Bachelor Thesis

on
“The Changing Pattern of Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) Conflict over the Last Decades
and Deprivation of Indigenous People”

Submitted By:
Exam Roll No: 30028

Registration NO: 2016-018-886

BSS 4th Year, 8th Semester
Session: 2016-2017
Dept. of Peace and Conflict Studies
University of Dhaka

Submitted To:
Department of Peace and Conflict Studies
University of Dhaka

Date of Submission: 16-01-2022

This Bachelor Thesis is submitted to fulfill partial requirements of BSS (Hon’s Degree) in the

Department of Peace and Conflict Studies, University of Dhaka

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 Acknowledgement

At the very first, I will thank and express my complete gratitude to the Almighty Allah for his
blessings to me in completing my research paper.

I would like to thank my honorable lecturer and supervisor Tanima Megdalina Corraya for
assisting me with this paper. Without her expertise and supervision, the completion of this paper
would have been impossible. I would also like to thank my supervisor for taking her time to guide
and provide advice for this paper.

I also express my gratitude to the faculties of the Department of Peace and Conflict Studies, Dr.
Md. Touhidul Islam (Associate Professor) , Dr. Md. Rafiq Shahariar (Professor) and Mohammad
Shaheenur Alam ( Assistant Professor) for providing me with guidelines to conduct the study and
for completing this research paper.

I am immensely grateful to my seniors and friends for providing me with valuable information and
unconditional support that helped me complete my bachelor thesis.

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Table of Contents Page No.

Chapter 1-Introduction…………………………………..………………………………………..8

1.1 Identification of the Study…………………………………………………………..8-9

1.2 Background of the Study………………………………………………..………....9-10
1.3 Significance of the Study……………………………………………………..….10-11
1.4 Objectives of the Study………………………………………………………………11
1.5 Research Question……………………………………………………………..…….11
1.6 Expectation of the Study………………………………………………………….11-12
1.7 Scope of the Study…………………………………………………………………...12

Chapter 2-Literature Review……………………………………………………….………..13-22

Chapter 3-Theoretical and Conceptual Framework………………………………………….23-26
Chapter 4-Research Methodology……………………………………………………………….27
4.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………….27
4.2 Types of Research & Methods………………………………………….………..27-28
4.3 Data Collection Procedure & Sources……………………………………………28-29
4.4 Data Analysis & Presentation………………………………………………….........29
4.5 Consent and Ethical Consideration………………………………………………….29
4.6 Variables………………………………………………………………………....29-30
4.7 Sampling………………………………………………………………….………30-31
4.8 Interaction between Variables……………………………………………………….31
Chapter 5-Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………………32
5.1 Analytical Framework………………………………………………………...……..32
5.2 The Principal Causes of the Conflict in the CHT……………………………….…..37
5.3 Ignorance of Demands……………………………………………………...…….37-38
5.4 Identity……………………………………………………………………………38-40
5.5 Violation of Rights………………………………………………………………40-42
5.6 Military Presence…………………………………………………………………42-43

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 5.7 Bengali Settlement………………………………………………………………..44-45

5.8 Non-implementation of Peace Accord…………………………….…………….45-48

5.9 Security Issues……………………………………………………………………...48

5.10 Personal Security……………………………………………………………….48-49

5.11 Economic Security………………………………………………………………49-50

5.12 Political Security………………………………………………………………..51-53
6.13 Disempowerment……………………………………………………………….53-54
5.14 Driving Factors of the Conflict………………………………………………….54-55
5.15 Dimension of the Conflict over the Years………………………………………55-56
5.16 Barriers to Reach in Peace……………………………………………………..56-57
Chapter-6…………………………………………………………………………………..…….58
6.1 Findings……………………………………………………………………………..58
6.2 Limitations of the Study……………………………………………………………..59
6.3 Recommendations…………………………………………………...…………..60-61
6.4 Conclusion……………………………….…………………………………………..62
Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………….63-67
Appendices………………………………………………………………………………………68

Appendix-1………………………………………………………………………………68

Appendix-2…………………………………………………………………...………69-70

Appendix-3…………………………………………………………………………...….71

Appendix-4………………………………………………………………………………72

Appendix-A………………………………………………………………………………73

Appendix-B………………………………………………………………………………73

Appendix-C………………………………………………………………………………74

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Abbreviation

CHT Chittagong Hill Tracts

PCJSS Parbatya Chattagram Jana Samhati Samiti ( CHT

People’s Solidarity Association)

UPDF United People’s Democratic Front

RD Relative Deprivation

HS Human Security

SC Social Conflict

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

IP Indigenous Peoples

IWGIA International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs

DHC Hill District Council

CHS Commission on Human Security

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 Abstract

This paper investigates the dimension of the conflict in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT)

region in the post-conflict era. The key argument is that the dimension of the conflict in the CHT

has changed in the post-conflict period. When the pre-conflict era is characterized by the violent

arms conflict the post-conflict is characterized by the social and communal conflict. The study

finds that due to continuous land rights violations, the militarization of the region, Bengali

settlement etc. the region experiences a fragile condition for peace and stability. Though we have

a Peace Accord the conflict in the region for abolishing the violent arms conflict, does not end

completely. Rather the dimension of the conflict has changed. The post-accord period experiences

the end of the violent conflict and the emergence of social and communal conflict. In analyses, this

dimension of conflict this paper uses the relative deprivation and human security theories to

understand the issue.

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Chapter 1

Introduction
The Chittagong Hill Tracts conflict is one of the major national problematic issues of Bangladesh.

This conflict has been an issue of national concern since the independence of the country. In the

immediate aftermath of the independence of Bangladesh, the Bengali migration event to the CHT

region emerged as some sort of ethnic conflict between Bengali migrants and indigenous

communities. Therefore, this area has seen many clashes between the migrants and local people of

the CHT. Later, the militarization of the CHT has become one of the factors that make the region

turbulent. The ascription of Bengali nationality on the local communities in the CHT is another

cause that makes the peace process difficult. The ignorance of the indigenous people’s identity at

the expense of Bengali nationality made the issue sustainable as a problem for the Bangladesh

government since the 1970s. In addition, there are some more issues that are responsible for

creating the region more turbulent. In 1997, a peace accord between the Bangladesh government

and an indigenous group has been signed to make the region peaceful. But non-implementation of

the major provisions of the accord creates some distrust among the local communities about the

intention of the government and makes the conflict durable in the most naturally beautiful region

of the country.

1.1 Identification of the Research Problem

The Chittagong Hill Tracts, the southeastern part of the country and consist of three districts

namely Rangamati, Bandarban and Khagrasari, is the most natural sight of the country. This

region, for its’ geographic location, is an important forest reserve area of Bangladesh. CHT

contains many natural resources for making the nation developed in both national and international

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arena. But before and after the emergence of Bangladesh, the region was and remains a turbulent

area. Before the 1970s, the Kaptai Dam project displaced many local people from their own homes.

This event created a condition that later turned into a conflict between the indigenous people and

the government. After the independence of Bangladesh, the Bengali people’s migration and

militarization of the CHT made the region more violent. Sundry arms groups have emerged for the

autonomy of their land and for land tenure. In 1997, a Peace Accord was signed between the

government and the local communities. But the conflict does not resolve. Non-implementation of

the accord makes the peace process difficult and this issue has yet remained one of the headaches

of the government of Bangladesh.

The dimension of the conflict in the CHT has changed through the last few decades. The conflict

from development projects to the present types of arms conflict is seen in the region. This changing

dimension of the conflict is a lesser studied phenomenon in the academic arena. In his research,

the changing dimension of the conflict in the CHT over the last few decades will be examined.

1.2 Background of the Study

The conflict in the CHT has been in the country since the independence of Bangladesh in 1971.

This conflict seems like a continuous process in the southeastern part of the country. Many kinds

of literature have reflected this issue only, but how the dimension of conflict has been changed

over the last few decades has not been explored. This topic has been conducted as a significant

phenomenon since the 1970s. In the beginning, the literatures were more focused on the migration

and militarization events as the principal reasons for the conflict in the CHT region. Later,

specifically, after the 1997 Peace Accord the dimension of the conflict has changed and took a

new form.

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After the 1997 accord, many works have been done on the CHT conflict but how the dimension

of the conflict in the region has changed over the last few decades is not researched much in the

field. On the other hand, as the CHT region is linked with two foreign states, India and Myanmar,

it is also connected to the security issue of Bangladesh. For this, the Bangladesh government wants

to make sure more security of the area and so it militarized the region. Most importantly, the

dimension of the conflict has changed because of the non-implementation of the 1997 Peace

Accord. This creates a new wave of conflict in the region that has been conducted in the limited

literature that this arena still signifies untouched by the researchers and academicians. The non-

implementation of the 1997 accord and distrust among the local communities about the intention

of the government made the topic more significant to conduct in recent times.

1.3 Significance of the Study

There has been very less word done in the field of changing dimensions of conflict in the

southeastern part of the country and how this new dimension created a new concern for the peace

in the region. This research aims to study the changing dimension of the conflict in the CHT region.

