Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad

Course: Curriculum development

(8603)

Assignment No 1

Spring 2022

Name: Kainat sabir

Father Name: M.sabir Abbasi

User Id: 0000251346

Program: B.Ed (1.5 Years)

Semester: Spring 2022

 ANSASSIGNMENT No. 1

Q. 1 Critically analyze the process of educational planning in the

implementation of curriculum in Pakistan.

Answer

EDUCATIONAL PLANNING PROCESS

It’s the process of laying out a logical structure called a plan.

It is cyclic in nature i.e.

It varies from one country to another due to:

Degree to which the education plan forms the integral part of the economic plan

The weakness or strength of the statistical services

The features of the school systems-both private and public

The weakness or strength of the statistical services

There are five stages

1.Base Situation Analysis/identification of the national goals

2..Prepare the draft education plan/determine the best of the alternative

3.Approval and experimentation

4.Implementation/Decision making

5.Evaluation/ Feedback World Bank

Base Situational Analysis/identification of the national goals

Look at education system from a wider perspective e.g. societal, enrolment rate
(gross/apparent or real/net)

Answers questions such as:

To what extend has education assisted in achieving the laid down objectives e.g.
production of manpower, enhancing national unity.

What is the quality of the output/outcome? Do they meet the requirements of the
available job opportunities?

Do the output need retraining

 Do we need to review our curriculum

Is education evolutionary enough

'Note:' A system that does not keep data cannot give this information thus need to keep data to
be objective enough Before going to the next stage study carefully the existing government
policies on education.

Preparation of Draft Education Plan/determining the best of the alternative/ Developing the
Proposal

There is need to build consensus among the various stakeholders i.e. those with divergent
ideologies e. g. sociologist, economists also between theorists (those with credentials e.g.
educationists) and pragmatists (those with practical experiences e.g. teachers.

The best plan/alternative should be in view of;

Relative cost

Benefits

Time requirement

Practical feasibility

Regard education Effective/efficient

Develop a plan of action where you are, where you want to be (destination) and the means to
get there: (give a brief of the strategic plan processes)

3 Lobbing, Approval & Experimentation

Involves conditions that would influence the achievement of the objectives e.g. govt,
politicians, civil society, consider the rate of inflation which may affect the cost of living,
cost per student place
 The plan should not be dictated to people

Planners to educate people to understand the document

Lobby the ministers, Permanent Secretaries – these will be used to educate the cabinet, MPs
and president

Planners are technically qualified: why should they go for MPs (some not competent). We
should have a broader national interest for the plan not personal.

'''Experimentation, Pilot Planning, Pre-testing, Pilot Study'''

This is a stage where planning is tried and tested to identify the areas of weakness

Choose a few selected schools and sample to implement the plan. These should be
representative.

Done to avoid continuous repetition of an error

After piloting: correct and improve the errors based on the results.

4 Implementation/Decision making*Every stakeholder should be involved i.e. teachers, head

teachers, parents, government (All those who were consulted earlier)

It’s the most difficult stage in the planning process

It involves dealing or struggling with the reality

This involves implementation of new methodologies, structures e.t.c. To what extent is the
administrative structure flexible enough to implement this change? Most of them are
conservatists maintain the status quo (resist change).

All those involved in the implementation should be firmly in touch with daily practice,
should have clarity of vision, insight and imagination

The task is to get rid of this barrier and accommodate the change which is of much benefits
 Teachers will implement the changes through in-service training

As we implement, evaluation is going on

Formative i.e. continuous

Summative i.e. at the end

5 Evaluation/Feedback

It’s the last stage

For any planning to be realistic there must be feedback from current experiences

There must be a self-evaluating mechanism to address the following questions.

