｔ　Ａｃｈｅ．＂ｉｎ　Ｔｈｒｅｏ　Ｐｔｅｙｓ、Ｎｏｗ　Ｙｏｒｔ：　Ｇｒｏｖｅ．
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Ｍｉｃｈｅｏｆ　Ｓｃｈｖｄｓｏｎ　ｉｓ　Ａｇｓｉｓｗｒｔ　Ｐｒａｆｍｓｓｏｒ　ｏｆ　ｓｏｉｏｆｏｇｙ　部　ｔｈｅ　Ｕｎｉｖｒｓｉｔｙ　ａｆ
Michael Schudson is Assistant Professor of sociology at the University of
ＣｈｉｅｏｇＤ．　Ｈｅ　ｈａｓ　ｗｒｉｔｔｅｎ　ｏｎ　ｅｄｕｃａｔｉｏｎ．　ｔｈｅ　ｐｒｏｆａｓｓｉｏｎｓ，　ａｎｄ　ｔｈｅ　ｍａｓｓ
Chicago. He has written education, the professions, and the mass
on
ｍｅｄｉｅ，　ｓｎｄ　ｉｓ　ａｕｔｈｏｒ　ｏｆ　ｔｈｅ　ｆｏｒｔｈｓｏｒｎｉｎｇ　ｂｕａｋ．　Ｄｉｓｃｏｖｅｒｉｎｇ　ｔｈｅ　Ｎｅｗａ：　Ａ
media, and is author of the forthcoming book, Discovering the News: A
Ｓｏｃｉａ１　Ｈｔｅｔｏｒｙ　ｏｆ　Ａｍｅｒｉｃａｎ　Ｊｏｕｒｎｉｓｍ　［Ｂｅｉｅ　Ｂｏｏｋｘ，　１９７８Ａ
Social History of American Journalism (Basic Books, 1978).