From the very beginning of the study in the field focused much on the sundry reasons for the

conflict but not how that conflict has changed over time. The focus on the causes of the conflict is

another reason why the changing dimension of the conflict has never come under the light in recent

times. The findings of the research will be helpful for the policymakers of the country for

understanding in what direction the conflict is going to be and they can take appropriate actions

for resolving the problem. As the Bangladesh government consider the CHT region important and

try to establish peace in the area around this will help the government to have a better

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understanding of this which will be beneficial for them to set up a proper strategy to counter the

revolt groups and bring peace and stability in the important southeastern part of the country.

1.4 Research Objectives

The principle objectives of this research paper are:

 To assess the nature of conflict in the southeastern part (CHT) of Bangladesh.

 To assess the changing dimension of the conflict in the Chittagong Hill Tracts in the post-

conflict era.

 To assess the major causes of the conflict that sustain the crisis in the region

 To assess driving forces for making the region unstable.

1.5 Research Question

A number of questions arise when conducting this study. These questions will be answered in the

later chapters in an attempt to explain these phenomena. The research questions are mentioned as

follows:

 How has the pattern of the conflict in the Chittagong Hill Tracts changed over the last

decades?

 What kind of dimension of the conflict has changed over time?

1.6 Expectation of the Research

There are a few expectations about the research in question:

 Find out the new degree of conflict that has emerged in recent times in the Southeastern

part (CHT) of Bangladesh

 Know the evolution of the conflict in the CHT over the decades

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  Understanding the new form of conflict for the national strategy to bring the region under

peace and stability

Through this study, we will be able to understand the past and present conditions of conflict in the

CHT region and how and in which way the conflict has taken new forms over the years. On the

other hand, this study will also enable us to know the government’s role in creating the new

dimension of the conflict in recent decades. These expectations and other related factors (if

necessary) will be discussed in detail in the upcoming chapters.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The scope is the range or extent to which the subject matter will be studied. The scope of the study

includes actors, institutions, and the main focus of the subject matter. The actors of the research

are local indigenous people and government institutions of Bangladesh. Here in this research

paper, the investigation will be run around the grounds of the local indigenous people and as the

main actor of the under the different groups in the CHT region. The conflict in the region is not

new. To some extent, the Bangladesh government as an actor has been playing a more significant

role in the intensification of the conflict. On the contrary, the continuous clash between the local

indigenous and the migrant Bengali people contributes as another factor to the conflict.

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Chapter 2

Literature Review

The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) is a hilly area located in the south-eastern part of Bangladesh

bordering two-third with India and Myanmar. The overall area of the CHT is about 10 percent of

the country. The total population of CHT is approximately one and a half million. Chittagong Hill

Tracts issue is one of the issues that remain unresolved since the independence of Bangladesh.

After the independence, militarization and Bengali settlement to CHT turned it into a more

turbulent region of the country. Therefore, a peace accord was signed in 1997 to resolve this

conflict. But, the non-implementation of the accord and continuation of militarization of the region

make the hope of bringing peace elusive. These two issues have changed the dimension of the

conflict in the CHT.

This section accomplishes the task of literature review with a view to finding the relevance of the

study, particularly the research gap.

To begin with the literature review, Muhammad Kazim Nur Sohad & Mohammad Yaqub

(n,d.), is worth mentioning. In their study, titled “The New Paradigm of Conflict: A Study on the

Changing Dynamics of Peace and Conflict in CHT, Bangladesh”, claims that the dominant

presence of ‘local state’ has caused unprecedented violence between ethnicity in CHT. After the

independence of Bangladesh in 1971, it declared itself as a Bengali nation-state. Then the state-

imposed its’ Bengali nationalism on the other ethnic communities. The work claims that two

activities of the state have led ethnic minority groups to engage in an armed insurgency movement

against the state. One is the state denial of recognizing the ethnic identity of hill people. And other

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is the constant socio-economic marginalization of the CHT people. Therefore, the Bangladesh

government deployed military forces in the region claiming security and control of the CHT. This

paper also says that after the signing of the peace accord in 1997, the dynamic of the conflict has

turned into a diverse dimension. In the conclusion, it focuses on the newer trends of conflicts in

the post-accord and shows that the different agencies and ‘state actors” are initiating intra-ethnic

conflict by creating unequal participation and promoting class relations among the ethnic

communities (Sohad & Yaqub, n,d.).

A work by Mark Levene (1999) titled “The Chittagong Hill Tracts: A case study in the

political economy of ‘creeping’ genocide” focuses on the state-communal relations for realizing

the conflict in the CHT. He argues that the CHT has its own peculiar features what he termed as

‘creeping’ nature. Every nation-state takes efforts to overcome its structural weaknesses by

occupying its resource-rich frontier region as a part of its’ state-building and development agenda.

Bangladesh, likely, drives itself to develop the CHT not only by the Western finance and aid but

also it is closely linked to the integration itself to into the Western-dominated and regulated

international system. He stresses that it is more important to realize the unrealizable factors of

conflict in the CHT region (Levene, 1999).

The study by Nasir Uddin (2010) titled “Politics of Cultural Difference: Identity and

Management in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh” highlighted three central concerns.

First of all, it examines the history and politics of South Asia which laid down the identities for

the Pahari people living in the CHT, Bangladesh. Secondly, this study critically discusses that

colonial policy is still being practiced in the post-colonial era particularly in dealing with the

cultures and way of life in the territory of Bangladesh. Thirdly, the writer argues that the identity

formation of the Pahari people is closely linked with the politics of marginality. Overall, the writer

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focuses on the identity formation of the Hilly people and the upland-lowland relations of minorities

in Bangladesh particularly in the CHT region (Uddin, N. 2010).

A report written by Rajkumari Chandra Kalindi Roy (2000) titled “Land rights of the

indigenous people of the Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh: A historical analysis of policy

issues” focuses much on the violation of the land right of indigenous people. It identifies that the

different government projects and programs in the area have been impacted with dire

consequences. The government’s military forces control the area and there have been continuing

reports of torture, killings, and forced detention by the security forces. She stands that the forcible

violation of the indigenous people’s land rights, the lack of recognition and protection of land

rights of the indigenous people are at the heart of the conflict. Though we have a peace accord

signed between the government and PCJSS but it couldn’t stop the violation of land rights and

torture on the indigenous people. In the concluding part the report suggests that the government

needs to address the issue of land rights in an open and comprehensive manner urgently (Roy,

R.C.K, 2000).

The study by Bhumitra Chakma (2016) titled “The CHT and the Peace Process”, explores

the 1997 peace accord and peace in reality after the all but two decades of signing the accord.

Bangladesh government and the Parbttya Chattagram Jano Samhati Samiti concluded a peace

accord in 1997. But the peace process has failed to build a sustainable peace in the CHT. He argues

that a post-conflict peace-building process has been just under way. This work identified the

inherent weakness of the accord and the government’s failure to implement key provisions of the

accord as the key reasons for continuing tensions and conflict in the CHT region (Chakma, 2016).

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 The work by Mohammad Ala Uddin (2017) entitled “Continuing Conflict: Critical

Transition to Peace in the Post-Conflict Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh” explores the

reasons behind the absence of peace and ongoing conflict in the CHT. He argues that though an

accord was signed in 1997 to make peace in the CHT, it cannot make sure peace in the region.

Hence, peace remains elusive and conflict continues in the hills even in the post-conflict era since

1997. The study provides that there are at least two key factors for the absence of peace or ongoing

conflict. One is the slow pace of implementation of the Accord of 1997 and the other is the non-

implementation of various provisions of the treaty. In addition, he also identifies the flows of the

treaty, identity politics, local factions etc. as responsible for making peace difficult. This article is

helpful to understand a part of the conflict but not in detail (Uddin, 2017).

Then Rafia Rahman (2021), in his study, titled “Conflict among Indigenous Communities

and Settler Bengali Community of Chittagong Hill Tracts: Is There a Way to Peace?” depicted

the conflict among indigenous ethnic groups and the Bengali community in the CHT. The

language, culture, and traditions of indigenous people are totally different from Bengalis. After the

Bengali settlement in CHT, those linguistic and cultural lacunas have been visible. The study

showed that the lack of understanding between these two different entities and unsatisfactory

implementation of the 1997 Peace accord is the main reason for distrust and frustrations among

the ethnic groups. Therefore, this distrust increased ethnic violence in the region. This paper

suggested that to eradicate this conflict we need to foster understanding between the two ethnic

communities and implementation of the Peace Accord. Though this study is helpful to understand

the conflict between Bengali and indigenous communities living in the CHT, it did not show other

reasons for conflict such as no constitutional recognition of indigenous people and government

economic project in the CHT (Rahman, 2021).

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 The work by Iqthyer Uddin Md Zahed (2013) titled “Conflict between government and the

indigenous people of Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh”, explores a brief history of struggle

and conflict of indigenous people of CHT for their rights with three different governments. They

were persecuted and deprived of human rights, basic needs from the British rule to independence

Bangladesh. This paper identifies land grabbing, Bengali settlement, internal displacements, ethnic

non-recognition in the constitution of the country, the militarization of CHT etc. as the issues

which made indigenous people revolutionary. Therefore, they demanded their autonomy and got

involved in conflict with governments. In addition, the non-implementation of the Peace Accord

of 1997 is another reason which incites the conflicts and continued till now (Zahed, 2013).