What are the problems with the plan

What have we achieved

What have we not achieved

Why have we not achieved it

How do we improve what we have achieved

After evaluation (answers to these questions), we start to plan on how to improve the
situation. We go back to where we started –Base Situation Analysis.
A basic management function involving formulation of one or more detailed plans to achieve
optimum balance of needs or demands with the available resources. The planning process (1)
identifies the goals or objectives to be achieved, (2) formulates strategies to achieve them, (3)
arranges or creates the means required, and (4) implements, directs, and monitors all steps in
their proper sequence. Introduction to Planning

3.   Reactive – past oriented  Inactive - present oriented  Preactive – prediction based

(predicting future )  Proactive - vision based (creating future) Approaches to Planning
(4.   1. Pre-Planning (creation of suitable organization, machinery to participate, creation of

information, defining objectives at various levels)  2. Planning (diagnosis of criteria, present

situation & previous performance, relevance, effectiveness, efficiency )  3. Plan Formulation
(costing of future needs, establishing priorities, target setting, feasibility testing) Stages of
Planning
(5.   4. Plan Elaboration (Programming and projectisation)  5. Implementation (execution,

management process, annual budget, annual plan personnel training, incentive, accountability) 
6. Monitoring/Evaluation(systematic feedback, revision, target resetting, changes in strategies,
formative, summative, qualitative, quantitative, evaluation of evaluation) Stages of Planning
((6.   Long Term Plan (5 yrs +)  Short Term Plan ( 1-3 yrs)  Mid Term Plan (3-5 yrs) 

Rolling Plan (keeps changing) Types of Plan

7. 1.Data collectio n & processi ng 2.Policy formulat ion 3. Needs assessme nt 7.Plan formulat
ion 9.Plan impleme ntation 6.Feasibi lity testing 8.Plan elaborati on 10.Plan evaluatio n &
revision 4.Costin g of needs 5.Priorit y setting 13 7 MAJOR STAGES OF PLANNING
PROCESS
8.  MAJOR MILESTONES AND TYPES OF PLANS FORMULATED IN PAKISTAN
DEVELOPMENT BOARD: 1948 1. Development Board set up in 1948 in Economic Affairs
Division to deal with questions of rapid economic development of the country. 2. 1951: Six-year
Plan for Education under the Colombo Plan for Cooperative Economic Development in South
and South East Asia. PLANNING COMMISSION: 1958 - The First Five Year Plan: (1955-60) -
The Second Five-Year Plan (1960-65) - The Third Five-Year Plan (1965-70) - The Fourth Five-
Year Plan (1970-75) - The Fifth Five-Year Plan (1978-83) - The Sixth Five-Year Plan (1983-88)
- The Seventh Five-Year Plan (1988-93) - The Eighth Five-Year Plan (1993-98) - The Ninth
Five-Year Plan (1998-2003) - The Tenth Five-Year Plan (2010-15) 13 8
9.  - Two long-term plans: 1965-85 and 1988-2003 - From June 2004, the Planning
Commission gave a new name to the Five Year Medium Term Development Framework
(MTDF): From June 2004, the Planning Commission gave a new name to the Five Year Plan -.
Thirty two Working Groups then produced the MTDF 2005-2010 The Tenth Five-Year Plan
(2010-15) also included the review of the first MTDF. The Rolling Plan ADProg and ADPlan 13
9
10. EDU. PLANNING PROCESS IN PAKISTAN PLANNING COMMISSION Prepares
Approach Paper Constitutes Tech. Working Grps Preparation of chapters Consultation with Fed.
Min. of Edu for input Consultation with Prov. Govt. for input 1ST DRAFT PLAN FINALIZED
Sent to Fed Min and Dev. Partners for comments Finance Division for Reso. availability Sent to
all Pvl Govts for comments EAD(econom ic affairs division) for foreign aid availability
Finalization of DRAFT PLAN for presentation in Cabinet Submitted to NEC Circulation among
all Pvl Govts and Fed. Min of Edu Elaboration of Plan into Programs and projects 13 10
11.  PROJECT APPROVING BODIES 1. Executive Committee of National Economic
Council (ECNEC) • Approving authority for any provincial project costing beyond 10,000
Million and projects as mentioned below: • Any project involving foreign component • Any
project of irrigation costing 1,000 billion or more 2. Central Development Working Party
(CDWP) • CDWP, which is located at Planning and Development Division, Planning
Commission, Islamabad, is a clearing house for any provincial project; projects with cost
exceeding Rs. 10,000 million are recommended by the PDWP to the CDWP. 3. Provincial
Development Working Party (PDWP) • PDWP sanctions projects costing from Rs. 200 million
to Rs. 10,000 million. • Note: Any survey and feasibility study (PC - II) is approved by PDWP,
irrespective of the cost. 13 11
(12.  4. Departmental Development Sub-committees (DDSC) • Projects costing between Rs.
100 million to Rs. 200 million are within the approving competency of DDSC. • Moreover,
Heads of the attached departments (Officers in Category- I) have powers to sanction schemes up
to the value of Rs. 2.5 million. 5. Divisional Development Working Party (DDWP) • Projects
costing upto Rs. 100 million are approved by the DDWP headed by the respective
Commissioner. /Secretary) 6. District Development Committees (DDC) • Project costing upto
Rs. 50 million are approved by the DDC of each district. 13 12
13.   Objectives : idealistic vs Realistic & qualitative vs Quantitative  Why objectives
needed?  To make wise decisions *(what if not wisely made?)  Control the wastage (what if
they don’t match resources)  Manage time efficiently (what if time is wasted?)  Make
maximum use of available resources  Avoid unseen threshold (what if translated differently?)
Unit 3 Educational Planning Process: Objectives & Constraints
14.   Planner himself  Political  Treasury  Financial  Technical  Managerial  Physical
 International  Incidental  Environmental  Social Other Constraints
15.   Impact Analysis  Consistency Analysis  Compatibility Analysis  Force field
Analysis