The study by Ranjan Saha Partha (2016) titled “The Consequences of Chittagong Hill

Tracts (CHT) Peace Accord at the Village Level: Case Study of Khagrachari Hill District in

Bangladesh”, examines the relationship between peace and anthropology. He argues that

militarization by the Bangladesh government and the Bengali settlement program in the region

made the conflict self-sustaining between the Bengalis and local Jumma people. In order to

understand the conflict, he uses two interrelated conceptual issues. One is the idea of peace and

conflict and the other is local people’s role as cultural innovators. Therefore, he concludes that the

Peace Accord of 1997 is far from meeting the demands of indigenous people, and to meet peace

we need a holistic understanding of the conflict of CHT (Partha, 2016).

Pranab Kumar Panday and Ishtiaq Jamil (2009) in their study titled “Conflict in the

Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh: An Unimplemented Accord and Continued Violence”,

argue that the law enforcement agencies and also Bengali settlers violate the human rights of the

indigenous people in the CHT. They do so even after the signing of the 1997 peace accord. This

work shows that the 1997 peace accord is not fully implemented which is thought to be so. In

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addition, the “top-down” nature of the accord prevents making the region tranquil. Therefore, the

conflict is sustaining and peace remains elusive in the CHT (Panday and Jamil, 2009).

Anurug Chakma’s (2017) in his work titled “The Peacebuilding of the Chittagong Hill

Tracts (CHT), Bangladesh: Donor-Driven or Demand-Driven?” identifies some problems behind

the peacebuilding process in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) area. He tried to know who is

playing a crucial role in establishing peace in the region in the post-1997 accord. The study argues

that a top-down approach to peacebuilding and donor-driven peacebuilding partnership between

local and international stakeholders are the principal causes for not getting the region peaceful.

The local and international actors that involve in the peacebuilding process in the CHT, are

intended to implement their own models of peacebuilding in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. Moreover,

they do not consider indigenous language, culture, and their way of life as significant to erect peace

in the region. This study provides that in order to bring peace in the CHT region, the actors working

in the CHT to make peace, view the peacebuilding process from their own perspective rather than

from a local perspective. He suggests that for making peace demand-driven peacebuilding proves

is crucial. This study is helpful to understand the main barriers to bring peace in the CHT region

but it does not provide what are other models of peacebuilding may have a decisive impact on the

peacebuilding process in the CHT region (Chakma, 2017).

The study by Rafiqul Islam et. al. (2020) namely “Climate change events in the Bengali

migration to the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) in Bangladesh”, mainly focuses on the migration

of Bengali people to the Chittagong Hill Tracts from the delta region. They identify climate events

as the push factors of this migration. They argue that environmental causes are the primary factors

for the migration decisions of the migrants to move to the CHT region. In addition, the Bangladesh

government’s settlement programs, government protection, provision of land and social networks

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in the CHT region were mediating factors that enabled Bengali migrants to settle permanently in

the CHT. But indigenous people consider this migration as harmful to their cultural, economic and

political rights. Although a peace accord was signed in 1997, low-level conflict still continues due

to insufficient implementation of the Accord. This paper only concentrates on the migration that

contributes to the conflict in the region. But it does not mention other causes of the conflict like

the intervention of the international actors in the region (Islam et al., 2020).

Aynul Islam (2013), in his work titled “The Land Tenure Dynamics in the Post-conflict

Chattagong Hill Tracts (CHT), Bangladesh”, attempts to connect the causes of the post-conflict

CHT with the land tenure. He argues that the post-conflict CHT is a ‘hybrid land context’. The

ownership of land is contested between tribal and settler households. The Bengalis are grabbing

customary land for developing economic projects that make the land context more complex. This

study concludes that this land tenure is insecure because there is an absence of effective tenure

governance there. This issue makes the peace process more complex and difficult (Islam, 2013).

The study by Muhammad Sazzad Hossain Siddiqui (2016) titled “Challenges of

Implementation Peace Accord: The Case of Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord (CHTPA) in

Bangladesh”, examines that the Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord (CHTPA) does not satisfy

its targeted people’s demands. The top-down approach of policymaking, discrimination of

implementation of the accord and dearth of proper management of the existing crises are the

principal reasons for not gaining the targeted people’s trust in the Peace Accord. He argues that,

therefore, the higher tendency of occurrence of conflicts for land tenure is prevailing though a

peace accord was designed and signed. In conclusion, the study argues that proper and exact focus

on the concerned actors of the CHT crisis could play a significant role in ensuring better policy

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output of the CHTPA implementation. But his study does not take government development

projects as important for sustaining the conflict in the CHT region (Siddiqui, 2016).

The study by Md Rafiqul Islam (2019), titled “The current trend of Bengali migration and

settlement to the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) in Bangladesh: An Empirical Study”, showed that

though the Bengali migration and settlement to the CHT region has ended officially through

signing the Peace Accord in 1997, Bengali people are still migrating and settling in the CHT. This

paper argues that the Bengali migration and settlement to the CHT is a continuous process. He

identifies that this migration of Bengali people has been possible through social networks and

family connections. Therefore, he concluded that it is one of the sources of conflict between local

indigenous and migrant people (Islam, 2019).

The work by Md. Nazmul Hasan Chowdhury (2006) titled “The Resistance Movement in

the Chittagong Hill Tracts: Global and Regional Connections”, mainly focuses on the complicated

relationship between indigenous people and the governments. He argues that only focusing on the

national level can obscure the external factors which influence the relationship between the state

and indigenous people. In addition, he argues, instead, we need to broaden our lenses to look for

critical external relations. This study stressed more on the relationship between the state and

indigenous people in a transnational context. In the concluding part, the study focuses on the need

to pay more focus on the roots of such conflicts in regional and global approaches (Chowdhury,

2006).

An article written by Lailufar Yasmin (2014) titled “The Tyranny of the Majority in

Bangladesh: The Case of the Chittagong Hill Tracts”, analyzes the construction of a national

identity building through ‘majoritarianism’. This means that the majority people of the country or

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the elite groups construct the national identity of the state. This paper called it “positional

dominance”. The majority of people of Bangladesh construct the national identity of the state based

on Bengali identity that delegitimizes other claims to identity by indigenous communities which

is place-based identity. This study concludes that though a formal treaty has been signed between

the government and the indigenous people, peace remains elusive because of the cultural

hegemony of Bengalis over the indigenous peoples in the name of the supremacy of the national

state. This article is helpful to understand how identity construction made a durable peace process

difficult in the CHT, but it does not mention other reasons for the conflict in the region such as

Bengali migration to the region, land tenure or militarization of the region (Yasmin, 2014).

The study by Aziz Rahman & Mohin Ali (2019) titled “Transforming Ethnic Conflict and

Building Peace in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh” explains that the CHT has experienced

conflicts in both colonial and post-colonial periods. Even in post-independence Bangladesh, this

conflict did exist there. The study also argues that in spite of a formal peace accord between the

government and the peace force of the indigenous people the conflict continues in the CHT. This

work explores the salient factors of the CHT conflict such a political, economic, cultural, and

psychological factors by applying the Social Cubism Model. This study identifies two causes of

the conflict in the CHT. One is the dispossession of the indigenous communities from their

ancestors’ land and the other is the deprivation of the indigenous people of their traditional and

customary practices with the nature and environment. It argues that the CHT conflict is complex

and protracted because of the interlocking conflict factors that need to be considered as important

for transforming the conflict and building peace in the CHT region (Rahman & Ali, 2019).

The work by Pawan Mathur (2015) titled “Analysis of Chittagong Hill Tract Conflict in

Bangladesh” describes the demographic feature of the CHT. The CHT region is characterized by

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ethnic diversity. At least 11 indigenous ethnic groups are living in the area known as Jumma

people. This word argues that the Bengali settlement in the CHT considerably changes the

demography of the region. Currently, the population of Bengali is equal to that of the indigenous

Jumma people. He traces the origin of the conflict in the administrative neglect and the denial of

land rights to the indigenous ethnic groups (Mathur, 2015).

So far the works that have been reviewed above are relevant works with regard to cases of how

different activities of the government and other actors matter in the study of CHT conflicts. The

study of CHT conflict in connection with the sundry functions of state and non-state actors in the

region is an important topic. Bangladesh government, since its’ independence in 1971, has taken

many decisions on its’ southeastern part that has raised controversies and sometimes arms conflict

both between local communities and with state forces. The dynamic of conflict is different from

that of the pre-independence of the country that provokes an analysis to look into the issue. Due

to the currency of the topic in question, no literature exists exactly on it. The present study, thus,

will fill an important research gap.

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Chapter 3

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

What is conflict?

Conflict is an intrinsic part of human society (HC). Because conflict cannot be avoided in an

environment where there is a difference between an individual’s ideas, desires, and needs. In fact,

conflict is an antagonistic state of adversity, disagreement or disaccord between two or more

parties (Patzak,R. et al. 2012 & Willmont and Hocker, 2001). In another way, conflict is an

antagonistic situation in where people perceive that their interests are opposed, threatened, or in

tension (Conrad, 1991). Therefore, it is a clash of interests and values. When people feel that their

interests and legal rights are going to be violated by any institution or unit they are engaged in a

strike together.