Q No2.Analyze variuos models of objectives and develop a model for

Pakistan.?

Answer.

The model objectives are the maximization of ENPV and the minimization of financial risk. To
assess risk, four different risk measures were used and compared: variance, variability index,
downside risk and conditional value-at-risk. Choosing the most adequate risk measure depends
on the decision maker.

The Objectives Model The objectives model of curriculum design contains content that is based
on specific objectives. These objectives should specify expected learning outcomes in terms of
specific measurable behaviours.

The Objectives Model The objectives model of curriculum design contains content that is
based on specific objectives. These objectives should specify expected learning outcomes in
terms of specific measurable behaviours. This model comprises four main steps: • agreeing on
broad aims which are analysed into objectives,

Models: Definition?  A simplified representation of reality which is often depicted in

diagrammatic form
4. Model: Purpose? To provide a structure for examining the elements that go to make up
curriculum planning, and how these elements interrelate.
5. The Curriculum Process The development of a curriculum involves the developer in decisions
about the nature and appropriateness of the substantive elements, eg the: outcomes content
method assessment strategies These decisions are made in relation to the context in which the
curriculum will operate.
6. Tyler’s Objective Model
7. Tyler’s Objective Model
8. MAJOR COMPONENTS
The Tyler Model is often referred to as the ‘objective model’ because of it’s objective approach
to educational evaluation. It emphasizes consistency among objectives, learning experiences,
and outcomes. Curriculum objectives indicate both behavior to be developed and area of
content to be applied. (Keating, 2006)
9. Tyler Rationale:
What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? (Defining appropriate learning
objectives.)  How can learning experiences be selected which are likely to be useful in attaining
these objectives? (Introducing useful learning experiences.)  How can learning experiences be
organized for effective instruction? (Organizing experiences to maximize their effect.)  How
can the effectiveness of learning experiences be evaluated? (Evaluating the process and revising
the areas that were not effective.)
10. Tyler’s Four Principles;
Principle 1: Defining Appropriate Learning Objectives  Studies of the Learners Themselves as
a Source of Educational Objectives  Studies of Contemporary Life outside the School  The
Use of Philosophy in Selecting Objectives  The Use of a Psychology of Learning in Selecting
Objectives  Stating Objectives in a Form to be Helpful in Selecting Learning Experiences and
in Guiding Teaching
11. Tyler’s Teaching Principles cont’d…..
Principle 2: Establishing Useful Learning Experiences Meaning of the Term “Learning
Experience” General Principles in Selecting Learning Experiences Illustrations of the
Characteristics of Learning Experiences Useful in Attaining Various Types of Objectives
12. Tyler’s Teaching Principles cont’d….. Principle 3:
Organizing Learning Experiences to Have a Maximum Cumulative Effect What is meant by
“Organization?” Criteria for Effective Organization Elements to be organized Organizing
Principles The Organizing Structure The Process of Planning a Unit of Organization
13. Tyler’s Teaching Principles cont’d….. Principle 4:
Evaluating the Curriculum and Revising Those Aspects That Did Not Prove to be Effective
(Keating, 2006) The Need for Evaluation Basic Notions Regarding Evaluation Evaluation
Procedures Using the Results of Evaluation Other Values and Uses of Evaluation Procedures
(14. PRIMARY TERMS OF THE THEORY
Stating Objectives (Denham, 2002) The progressive emphasizes the importance of studying the
child to find out what kinds of interests he has, what problems he encounters, what purposes he
has in mind. The progressive sees this information as providing the basic source for selecting
objectives
15. PRIMARY TERMS OF THE THEORY
Selecting Learning Experiences (Denham, 2002) Tyler believes that students learn through
exploration Like his mentor, John Dewey, Tyler believes teachers should encourage children to
become actively engaged in discovering what the world is like
16. PRIMARY TERMS OF THE THEORY
Organizing Learning Experiences (Denham, 2002)  Central to Tyler’s Model is effectively
organizing the learning activities  Students need concrete experiences to which the readings are
meaningfully connected  Three major criteria are required in building organized learning
experiences: continuity, sequence and integration
(17. PRIMARY TERMS OF THE THEORY
Evaluating the Curriculum (Denham, 2002) The process of assessment is critical to Tyler’s
Model and begins with the objectives of the educational program The process of evaluation is
essentially the process of determining to what extent the educational objectives are actually
being realized by the program of curriculum and instruction
18. STRENGTHS OF MODEL