The indigenous communities have experienced widespread discrimination, violence and abuse

This portrayed as a continuing human security problem in the indigenous communities of any

territory. In fact, security or human security is one of the concerning issues for emerging a conflict.

It is to protect the vital core of all human lives in ways that enhance human freedoms and

fulfillment (Commission on Human Security (CHS), 2009). When the security of human freedom

and other elements necessary to live such as freedom from fear and repression are violated it is

natural to emerge a conflict for the protection of the concerned communities (Shinoda, H., 2004).

22 | P a g e
Nature of Conflict

Once a time, CHT was an independent and sovereign territory (Zahed, 2013). In the British period

the area was complete autonomous and recognized as an excluded area by law (Zahed, 2013) and

the sale of land to non-tribal people and their settlement in the area was restricted (Panday & Jamil,

2009). But in the Pakistan period, the Pakistan military government abolished this right and

allowed Bengalis people to settle in the area by constitutional amendment. This violation of the

indigenous people’s rights led to a clear conflict between the indigenous people and the Pakistani

government (Zahed, 2013). After the disintegration of Pakistan and the creation of Bangladesh as

a sovereign state, the Bangladesh government declared that “from today the hilly people would be

considered as Bengalis” (Shelly, 1992). Bangladesh government denied the demands of the

indigenous people and deployed hundreds of thousands of military personnel in the area to solve

the problem in the region (Levene, 1999). Consequently, the local people formed Peace Forces

(PCJSS) and were involved in ‘violent conflict’ with the military. In 1997 a Peace Accord has been

signed between the government and the Peace Forces. But later, more specifically the recent times,

the non-implementation of the accord creates another type of conflict. The conflict that is going

on now in the region is characterized by “social conflict”, in other word, an internal conflict.

Types of Conflict

Ethnic community is a group of people who share a common distinctive and enduring collective

identity based on common descent and shared experiences and cultural traits (Gurr,R.) Therefore,

Anthony D. Smith defines an ethnic community as a human population with common ancestry,

memories and cultural elements.

23 | P a g e
Inter-ethnic conflicts are a continuing feature of politics within and between sovereign states

(Ryan,S., 1995). This conflict is as old as the process of state formation and state-building

(Kostecki, W., 2005). It is the antagonistic situation between two or more ethnic groups. But

Stavenhagen argues that ethnic conflict does not exist. It is the political, social and economic

conflict between groups of people who identify themselves in ethnic terms. Ethnic conflicts are

not occurred by ethnicity only, rather they occur when a country’s social contract comes under

pressure. Lipschutz et al. argues that it is the political leaders who tend to mobilize their

constituencies around ethnic localities and step in the struggle for power and wealth (Lipschutz et

al. 1995). This struggle is the everlasting that divides people between ‘us’ and ‘them’ and between

fellow ‘insiders’ and ‘outsiders’ who are identically enemies.

Relative deprivation (RD)

In a territory where minorities or indigenous people are experiencing economic discrimination and

inequalities in living standards as opposed to other groups and there is s asymmetrical access to

resources like land and wealth, ethnic conflict is more likely to occur (Saleh, A. 2013). In a land

that exhibits social discrimination, a territory in where a dominant ethnic group imposes a

nationalist dogma, where the minorities are prevented from accessing their land rights, in where

minority groups regard themselves as victims, the possibilities of conflict are more likely (Saleh,

A. 2013). This kind of situation triggers ethnic politics and mobilization and also it increases the

potential escalation of conflict from the existing ethnic tensions. In fact, the conflict occurs when

a dominant ethnic community in the country takes control over the economic and traditional scope

and leaves the members of other groups disadvantaged, emergences of political violence become

inevitable.

24 | P a g e
The absolute control over the ethnic minorities deprives them of their legal rights and imposes a

dominant’s policy has the two sides impart. The victim groups are suffered much. They face

discrimination, extrajudicial killing, repressions, torture and in some cases displacement or

migration. A group of indigenous people form some violent groups to protect their rights and

therefore violent conflict emerged. This has a negative impact on the state. That construction of

discrimination feel may affect the security of the state (Saleh, A. 2013). There is much possibility

that the concerned territory of the country will be unstable and conflicting.

Relative Human
Deprivation Security
Lack of freedom
Discrimination
from fear and
& Inequality
reppression

Absence of
Violation of
basic elements
legal rights
for survival

Impose of
dominant's
dogma

Generates social or communal conflict

25 | P a g e
Chapter 4

Research Methodology

4.1 Introduction

This research intends to assess and focus on the changing dimension of the conflict in the

Southeastern part of Bangladesh (CHT). The researcher became interested in this study because it

is one of the most important ongoing issues over decades in the country. This chapter discusses

the detailed description of the research methodology, research design and method and sampling

method applied by the researcher. It includes methods of the research, the elaborate information

about the data, participants, tools and instruments, data analysis procedure and data presentation

which are shown in the methodology segment.

4.2 Types of Research & Methods

This is a bachelor’s dissertation. I have chosen a topic and a mixed method to conduct this research

topic.

A mixed-method has been applied in order to conduct the research study. The mixed method refers

to both qualitative and quantitative procedures of data collection.

Qualitative research method is involves in studies that do not attempt to quantify the results of the

study by applying statistical summary or analysis. Rather it is involves interviews and observations

without measurement (Akanda, 2018).

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Quantitative method of research means that the studies make use of the statistical analyses for

obtaining the research findings. The key features of the quantitative research method are the formal

and systematic measurement and the use of statistics (Akanda, 2018).

For referencing, APA 7th format will be used. The details of data collection procedure, sources,

presentation and analysis are also included in this methodology part. The details of these segments

are given below:

4.3 Data Collection Procedure & Sources

Data is the information which is the significant for conducting any research. There are different

kinds of data and way to collect it. The following method of data collection and kind of data has

been followed in this study.

Data collection procedure will follow online survey through Google forms. The questionnaire will

be offered through online and the participants will provide their opinions by filling up the form.

Further, data, for conducting the study, has been collected through physical interview from some

experts or scholars and indigenous origin people. For this study, I have interviewed two experts

from a renowned department at University of Dhaka and I also interviewed an indigenous origin

person studies at University of Dhaka.

Basically, primary data has been used for this research. And these primary data has gathered

through Google form and experts interview as I have mentioned above. I have collected data over

Google form from 25 respondents in total.

Furthermore, the researcher has used some secondary data whenever it is necessary and those

which are important. The secondary data related to the topic will be collected from academic

27 | P a g e
books, academic journals, newspaper, different organizations or institutions report, different

website through browsing by Google. Therefore, I have browsed many prominent national and

international journals, website of eminent organizations through Google with the purpose of gather

academic articles and reports for this study.

4.4 Data Analysis & Presentation

As the researcher has selected mixed methodology, there will be different types of data analysis

styles considering quantitative and qualitative data. The data has been analyzed through using

SPSS, a renowned software to the researchers for analyzing the data. However, the quantitative

data has presented numerically and statistical graphs and pie chart overview have been used,

whereas the qualitative data has presented thematically.

4.5 Consent and Ethical Consideration

Ethical issues and copyright policies have highly regarded and maintained. The consents of the

participants have acknowledged. Moreover, all the privacies to the participants have ensured as

the representation of data has remain anonymous.

4.6 Variables

In this research “The Changing Pattern of CHT Conflict over the Last Decades and Deprivation of

Indigenous People” there are two variables. They are independent and dependent variables.

28 | P a g e
Independent Variable

An independent variable is a variable that can affect other (dependent) variables but cannot be

affected by them. The variable is independent because its value can manipulate the outcome of a

situation. Its value may be changed independently. This variable also called as ‘controlled

variable’, ‘manipulated variable’, ‘explanatory variable’ or input variable. The other name of this

variable is predictor(s). It predicts the value of the dependent variable.

In this study I have set ‘deprivation or relative deprivation’ as my independent variable. This

independent variable can influence or control the outcome of the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable

A dependent variable is a variable that is to be predicted or explained. A dependent variable is

expected to be influenced of affected by the independent variable. But do not affect the

independent variable. This variable is also called as the “responding variable’, ‘explained variable’

or ‘outcome variable’.

In this research I predict that ‘the continuous conflict’ in the minorities’ community will be the

outcome of the input (deprivation) variable. Here the continuous conflict is the independent

variable.

3.7 Sampling

In this research paper, the researcher has used the combination of purposive sampling method and

convenience sampling method for sampling. Purposive and convenience sampling method both

are the type of non-probability sampling method. This paper focuses on the change of dimension

of conflict in the minority area, so the researcher is willing to collect and utilize the data properly.

29 | P a g e
The researcher has been investigated some indigenous origin university/medical students who are

currently studying at random universities and medical colleges in Bangladesh. Survey

questionnaire will be distributed through Google form to the most of those students.

The researcher will conduct interview with some experts and all of them are selective. They are

chosen because of their expertise and also experience and great knowledge about the situation in

the indigenous inhibited area. Two experts are from a renowned department and one indigenous

origin student also from a department of social sciences at University of Dhaka.

4.8 Interaction between Variables

The variable that the study has chosen is the cause-effect variable. One is the independent variable

which this paper set a ‘deprivation’ and other is the ‘continuous conflict’ in the minority area.