volves the active participation of the learner (Prideaux, 2003)  Objectives are clearly defined in
the purposes. These purposes are translated into educational objectives.
(www.coedu.usf.edu/agents/dlewis/publications/ tyler.htm)  Simple linear approach to
development of behavioral objectives (Billings & Halstead, 2009)
(19. CRITICISMS Narrowly interpreted objectives (acceptable verbs) Difficult and time

consuming construction of behavioral objectives Curriculum restricted to a constricted range of

student skills and knowledge
(20. CRITICISMS OF THE TYLER MODEL (CONT.)
Critical thinking, problem solving and value acquiring processes cannot be plainly declared in
behavioral objectives (Prideaux, 2003) (CONT.)  Learning experiences are individual and are
not totally within the power of the teacher to select  The teacher can control the learning
experience through the manipulation of the environment, which results in stimulating situations
sufficient to evoke the kind of learning outcomes desired
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Q.3 How does and to what extent a social and economic

diversities affect curriculum development? Discuss in detail.

ANS

The term curriculum may be defined in many different ways: as a subject matter, or a set of rules
and experiences, which help to choose the best way of development, or a plan that has to be
followed.

Jon Wiles (2008) explains curriculum as “a set of desired goals or values that are activated
through a development process and culminate in successful learning experiences for students”
(p.2).
Curriculum development is an integral function that depends on numerous political, economical,
social, technological, and psychological factors. Right now, political (political instability) and
technological (variety of innovations) factors affective curriculum development will be
evaluated.

Modern world continues progressing day by day: people present new inventions, demonstrate
demands, change interests, forget about their primary functions, and try to follow their personal
ideas. Each sphere undergoes considerable changes and causes the development of everything.

It is not a surprise that curriculum development becomes dependent on certain factors. Among
the variety of these factors, such points like political instability and technological innovations are
regarded as the most important ones.

Politics has a certain impact on all spheres of life, and instability of politics leads to instability in
everyday life. It usually defines goals and content; political considerations need to be admitted
while curriculum development; and political decisions may change the requirements for
curriculum development.

If the sphere of politics cannot be called stable, it becomes hard to explain why some points
within curriculum development have to be deleted, and new ideas should be considered.

Political corruption negatively influences curriculum development, and politicians have to

control their actions and thoughts not to worsen the situation but present the ideas that help to
improve, support, and develop successful curriculums.

Introduction

Sociology is the study of social behaviour or society, including its origins, development,
organization, networks, and institutions. Educational sociology is a branch of sociology, which is
confronted with the problems of relationship between society and education. It makes an effort
to achieve the aims of sociology through educational process, which is nothing but an
interaction between the individual and the society. Society has its own expectations about the
aims and objectives that should be considered when designing the curriculum. It also has a
perception of what the product of the school system should look like. It is therefore necessary
for curriculum designers to take into account these societal considerations.

Curriculum development is defined as planned, a purposeful, progressive, and systematic

process to create positive improvements in the educational system. Every time there are
changes or developments happening around the world, the school curricula are affected. There
is a need to update them to address the society’s needs. Curriculum development has a broad
scope because it is not only about the school, the learners, and the teachers. It is also about the
development of society in general. In today’s knowledge economy, curriculum development
plays a vital role in improving the economy of a country. It also provides answers or solutions to
the world’s pressing conditions and problems, such as environment, politics, socio-economics,
and other issues of poverty, climate change, and sustainable development.

Educational significance

Education is not mere schooling or instruction imposed by the elders on the younger ones. It is
equivalent to the development of character or personality by means of the social life of
education institutions. The social life includes all kinds of out-of-class activities. Man acquires
experience throughout his life. This acquisition of experience is education. This process of
acquiring experience is a social process and it is related to and influenced by social factors.
Education is thus a social process and its function is not only to preserve the social heritage but
also to enrich it. Learning is the result of social interaction and social motivation. Education
helps to develop this social self so that an individual may become an effective and useful
member of the society. Education is a process of directed learning. Education sociology focuses
upon the social forces through which the individual gains experience.

Sociology and education are closely related to each other. Whenever we speak of sociology,
education system and schools have been studied as social phenomena. Thus the sociology
changes affected social foundations of curriculum. Social foundations of curriculum are
different considering attitudes of community planners toward society and the role of education
in the engagement of these two subjects.

The Sociological Aspects of Curriculum Development

Issues from society including groups and institutions in the culture and their contribution to
education

Refers to issues from society that have an influence on curriculum.

There are many aspects of the society that need consideration in curriculum making. These
include:

Social change

Transmission of culture

Social problems as issues for curriculum

Economic issues

Technology

Home/family

Technology

Diversity

Environment

Political factors

Church/ Mosque
Social change

When societies are faced with enormous cultural changes, especially if these changes affect
their basic behaviour, the image of society is blurred and the people saw themselves unable
against natural and logical activities. Less than 20 years, the Internet, Face book, i Pad,
websites, blogs and e-mail have changed our lives dramatically. Downloading music and videos,
chat, computer games and mobile phones are part of our and our children daily lives. You must
remember that some of the current events had no place even in the dreamed of people in
hundred years ago. For example, to people in one hundred years ago, imagining a plane,
subway, radio, etc., which is natural to us, seems unlikely. Nowadays, because of frequent
changes we can expect more amazing changes in science, technology, lifestyle, economy,
education, demographics and the politics.

All education comes from some assumptions about the future. If taught of a society about the
future is clearly wrong, the youth education system will be betrayed. Anyway, as we make plans
for curriculum, we need to think about abilities and possibilities that may occur in the future.
We will be faced with complex problems that we cannot respond to it. These include terrorism,
human rights, pollution, attention to the rights of individuals and respect to the family, and
control of different communities based on an authority. The problem will be solved with critical
thinking that today we can hardly imagine it. We shall educate citizens that can make decisions
based on science. Either now or in the future, our curriculum must be open and flexible against
uncertain and intangible consequences. The curriculum planners shall have a future based
approach and to predict and monitor changes in values and their implications for curriculum
changes to promote more informed methods for curriculum. Changes in the curriculum focused
equally on where we are going and where we are right now.

Transmission of Culture

Culture is a complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, customs and any
other capabilities acquired by man as a member of the society. It is the sum total of a given
society’s way of life moulded and shaped by prevailing circumstances and environment (Brown,
1990). This implies that culture is not static but dynamic and it responds to external influences,
which bring about changes and curriculum development in schools.