There is a direct positive or negative interaction between the two variables. The independent

variable (deprivation) is the cause or input of the conflict and the dependent variable is the output

(continuous conflict). This paper has found that due to deprivation and discrimination of the

minority communities has a direct effect on the outcome of a continuous conflict. The central focus

of this paper is that the effect of the independent variable (deprivation), whether it remains constant

or change, will be durable and the outcome of this effect will remain forever unless the independent

variable is eliminated.

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Chapter 5

Data Analysis

5.1 Analytical Framework

Before starting to analyze date, the study has set an analytical framework in order to analyze date

properly. It is a detailed outline or sketch that explains the causal relationship between the variables

of the research. This is the building block of a qualitative research. The proposed analytical

structure of this paper is given below:

Conflict in the CHT

Relative Human
Deprivation Security Actors Context
Government Southeastern
Land Rights Disempowerment Military part of
Bangladesh

Government CHT
Presence of Peace Officials
Resettlement
Forces

Peace Forces
Absence of
Identity
Personal Security

Local people
Non-
Absence of
implementation
Political Security
of Peace Accord

Absence of
Economic
Security

Changing Pattern of CHT Conflict

31 | P a g e
In the analytical framework, a causal relationship has been shown between two variables:

deprivation behind the conflict and continuous conflict in the CHT region. According to the

framework, the CHT indigenous people are deprived of their rights in some ways: land rights,

resettlement and identity loss. After these deprivations build a peace force to ensure their personal,

political, economic, cultural and traditional security and join in the conflict under the

organizational banner. In the conflict, the framework also shows actors and the context of the

conflict. Government military and government officials are the main actors and the southeastern

part or simply CHT is the region of this conflict. In combination, these factors play a role from

behind for making the region unstable and creating the conflict in the region sustainable.

In this research, the proposed research question is, “How has the pattern of the conflict changed in

the Chittagong Hill Tracts over the last decades?” This research is divided into two main parts:

first, the deprivation that drives the indigenous people to join in the violent conflict and second,

the role of that deprivation for the continuation of the conflict in the CHT region. According to the

proposed framework, the indigenous people are forming different groups and involved in conflict

with the government because of their land rights violation, Bengali settlement and non-recognition

of their indigenous identity by the government. The conflict in the CHT is continuing for

discrimination between the indigenous people and the Bengali migrants in the region. The

violation of sundry rights of the Pahari people works as the driving factor for sustaining the violent

and social conflict in the CHT (Chakma, M.K., 2021).

In the methodology part, I have described earlier that this paper has conducted the in-depth

interview and survey questionnaire for data presentation and analysis. First of all, I have discussed

32 | P a g e
and analyzed the result of the survey questionnaire and I also have analyzed and presented the data

gathered from the interviews of experts.

The researcher collected the survey questionnaire data through submitting the Google form and

from 25 respondents from different classes. They are students, teachers, NGO officers, private job

holders and copywriters in ad agencies. The majority of them is a student. The survey questionnaire

has two parts; “Demographic Information” and “Information on the dimension of the conflict in

the CHT”. Firstly, I have presented the result of the survey questionnaire by categorization through

a table, and then, I have used pie charts to show the responses. After showing the response table

and pie chart, I have described the issue in detail. So, let’s look at the survey questionnaire result:

Section-A: Demographic Information

1. Gender Proportion

Options Responses
Male 16 (64%)
Female 9 (36%)
So, this was the categorized data of the respondents through table. Now, let’s look at the
percentage through the pie chart of the demographic information given here below:

36%

64%

Male Female

Figure 01: Gender ratio of respondents

This pie chart shows the measurement of the gender of the respondents where 64% of them are

male and 36% are female.

33 | P a g e
 2. Age Distribution

Options Responses
Under 18 1 (4%)
18-24 14 (56%)
25-30 10 (40%)
Above 30 0 (0%)

4%

40%

56%

Under 18 18-24 25-30 Above 30

Figure 02: Age ratio of the respondents

I have divided the age into four categories. They are Under 18, 18-24, 25-30 and Above 30. The

percentages in the chart show the respondents who belong to different ages. Among 25 respondents

56% (14 respondents) are aged in the category of 18-24 and 40% (10 respondents) are aged in the

category of 25-30.

34 | P a g e
 3.Occupation and Work Place of the respondents
Options Responses
Student 21 (84%)
Teacher 1 (4%)
NGO Officer 1 (4%)
Private Job Holder 1 (4%)
Copywriter in Ad Agency 1 (4%)

Copywriter in Ad Agency 4%

Private Job Holder 4%

NGO Officer 4%

Teacher 4%

Student 84%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%

Percentage

Figure 03: Occupation of the respondents

The respondents of the study are from various occupations. 84 % of them are students, 4% are

teachers, 4% respondents are NGO officers 4% of them are private job holders and 4% of

respondents are copywriters in ad agencies.

35 | P a g e
The researcher has used a structured set of interview questions for conducting the interviews. Thus,

this study has interviewed two experts on CHT. Both of them are professors from a renowned

department at University of Dhaka and also I interviewed a student from a department of

University of Dhaka came from one of the districts of CHT. They are chosen for their deep

knowledge about the issue. The results and findings are demonstrated below:

5.2 The Principle Causes of the Conflict in the CHT

The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) is the reason, border with both India and Myanmar, is situated

in the southeastern part that constitutes 10 percent of the total land area of Bangladesh. All but 11

indigenous communities have been living in the CHT for generations (Pathur 2015). They live in

this area for centuries. Though they enjoyed their self-determination in the British period but lost

it in the post-colonial era particularly in Bangladesh. Like this, many other reasons have emerged

that create the region unstable and conflicting.

5.3 Ignorance of Demands

In the British colonial period, the CHT Regulation 1920 declared the region as an excluded and

independent area from the general administration (Zahed, 2013). But after the British rule, the

indigenous people lost their autonomy and the area was integrated with the mainland of the

country. In the independent Bangladesh, government integrated the region with the mainland of

the country and established the central authority in the local area.

A 20 years long armed conflict in a CHT that came to an end in 1997 through signing a peace
treaty between PCJSS and the government of Bangladesh. Despite the signing of this treaty,
conflict in CHT seems to get worse with time for discrimination or denial of demands.
Options Responses

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 Strongly Agree 5 (20%)
Agree 13 (52%)
Neutral 7 (28%)
Disagree 0 (0%)
Strongly Disagree 0 (0%)

20%
28%

52%

Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree

Figure: Despite a Peace Accord the conflict get worse over times.
The figure shows that 52% of the respondents are agree, 28% are neutral and 20% of the

respondents are strongly agree that despite of a peace accord the conflict in the region get worse

over the times for continuous declining of demands of the indigenous people by the government

of Bangladesh.

5.4 Identity

For a long time, the local people of the CHT called them as Pahari or indigenous people. But in

the independent Bangladesh, in the 1973 national election campaign, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

37 | P a g e
declared that “from today the hilly people would be consider as Bengalis” (Shelly, M.R. 1992).

Government willingly imposed the Bengali nationalism on the indigenous people with the help of

constitution. It is widely argued that the non-recognition of the indigenous distinctive identity of

the hilly people and their economic and political exclusion led MN Larma to form PCSS

(Chowdhury, 2002). Because the local people of the CHT called themselves hilly or indigenous

community but the constitution recognized them as Khudra Nri-Ghoshti (Constitution of

Bangladesh, Article-23(A)). It is the elite group of a country who attempts to create ‘sameness’ in

the country and the indigenous people are the main victim of their attempts to create homogeneity

(Yasmin, 2014).

The denial of government and constitution to recognize the ethnic identity of the hill people
is one of the principal causes of constant conflict in the CHT region.
Options Responses
Strongly Agree 13 (52%)
Agree 8 (32%)
Neutral 2 (8%)
Disagree 1 (4%)
Strongly Disagree 1 (4%)

38 | P a g e
 4% 4%
8%

52%

32%

Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree

Figure 11: Denial of indigenous ethnic identity is one of the principal causes of the conflict

When asking for opinion of the respondents on “denial of indigenous ethnic identity is one of the

principal causes of the conflict” in responses majority of the respondents, 52%, are strongly agree,

32% are agree, 8% are neutral, 4% are disagree and another 4% of the respondents are strongly

disagree on their opinion.

When the researcher asked question to the interviewees that what are, in your standpoint, the

principal causes for the unstable situation in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT), both of the

interviewees identifies that the ignorance of the demands of indigenous people is one of the

principal causes of the formation of the PCJSS and conflict in the CHT region.

5.5 Violation of Rights

The CHT Pahari people inherited the land from their ancestors. They were the legal owner of the

land in the CHT area over years. The CHT Regulation 1900 did not allow to sale the land to the

non-tribal people (Panday & Jamil, 2009). Also the India Act 1935 declared the CHT are as

39 | P a g e
“Totally Excluded Area” (Zahed, 2013). But after the British rule, the land was integrated with

the main land of the country by an amendment in the Pakistan Constitution. Governments took

away the land from the local people in the name of development project. Also in the independent

Bangladesh a massive Bengali migration happened and their land rights was lost. The abolition of

the 1900 and 1935 Acts in the post-colonial period and give the land tenure to the Bengali people

can be consider as the starting point of the conflict in the CHT.

The violation of the indigenous people’s land rights that they inherit from their ancestors
is also one of the main factors behind the on-going conflict in the CHT.
Options Responses
Strongly Agree 13 (52%)
Agree 10 (40%)
Neutral 1 (4%)
Disagree 1 (4%)
Strongly Disagree 0 (0%)

4% 4%

52%
40%

Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree

Figure 18: The violation of the indigenous people’s land rights is one of the causes of the conflict

40 | P a g e
This chart shows that 52% of the respondents are strongly agree, 40% are agree, 4% are neutral,

another 4% are disagree and none of the respondents are not strongly disagree on expressing their

opinion on the issue that the violation of the indigenous people’s land rights is one of the main

factors behind the on-going conflict in the CHT area.

When the researcher asked to the interviewees on the causes of the conflict that in what ways the

access, control and transfer of the land rights are in the core for the violence in the region, both of

them, in responding, say that this is one of the principal causes for the fragile condition in the CHT

region. The land that the indigenous people (IP) derived from their ancestors is transforming to the

control of the Bengali people. That make discontent among the indigenous people and thus the

conflict are being everlasting in the region for years.

5.6 Military Presence

The CHT region has seen a massive militarization of the region since the Pakistani period. By the

1980s, about 115,000 military personnel were positioned in the CHT area that was one soldier for

five to six hill people (Levene, 1999). Military took almost all the control of administration and

development of CHT in the period of 1975-1990. Military followed divide and rule strategy in the

region. They divide the local people into small groups and put them on cluster villages. The

military strictly control the channel of information and movement in the region (Mohsin, 1997).

The military also involved in the extrajudicial killing, rape, detention, forced dislocation etc.

(Zahed, 2013). Major General Manzur, officer of Commanding in Chittagong Division Branch

once made a statement that “We want the land and not the prople” (Mohsin, 1999). These are a

brief overview that helps us to understand the causes of the fragile condition in the CHT region.

In the same way, my interviewees also agree that militarization of the CHT is one of the principal

causes of the conflict in the CHT region.

41 | P a g e
 Indigenous peoples are constantly fearful of the military and lack of accountability toward
military actions. Also, the unspoken alliance between the military force and the Bengali
community is a massive concern to indigenous safety and security.
Options Responses
Strongly Agree 7 (28%)
Agree 13 (52%)
Neutral 3 (12%)
Disagree 2 (8%)
Strongly Disagree 0 (0%)

8%
12% 28%

52%

Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree

Figure 14: Military presence in the CHT is a security threat for indigenous people

The chart shows that 28% of the respondents are strongly agree, 52% are agree, 12% are neutral,

8% are disagree and none of the respondents are strongly disagree on their opinion that military

presence in the CHT is a security threat for the indigenous people and it is the main cause of the

conflict in the CHT region.

42 | P a g e
5.7 Bengali Settlement

Above all of these causes, the Bengali rehabilitation in the CHT is the big issue for the fragile

situation in the area over years. After 1971, many Bengali refugees who returned from India were

rehabilitated in the CHT (Kamaludding, 1980). Government also gave chance to the poor and

landless Bengali people to migrate in the CHT area without any consultation with the hill district

council (HDC). This poor and landless people’s migration from different parts of the country

changed the proportion of the inhibited people, ratio of the indigenous and Bengali people. The

indigenous people are decreasing for conflict with the Bengalis and they crossed the border to take

shelter in India ( see Appendix-A).

Approximately one lakh landless Bengali people has been migrated and settled in the CHT from

1979 to 1981. Government gave each family 5 acres of hilly land or 4 acres of mixed land or 2.5

acres of paddy land in the CHT (Shelly, 1992). Therefore, this attracts other Bengali people to

migrate there and the demographic figure has been changed in CHT over years.

This helps us to understand how the indigenous people are deprived, oppressed and got less values

by the government. The most noticeable issue of the migration is the growth of Muslim institutions

and the replacement of the Chakma, Marma names of different places with Bengali and Muslim

names. (see Appendix-B & C) It really helps us to make it realize the dominancy of non-hill people

in the CHT region.

Bangladeshi governments different excuses to relocate thousands of Bengalis, set up

numerous military camps to CHT without any consultations with its native residents and by
taking over their ancestral lands, failure to recognize indigenous identity as separated from
Bengali identity etc. factors led to the formation of Parbatya Chattagram JanaSamhati
Samiti (PCJSS).
Options Responses

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 Strongly Agree 13 (52%)
Agree 9 (36%)
Neutral 0 (0%)
Disagree 2 (8%)
Strongly Disagree 1 (4%)

Resettlement

8% 4%

52%
36%

Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree

Figure 04: Bangladesh government’s excuses and the factors leading to the formation of PCJSS

In this chart we can see that 52% of the respondents are strongly agree with this question, 36% of

them are agree, 8% are disagree and only 4% of the respondents are strongly disagree with this

opinion that the Bengali settlement in the CHT region made discomfort among the indigenous

people and it generate conflict consequently. And also both of my interviewees support that

Bengali settlement in CHT area make the region unstable and conflicting.

5.8 Non-implementation of Peace Accord

The successor governments of Bangladesh took sundry efforts to solve the problem between

government and Peace force. But before 1997 the governments steps were not made any success.

44 | P a g e
All the consecutive government treated the problem as the security threat of the country and

preferred military solution of the problem. In 1996, for the first time, government took initiatives

to solve the problem politically not militarily. Therefore, in December 1997 a Peace Accord was

signed between the government and the Peace Force. But the local people were not happy with the

accord and they reject it. They thought that this accord will not address the rights of hill people

and PCJSS have sold the demand of autonomy of CHT to government. So they protested and

formed UPDF (United People’s Democratic Front) and got involved in conflict with JSS (Zahed,

2013)

The principle provisions of the accord were:

 Return of land rights to the hill people

 Sustainable rehabilitation of the displaced people and refugees who left the country

 Withdrawal of the military from the CHT

 Self-government through regional and district councils

But the problem is that many of these principal provisions of the Accord remains unimplemented

yet. In 2015 a government Yearly Report claims that out of 72 provisions of the Accord 48 are

already implemented, 15 other provisions are implemented partially and only 9, according to the

report, provisions remain under implementation (Government report, 2015). But in reality the

provisions of the accord are remains non-implementation and cannot resolve the land related

disputes in the area (Panday & Jamil, 2009).

45 | P a g e
 One of the main components for constant conflict is that the peace treaty hasn’t yet been
fully implemented.
Options Responses
Strongly Agree 13 (52%)
Agree 7 (28%)
Neutral 5 (20%)
Disagree 0 (0%)
Strongly Disagree 0 (0%)

20%

52%

28%

Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree

Figure 10: Non-implementation of the peace accord is the main component for constant conflict

In response to the question that non-implementation of the 1997 Peace Accord is one of the main

components for constant conflict in the CHT, 52% of the respondents are strongly agree, 28% are

agree and 20% of them are neutral.

Both of my interviewees also identify the non-implementation of the peace accord as the main

reasons for continuing the conflict in the region. But there is an important issue here. The Peace

accord has end the violent conflict that was in the pre-accord era. In the post-accord era a social or

46 | P a g e
communal conflict emerged in the CHT area. They think that the peace is in the driver seat for

transformation of the conflict from violent to social conflict in the CHT region.

5.9 Security Issues

The presence of military in the area also poses security threat to the indigenous local people

(Zahed, 2013). The local people are always feel security dilemma for their daily lives. All but all

the daily affairs of the indigenous people are controlled by the military forces.

5.10 Personal Security

The local people, in times, are facing killed, injured and many other oppression by the security

forces in their area (Zahed, 2013). The chart shows condition of the personal security in the hilly

area of the country.

Did any of your family members or relatives got killed or injured during various conflicts
over different times in CHT?
Options Responses
Got Killed 1 (4%)
Got Injured 10 (40%)
None of them 14 (56%)

Personal Security Issue

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 4%

40%

56%

Got Killed Got Injured None of them

Figure 12: Physical harm condition of the respondents’ relatives

This pie chart shows that 4% of the respondents’ family member or relatives are got killed, 40%

got injured and 56% of them are none got killed or got injured.

5.11 Economic Security

All of the development projects are under control of government employed personnel. Local

people have a very few representation in the administrative process of the CHT. Their economic

condition has not improved yet. They are not empowered enough in compare to the Bengali

communities of the region. In both Pakistani and Bangladeshi period the indigenous people are

faced economic exploitation (Barkat, 2016). The Bengali settlement works as the physical means

of the exploitation (Barkat, 2016) because they are occupying the hill land and resources of the

hill people by using the act of leasing. Consequently forced the local people have been forced to

join in arms conflict for their survival.

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 The political and commercial elites of Pahari and Rohingya settlers and plain land Bengali
are occupying the hill land and forest resources by using the act of leasing.
Options Responses
Strongly Agree 7 (28%)
Agree 14 (56%)
Neutral 4 (16%)
Disagree 0 (0%)
Strongly Disagree 0 (0%)

Absence of Economic Security

16%
28%

56%

Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree

Figure 17: Using the act of leasing Pahari, Rohingya and Bengali settlers are occupying land
and forest resources
The chart shows that 28% of the respondents are strongly agree, 14% are agree, 4% are neutral

and none of them are disagree and strongly disagree on their opinion that some elites of Pahari,

Rohingya and Bengali settlers are occupying land and forest resources by using the act of leasing.