The fundamental aspects of culture include beliefs, values, routines and customs

Beliefs

Every culture has some beliefs which are accepted as true. These beliefs are sometimes called
superstitious beliefs because of lack of empirical knowledge or lack of scientific proof. These
beliefs are valued and so are accepted by majority of people in the community.

Values

Values are those aspects of cultural practices, actions or objects that are valued in high esteem
in the society. The values of a society are also those aspects of the culture that society wants to
preserve because their traditionally valued and they want to pass it from generation to
generation. The values of the society are the aspect of the culture, which is needed in the
society. These aspects of the culture that are valued should be passed from generation to
generation so as to maintain a particular valid aspect of the culture. For instance, every society
expects adults to get married for procreation to keep the society moving. An individual in the
society may complain of inability to pay his children’s school fees but will have money for
marrying another wife to have more children or would provide money for the late father’s
burial. This is because the individual could place a higher premium on either having more
children or spending a huge sum of money for the burial ceremony of his late father than
paying the school fees of his surviving children. Values and judgments are not only important
elements of culture but they are also relevant to modern society.

Routines and customs

Routines and customs are also very important aspects of culture. Recipes are the ideas and the
understanding about how things should be done as prescribed by the culture in question. For
instance, different societies have different ways prescribed by their culture in performing
naming, burial, marriage ceremonies and so on.

Routines and customs refer to the actual doings and the regularities of those cultural actions or

If political pressure is under control in respect to curriculum development, the success of this
improvement is obvious. In other case, instructional leaders, who want to improve this factor,
have two possible ways out: to protect the chosen sphere from political influence or cooperate
with politicians to improve the situation from both sides.

The influence of technological progress is observed in each sphere of life, and when the time for
curriculum development comes, the technological point plays an important role.

Technological innovations may be applied to curriculum development in several ways “as a plan
for the systematic use of various devices and media” and as the issue that “is found in models
and procedures for the construction or development and evaluation of curriculum materials and
instructional systems” (Print, 1993, p.55).

Computers provide people with many changes to speed up their work, calculate everything
within a short period, share different kinds of information by various methods, and enlarge
personal level of knowledge in the most comfortable conditions.

Curriculum developers cannot ignore this technological progress and the influence it presents.
There is still one negative side of this progress that negatively influences curriculum
development and that has to be analyzed thoroughly; this is the inability to control all
innovations. It may happen that someone is already aware about the innovation, and another
person lack of this chance.
As a result, unequal possibilities at the technological level affect curriculum development in
many ways. To avoid such situations, leaders have to take care about each detail and provide
people with a chance to get the same background and only then start one more curriculum
development.

Social diversity including religion, culture and social groupings affects curriculum development
because these characteristics influence the types of topics and methods for teaching
information….

Social and economic factors, such as income, education, employment, community safety, and
social supports can significantly affect how well and how long we live. These factors affect our
ability to make healthy choices, afford medical care and housing, manage stress, and more.

Uncontrollable Risk Factors Definition The uncontrollable risk factors are the details that affect
the product that a company has no way of changing. These include political and economic
climates, competitor choices and even the weather.

Q.4 What is the impact of instructional technology on the development of

curriculum in Pakistan?