5.12 Political Security

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The political decision of government to settle Rohingya refugees in the CHT area, creates some

security threat to the overall security of the local people. Insecurity creates by the different policies

of the government is showed in the table and chart.

From the known past, there were congenial relationships between the inhabitants of the
CHT; between Bengalis and Pahari. But, various policies adopted and implemented by the
central governments over decades particularly in Bangladesh period, the congenial
relationships turned into conflicting one during the 70’s, 80’s, 90’s and also at present.
Options Responses
Strongly Agree 10 (40%)
Agree 11 (44%)
Neutral 4 (16%)
Disagree 0 (0%)
Strongly Disagree 0 (0%)

Lack of Political Commitment

16%

40%

44%

Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree

Figure 08: Because of government policies the congenial relationship between indigenous and

Bengali communities turn into conflict

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From this chart we can see that 40% are strongly agree, 44% of the respondent are agree and 16%

of the respondents are neutral on their opinion that because of the government policies the

congenial relationship between indigenous and Bengali communities turn into conflict.

Also the decision of Rohingya refugee settlement in the area creates another discomfort and

uncertainties among the local people. The members of indigenous communities describe it as an

imminent threat to their existence.

The crisis in the hilly region has escalated since the emergence of Rohingya refugees in this
border area. The Rohingya population has more similarities to the Bengali population in
terms of their physical features, language, and religion, it is easier for them to represent
themselves as Bengalis. This has initiated new uncertainties and distrust among the
indigenous populations residing in CHT. The members of indigenous communities describe
it as an imminent threat to their existence.
Options Responses
Strongly Agree 7 (28%)
Agree 11 (44%)
Neutral 6 (24%)
Disagree 0 (0%)
Strongly Disagree 1 (4%)

Absence of Political Security

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 4%

28%
24%

44%

Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree

Figure 16: The Rohingya refugees escalate the crisis in the CHT area

We can see from this chart that 28% of the respondents are strongly agreed, 44% are just agreed,

24% are neutral, and only 1% are strongly disagreed on the issue that Rohingya refugees escalate

the crisis in the CHT area.

5.13 Disempowerment

The local hill people are not capable to improve their economic condition in compare to the Bengali

community in their area. The modes of production “peripheral capitalism of the sent seekers

dominants the superstructure and the archaic economic system of the indigenous peoples” (Barkat,

2016) is in the driver seat which originate the conflict in CHT.

Grabbing of indigenous communities’ land in the name of promoting tourism and

development is another constant rising issue.
Options Responses
Strongly Agree 10 (40%)
Agree 10 (40%)

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 Neutral 5 (20%)
Disagree 0 (0%)
Strongly Disagree 0 (0%)

Disempowerment

20%

40%

40%

Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree

Figure 15: Grabbing indigenous land in the name of development

In this chart we can see that 40% of the respondents are strongly agreed, another 40% are agreed,

20% are neutral and none of them are disagreeing and strongly disagree on the issue that grabbing

of indigenous land in the name of development and not improve the economic condition of the is

a rising issue in the CHT area.

5.14 Driving Factors of the Conflict

When asking the question to the interviewees that which factors are in the driver seat for

transforming the dimensions of the conflict in the southeastern part of the country over the times,

53 | P a g e
the first interviewee thinks that obviously there are some factors that are in the back seat of the

conflict. He stands that government interventions, military establishment and Bengali settlement

in the CHT region are the principal driving factors for fostering the conflict and for making it

durable. These ‘intervening factors’ work as fuel in the fire and make the CHT region conflict-

ridden.

In responding the same question, my second interviewee replies that one of the main factors behind

the conflict is the politics among the local communities for control over the area by the local

politicians. Struggle for political control is the main factor that transforms the conflict in the CHT.

Actually, according to the second interviewee, this factor transforms the conflict into a political

dimension.

5.15 Dimension of the Conflict over the Years

The dimension of the conflict has changed in the CHT area in the post-accord period. When asking

the question how do you differentiate the post-accord conflict situation that going on in the CHT

from the pre-accord conflict, my first interviewee explains that the conflict between the peace

forces of the indigenous people and military was violent before 1997 (Levene, 1999). That violent

conflict has been over. Now the new dimension of conflict has emerged, and it is social conflict.

Bengali vs. hilly people conflict is another new form of conflict in the CHT. As the peace forces

have surrendered their arms, a civil administration has been established in the region and a

confidence level has developed between the communities the shape of the conflict in the area has

changed as a new one.

In responding to this question, second interviewee thinks that before the Peace Accord the conflict

was in the form of arms conflict between the military and the peace forces that were violent in

54 | P a g e
nature. To him though it was a conflict it was not a major conflict rather it was a minor conflict.

There were some political issues in the ethnic communities. They want to establish their control

and their authority in the area. When their demand was ignored, they, in consequence, are being

involved in some unlawful and illegal activities and fight each other.

After the signing of the Peace Accord, the conflict became more community-based. There is still

a continuous misunderstanding between the UPDF (United people’s Democratic Front) and JSS.

They make the situation in the region more complex. My indigenous interviewee also agreed with

the statement that the conflict in the CHT area now is both the social and communal nature of the

conflict.

5.16 Barriers to Reach in Peace

When asking the question to the interviewees that what are the main barriers for making the CHT

region stable and peaceful, they replies that the major barriers to bringing the region peaceful are

the Bengali settlement, military presence and different violent groups like UPDF that have been

emerged in the post-peace accord. The UPDF is an armed political-based group that always

seeking the complete autonomy of the hill area through peaceful and democratic means. They

sometimes involve conflict with the JSS and create chaos in the local communities as they are the

armed group.

According to the second interviewee, there are many things that create problems for bringing the

region peaceful and stable. The trends of politics in the CHT, the presence of the military in the

area and more importantly the CHT region is a strategic area bordering with Myanmar and India.

As the region is a somewhat isolated and hilly area, bringing peace in the CHT is not easy and in

fact it is a difficult task.

55 | P a g e
The principal objectives were to know how the dimension of the conflict in the CHT region has

been changed over the decades. This study wanted to know what kind of conflict was before the

Peace Accord and how it has been changed after the accord. This study found that pre-accord

conflict in the CHT region was an arms conflict, more specifically it was violent in nature. But in

the post-accord period, the violent conflict has been over and a new form of conflict has emerged,

that is ‘Social Conflict (SC)’. This was my main objective to attain. This study shows that the

conflict in the CHT region has changed and reached a new era of conflict. It takes a new shape but

it is still continuing in the region.

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Chapter 6

Concluding Remarks

6.1 Findings

The CHT region is the most unstable and conflicting area of the country. From the above

discussions, the study finds that in spite of the Peace Accord and government initiatives, some of

the deprivation and security issues in the minority area inevitably generate conflict. Peace Accord

can end the violent conflict but deprivation and insecurity of a community make sure the

transformation of the conflict. Despite all necessary steps by the authority to abolish the conflict,

it is the continuous discrimination, deprivation and insecurity of a community that ensures the

conflict is continuous and endemic and also transforms its dimension over time. In the case of

CHT conflict, it transforms its nature from a violent conflict to a social and communal one. The

graph shows the core finding of the study:

Deprivation Insecurity Conflict

Non-
End of Violent
Peace Accord implementation
Conflict
of the Accord

Social or
Emergence of Transformation
Communal
another Conflict of the Conflict
Conflict

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6.2 Limitations of the Study

Every research has its own shortcoming and limitations. These are the shortcoming or influences

that research cannot fully take under control, which impacts the result of the research. This research

paper has its own limitations which may have influenced the interpretation of this research. At

first, this research has done in a very short period of time. The subject of research demands more

time. Second, the study has been done mostly by secondary data. The role of deprivation in the

conflict of the CHT region and the nature of continuation of the conflict is both co-relational. This

study was done from distance without any field knowledge, which can give the study a shallow

perspective. Third, the collection of data was difficult as the only way of gathering the data was

through the internet, the data was not sorted, nor the news regarding the subject was much

enriched. Fourth, the deprivation of the indigenous people by the government and Bengali

communities and the continuous conflict in the region is an ongoing scenarios which means this

theory might not be apt after a few years as an ongoing context isever-changingg.

These flaws can be overcome if the research is executed with more time at hand and also has

primary data to give the research a more practical perspective than hypothetical. The research gap

is an opportunity for growth which this study will create the opportunity for more studies to feel

the gap that has been faced in this study.

58 | P a g e
6.3 Recommendations
The conflict in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) is one of the long terms problems in the

southeastern part of Bangladesh. A peace accord was signed in 1997 to make the region peaceful

and stable. But the accord did not fulfill its’ objectives due to the non-implementation of its’ major

provisions. As a result, the dimension of the conflict has changed. The violent nature of conflict

has changed and has become socio-political nature of conflict in the post-accord period.

The researcher makes the following recommendations for easing the deprivation of the indigenous

people and removing the continuous conflict in the CHT region:

In addressing the problem in the CHT in a proper way, it is necessary to meet two questions. These

are:

 What are the major causes of the conflict in the CHT?