ANS

The term „curriculum‟ signified a course of studies followed by a pupil in a teaching institution.
Presently, it means, generally speaking, the contract between society, the State and educational
professionals with regard to the educational activities that learners should undergo during a
certain phase of their lives to learn something desirable. Standard dictionaries define curriculum
as a course of study offered by an academic institution. Joseph (2011) described that the
curriculum is formal and informal content and process by which learners gain knowledge and
understanding, develop skills, and alter attitudes, appreciations, and values under the auspices/ of
an academic institution. In other words, curriculum can be defined as the total experience.
According to Slattery, (2006) curriculum is not only the content selected and delivered, but also
the planned and unplanned activities in which individuals‟ participate as students. According to
De Conic (2008), curriculum, more than ever before, is now viewed as being at the center of
daily life and the responsibility of society as a whole. Curriculum development today presents
both a strategic process challenge as well as a policy challenge. Curriculum development is an
important and central area of higher education. Curriculum provides desirable experiences.
Curriculum development is a process in which choices of learning experiences are made and
activated through coordinated activities. Main factors of curriculum development are; goals,
learners, bases of curriculum, and curriculum design, it is architectural portion of whole process.
Curriculum is the foundation of the teaching-learning process. The development of programs of
study, learning and teaching resources, lesson plans and assessment of students, and even teacher
education are all based on curriculum. Curriculum and curriculum development at first glance
appear to be of chief concern to educators, governments and parents, and both have relevance
and impact on the development of communities and prosperity. Qureshi, (2007) discussed that
the term “Curriculum” would be understand to including all major factors related to concept of
curriculum process of curriculum development, role of curriculum development, global trends of
curriculum development, selection, analysis and organization of curriculum development and
qualities of a good curriculum developer. In a nutshell, the term curriculum development
indicates key areas of activity that and educationist and experts has to follow when developing
the curriculum of specific level.

According to Iqbal (2009) there are two approaches about the nature of science; traditional
approach and contemporary. The traditional approach science is an organized knowledge of
facts, theories and natural phenomenon. Nature acts in a particular way and what is known about
natural phenomenon which is absolute and final. The teacher who is having traditional approach
believes that he/she has to transmit a fixed body of knowledge (given in textbooks) to the
students and students are bound to memorize it without any change. Newsam (2003) describes
that traditional approach relies on already selected set of facts and teacher is embodiment to be
the distributor of knowledge who has to pass on the fixed knowledge to the students in one way
or the other. Traditional approach uses competition and questioning technique to motivate
students or to assess their achievements. On the other hand, contemporary view takes science as
an evolving phenomenon and it urges student to make a concept by interacting the world around
him under the guidance of teacher. According to Richardson, (1997) learning in contemporary
setting is achieved by problem solving, inquiry, active engagement of student in activities and by
mutual interactions of students. In this approach knowledge is acquired through involvement
with contents instead of repetition. Gallagher (1991) opined that modern science curricula in
various countries of the world emphasizes not only on understanding of science concepts but also
on variety of other goals such as understanding of nature of science. Many of secondary
textbooks give only thoughtless attention to the nature of science, usually in first two chapters
while during instruction more attention is given to concepts and principles than to the process
which is contrary to the approach used to formulate these books. Iqbal, Azam and Rana (2009)
concluded from a research on 200 science teachers chosen from 37 secondary schools in Pakistan
that most of the teachers (60.45%) had traditional view about nature of science. This teacher‟s
belief about nature of science not only influences students‟ development but also their way of
teaching in the science class. Hence teachers training programs emphasize to change teachers
belief from traditional to contemporary using explicit (history and philosophy of science) and
implicit (inquiry and science process skills). According to Iqbal (2011) the most commonly used
method of teaching in Pakistan is textbook reading, chalk and talk. This method becomes more
verse when only one book is followed as in Pakistan. The use of audio-visual aids is totally
ignored even cheaply and readily available resources like charts and models are rarely used to
facilitate teaching/learning of science concepts in some schools. The real science teaching in
which teacher is engaged in helping students according to their capabilities and in which teachers
are supplemented by adequately planned curricula and highly organized instructional
methodology is rarely seen in Pakistan where in some schools, science class reaches up to 100
students per class (UNESCO, (1987). In Pakistan majority of science teachers were not using
audio visual aids during teaching science classes at secondary school level. The study also
indicated that in most schools educational technology items and space for using these items was
not available. It was also found that majority of schools do not arrange science exhibitions and
field trips to encourage healthy science activities among students (Akhtar, 2009).

Technology plays vital role as it helps in research and development. Learn the importance of
technology in instructional design over here. When making plans for higher education in order to
seek career advancement or to achieve any other sets of goals, it is important to look at the big
picture.
Q.5 Critically review the existing schemes of studies at secondary level of
education. How schemes of studies are developed and processed in our
country after 18th constitutional amendment?

ANS

Scheme of Studies: The scheme of studies means the courses/syllabi prescribed at different
levels of education. The scheme of studies is given as follows:

Primary Level: The subjects at the primary level are regional languages, Urdu, Counting,
Simple Arithmetic, Nature Study and Islamiyat.
Middle Level: The subjects at the middle level are regional languages, Urdu, English,
Algebra, Geometry, Science, Social Studies, and Islamiyat.
Secondary Level: The subjects at the secondary level are Urdu, English, Islamiyat,
Pakistan studies – compulsory subjects for all groups. Humanities group students study
General Science and Mathematics as additional compulsory subjects and two optional
subjects of their choice.
18At present, the following schemes targeted at secondary stage (i.e. class IX to XII) are

beingth Constitutional amendment

implemented in the form of Centrally Sponsored Schemes:

Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan

Girls Hostel Scheme

National Scheme of Incentives to Girls for Secondary Education

Inclusive Education for Disabled at Secondary Stage

Scheme of Vocational Education

National Merit-cum-Means Scholarship Scheme

Scheme for construction and running of Girls’ Hostel for students of secondary and
higher secondary schools

Scholarship schemes for Minority students

National Scholarships

HSC pass students can do B.Sc (agriculture) and M.Sc (agriculture) or Agricultural Engineering
in an agricultural college or university. After doing MA, MS, MSC or M.com, students can get a
Ph.D. Degree in 4 years.

Scheme of Studies: The scheme of studies means the courses/syllabi prescribed at different
levels of education. The scheme of studies is given as follows:

Primary Level: The subjects at the primary level are regional languages, Urdu, Counting,
Simple Arithmetic, Nature Study and Islamiyat.
Middle Level: The subjects at the middle level are regional languages, Urdu, English,
Algebra, Geometry, Science, Social Studies, and Islamiyat.
Secondary Level: The subjects at the secondary level are Urdu, English, Islamiyat,
Pakistan studies – compulsory subjects for all groups. Humanities group students study
General Science and Mathematics as additional compulsory subjects and two optional
subjects of their choice.

The Eighteenth constitutional amendment has some drastic effects on overall Pakistani
legislative and administrative system. While Education sector has no exception, the omission of
concurrent list has opened a Pandora of issues, ranging from planning, implementation, finances
on one side and the curriculum, teacher training, syllabus, and infrastructure on other side.
Before elaborating these issues it is essential to understand the effects of 18
th amendment on educational sector and how it is different from pre 18th amendment scenario
bringing forth the plans which are not only aligned with the provincial requirements but also
unsusceptible to national integrity and cohesion.

One of the reasons of such lacking is the dearth of coherent, thoughtful and meaningful dialogue
between the educationist, planners, policy makers, implementers etc. representing the grass root
level and the officialdom level. Quite often the impressive talks, presentations and conferences
generate immense interest in various educational issues but fail to bring any lasting imprint on
educational discourse, educational policies and practices. It is this important to conceive of
dialogues
that are concentrated, evidence based, bringing forth concrete solutions and carry the message
forward to ensure impact on policies and practice. The dialogues in light of evidence and among
related people have greater potential to generate more meaningful and relevant discussions. If a
non-threatening environment is somehow created to ensure free, frank and open dialogue,
solutions
can be forged. Such solutions need to be carried forward to the policy and practice level for
broader
impact utilizing various forums – monographs, technology, media etc. Such discourse also helps
to
emanate the common grounds where all the groups unanimously agree to the issue and its
possible
solutions.

In the light of above discussion it is imperative to open the venues through which people could
engage in to meaningful discourse, however the modus operandi of such discourse is still a
question
mark. Shall it be a policy dialogue, an interactive writing contest, conference or some other out
of box
mechanism?
Number of questions need to be answer for e.g.

 How to engage education sector stakeholders to develop a consensus on educational issues?

 How to prioritize the issues, i.e. which issues require addressing first?
 What are the mechanisms require that ensures provincial autonomy and at the same time
respond to national integrity demands?
Above and many other questions like above demands a movement from civil society and
government
officials to come forward and engage in the process. Otherwise the fear is that the education
system
again falls in to the myriad of despair or mirage of joys which solely exists in our mind but never
transform in to meaningful practice.