 How are those major causes of the conflict making the CHT region unstable and absence

of peace?

To answer the first question, the one actor that has been prominent behind all the conflict in the

region is deprivation or relative deprivation and violation of different rights of the indigenous

people like land rights and self-determination. In addressing the second question, the study found

that these deprivation and violation of the rights of indigenous people are working as the push

factor for making sundry arms groups and encourage local people to join in those groups.

Consequently, a conflict emerges in the society and makes the society unstable and unquiet. For

this, it is mandatory to address these two questions for making the region peaceful.

59 | P a g e
In general, the study recommends the following policies to take in order to make the region more

peaceful and stable:

 Land rights violation is one of the main causes of the conflict in the CHT. So, it is needed

to return land ownership to indigenous people.

 The 1997 Peace Accord encouraged indigenous violent arms groups to surrender their arms

and to end the conflict in the region. For this region, proper implementation of the peace

accord is necessary.

 Bangladesh government and its’ constitution did not recognize CHT local people as

indigenous which they want over years. Recognition of the CHT local people as indigenous

is also important to convince the local people and refrain them from involving in violent

activities.

 Bengali settlement is the long-lasting cause of the crisis in the CHT region. Bangladesh

government should take necessary steps to rehabilitate Bengali migrants in a sustainable

way.

 The presence of the military in the area is the old reason for the fragile situation in the

CHT. It is necessary to address the local people’s demand for withdrawal military from the

CHT region.

 The local people are demanding for self-determination of the region by themselves over

decades. This is the issue to be addressed for making the region peaceful.

 Socio-political conflict is common in the indigenous society for sundry causes. This issue

is new and needs to address immediately.

60 | P a g e
6.4 Conclusion
The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) is the most important resourceful and problematic area in

Bangladesh. As the region inhabited many different minority groups unlike Bengali communities,

some problems are with this area. In the pre-conflict CHT with important plural circumstances,

the Bengali settlement, presence of the military, the access, and control of land really mattered. In

absence of effective land policies and much dependent on the military forces to control the CHT

region, conflicting elements were increasing. At a time, due to insecurity of land ownership and

rights violation forced the local people to involve in different arms groups against the government

military forces. In that period, the conflict was violent in nature.

Hence, the post-conflict situation is characterized by social and communal conflict in the CHT.

Violent conflict has been ended. But an arms group has been separated from the JSS and form

UPDF which at present continue their violent activities in the region. Some local political leaders

want to control the region by themselves and do not support different government policies. In the

presence of government forces, different securities of the indigenous people have been affected

and they involve in struggle and conflict for protecting their rights. For all these factors, the conflict

in the region has transformed and taken a new form of social and communal conflict.

61 | P a g e
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 Appendices

Appendix 1

Questionnaire for Experts

1. What are, in your standpoint, the principal causes for the unstable situation in the
Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT)?
2. How the dimension of the conflict has changed over the last few decades?
3.
i) What are the main successes of the 1997 Peace Accord to make the CHT region
peaceful?
ii) What are the failures of the Peace Accord to bring peace in the area?
4. How do you differentiate the post-accord conflict-situation that going on in the CHT from
the pre-accord conflict?
5. Which factors are in the driver seat for transform the dimensions of the conflict in the
southeastern part of the country over the times?
6. What are the main barriers for making the CHT region stable and peaceful?
7. Do you think that the indigenous people’s relationship with the Bangladesh government
is the same as it was with the former Pakistani regime? Why or why not?
8. Do you think that non-implementation of some main provisions of the 1997 peace accord
creates distrust among the local communities of the CHT and made the conflict in the
region sustainable?
9. What are the contributions of the foreign donors led development project in the region
for fostering the conflict between the local indigenous and Bengali communities?

Subsidiary Questions:
10. How the state-denial of recognizing the ethnic identity of the hill people make sustaining
of the conflict in the CHT?
11. In what ways the access, control and transfer of the land rights are in the core for the
violence in the region?

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Appendix 2

Questions for Respondents

1) Bangladeshi governments different excuses to relocate thousands of Bengalis, set up

numerous military camps to CHT without any consultations with its native residents and
by taking over their ancestral lands, failure to recognize indigenous identity as separated
from Bengali identity etc. factors led to the formation of Parbatya Chattagram Jana Samhati
Samiti (PCJSS).
2) A 20 years long armed conflict in a CHT that came to an end in 1997 through signing a
peace treaty between PCJSS and the government of Bangladesh. Despite the signing of this
treaty, ethnic conflict in CHT seems to get worse with time.
3) A part of PCJSS did not think the treaty was fair to the indigenous populations. So they
established UPDF. Since then the hostility between PCJSS and UPDF is causing conflict
within the indigenous communities and stalling indigenous community’s ability to
represent their undivided Jumma identity.
4) In the Pakistani period, the Kaptai Dam project caused for displaced many local people
from their own homes and this event created a conflicting situation between the indigenous
people and the Pakistani government.
5) From the known past, there were congenial relationships between the inhabitants of the
CHT; between Bengalis and Pahari. But, various policies adopted and implemented by the
central governments over decades particularly in Bangladesh period, the congenial
relationships turned into conflicting one during the 70’s, 80’s and 90’s.
6) One of the main components for constant conflict is that the peace treaty hasn’t yet been
fully implemented.
7) The denial of government and constitution to recognize the ethnic identity of the hill people
is one of the principal causes of constant conflict in the CHT region.
8) Did any of your family members or relatives got killed or injured during various conflicts
over different times in CHT?

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9) The non-implementation or failure of the 1997 Peace accord of created distrusts among the
local communities of the CHT and the indigenous people of CHT lost their faith, trust and
hope from the government of Bangladesh.
10) Indigenous peoples are constantly fearful of the military and lack of accountability toward
military actions. Also, the unspoken alliance between the military force and the Bengali
community is a massive concern to indigenous safety and security.
11) Grabbing of indigenous communities’ land in the name of promoting tourism and
development is another constant rising issue.
12) The crisis in the hilly region has escalated since the emergence of Rohingya refugees in
this border area. The Rohingya population has more similarities to the Bengali population
in terms of their physical features, language, and religion, it is easier for them to represent
themselves as Bengalis. This has initiated new uncertainties and distrust among the
indigenous populations residing in CHT. The members of indigenous communities
describe it as an imminent threat to their existence.
13) The political and commercial elites of Pahari and Rohingya settlers and plain land Bengali
are occupying the hill land and forest resources by using the act of leasing.
14) The violation of the indigenous people’s land rights that they inherit from their ancestors
is also one of the main factors behind the on-going conflict in the CHT.

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Appendix 3

List of Experts

No. Designation

Professor
Department of Peace and Conflict Studies
Expert 1
University of Dhaka

Professor
Department of Peace and Conflict Studies
Expert 2
University of Dhaka

Student
Department of International Relations (IR)
Indigenous Person
University of Dhaka

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Appendix 4: List of Participants
Name Age Work Place Gender
Rahul 25-30 Student Male
Bakul Chakma 25-30 Student Male
Bornali Chakma 18-24 Student Female
Kakoli Chakma 25-30 Student Female
Jayesh Chakma 25-30 Student Male
Ashish Chakma 25-30 Private Job Holder Male
Nirendra Chakma 18-24 Student Male
Panna Shri Chakma 18-24 Student Female
Shilpa Chakma Under 18 Student Female
Namita Chakma 18-24 Student Female
Usaing Thing Marma 18-24 Student Male
Piyush Talukder 18-24 Student Male
Aranyak Chakma 18-24 Student Male
Kamlesh Chakma 25-30 Teacher Male
Doya Muni 18-24 Student Female
Tongchangya
Robin Chakma 18-24 Student Male
Dipak Chakma 25-30 Copywriter in an ad Agency Male
Mukesh Chakma 25-30 NGO Officer Male
Somesh Talukder 25-30 Student Male
Shipra Chakma 25-30 Student Female
Chinglen Chrabon 18-24 Student Male
Priyo Muni Tonchangya 18-24 Student Female
Boun Chakma 18-24 Student Male
Natun Bihari Chakma 18-24 Student Male
Shonali Chakma 18-24 Student Male

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Appendix-A
The Population of CHT: hill vs. non-hill people (1872-1991)
Year Hill people (%) Non-hill People (%)
1872 98.26 1.74
1901 92.98 7.02
1951 90.91 9.09
1956 90.91 9.09
1981 61.07 38.93
1991 51.43 48.57
Source: Adnan (2004)

Appendix-B
Growth of mosques and madrasas in the CHT
Year Number of Mosques Number of Madrasas
1961 40 2
1974 200 20
1981 592 35
Source: Mohsin (1999)

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Appendix-C
The list of Changing the Names of Various Places of Khagrachari
Previous Name Present Name
Bangal Kathi Shantinagar and Muslim Para
Pankheyoya Para Milonpur, Pankhiyapara, Kallanpur, Madampur

Khagrapur Islampur
C.N.B Tila Kadampur
Kamal Chari Battolla
Khagrachari Bill Anandapur
Comilla Tila Ambagan
Kanoongo Para Mohamadpur
Uttda Chari Rasulpur
Paong Kabari Para Fatemanagar
Tai Kusum Kalapani Chara
Para Kalak Lambapara
Source: Nasreen (2000)

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