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CIRCUITS
Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives '
3.7 Summary
3.8 Answers to SAQs
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 2, we considered various important methods of analysis of d.c. circuits. We need
to deal with such circuits wherever d.c. soprces qre present, whether in the form of d.c.
generators mechanically driven by prime movers, or rechargeable or non-rechargeable
d.c. cells or d.c. sources used in modelling various electrical and electronic devices.
Incidentally, the only practically useful mode of storage of electrical energy at the
present time is through d.c. storage batteries (rechargeable d.c. cells) and hence the latter
are widely used in transport vehicles, electronic instruments and equipment, portable
tools and the like.
However the bulk of electrical energy utilisation, whether in domestic installations, or in
industry or in public service organisations is through alternating current (a.c.) systems
involving sinusoidal voltages and currents. Strictly speaking, the adjective alternating
indicates any signal whose direction alternates with time but in practice it is invariably
used to refer to sinusoidal signals.
In this Unit, you will first learn about thc characteristics and representation of sinusoidal
voltages and currents. You will then get to know the types of response of standard circuit
elements to sinusoidal excitation. This will be a prelude to thc study of methods of
analysis of circuits formed by various combinations of simple circuit elements and
operating under the influence of a.c. sources. Thephasor concept which simplifies the
expression of steady-state response-excitation relations in these circuits would be
adopted as the framework for the development of the various techniqucs of analysis. You
will also be introduced to the various ramifications of power in an a.c. circuit.
Objectives
After a study of this unit, you should be able to
explain the reasons for the widespread use of sinusoidal signals in clcctrical
engineering,
Intfoduction to Circuits deduce the different parameten of a sinusoidal waveform like peak value,
phase, effective value, form factor etc.,
work with complex numbers as needed for the manipulation of phasors in a.c.
circuit anaiysis,
express the steady state response both in time domain and in phasor domain of
R, L, C elements to sinusoidal inputs,
calculate the impedance 2 and adniittance ?of simple elements and
combinations thereof in 2-terminal networks,
analyse siinple a.c. circuits through series-parallel reduction techniques or
through the method of loop or node equations,
describe the phenomenon of resonance in siinple series and pawllel circuits
and deduce the associated characteristics,
explain the factors on which power in an a.c. circuit depends and distinguish
between active power, apparent power and reactive power, and
explain the need for power factor improvement and calculate the capacitance
values needed for the purpose in typical circuits.
We also know (vide Eq.1.20) that the frequency f of the signal is the reciprocal of the
period T. Therefore we have
The parameter w is thus a measure of the frequency of the signal and is called angular
frequency. The phase angle 8 is the value of the argument of the sine function at the
origin of time and goverlls the instantaneous value at t = 0 of the sinusoidal signal of a
given amplitude. Strictly speaking, 8 should be expressed in radians as wt is expressed in
radians. However since many of us have a better feel for angles measured in degrees, we
(c) -
v3 = 10 cos (wt d 2 ) = 10 cos ( d 2 - wt)
= 10 sin wt.
SAQ 1.
Express the following sinusoidal signals in the standard form, A sin (wt + 0).
(a) il = 2 cos (wt + 30")
(b) vz = 4 sin 314t + 4 cos (314t + 150")
From the name of the term, it is clear that form factor gives an indication of the shape of
the wave. The peakier the waveform is, the larger is the form factor. For a flat waveform
like the symmetrical square wave of Figure 1.34(a), the form factor has a value equal to 1 A.C. Circuits
since the rms and absotute average values of this wave are equal. For a sinusoid we have,
Peak Value /a =-- n
Form factor of a sinusoid =
(Peak Value) (2/n) fi- 1.11.
The form factor is a parameter to be considered in certain applications like the
i determination of the effective value of voltage induced in a coil due to changing
!
magnetic flux of a given amplitude.
Eiample 3.2
Find the fonn factor of a syininetric triangular voltage uravefonn shown in Figure 3.2.
4 IA
I
Fig. 3.2 : Symmetric triangular waveform
Solution
To find v ; ~ ,we need to find the average of 3.As the area under the curve of 3 vs t
for the first quarter period is equal to the areas for the subsequent 3 quarter periods,
we can find the required average of by considering only the interval 0 < t < T/4.
Thus
vr m = -A
v3
A
Likewise
/L
anticlockwise about the origin with an angular velocity w, starting from the postition
shown at t = 0, then the projection of the phasor on the vertical axis at any time r has a
length equal to (llfi) times the instantaneous value of the related sinusoid at that time.
Any si~iusoidis uniquely determined by three quantities viz rms value, frequerrcy and
phase. In a.c. circuit arnalysis, we normally deal with situations in which all currents and
voltages have the same frequency and the value of this frequency is known. In this
Fig3.4 : Phasor o i a sinusaid situation, one sinusoid differs from another only in respect of rms value and phase, both
A sin (wt + 0)
of which are prominently displayed by a phasor. There is therefore a one-to-one
correspondence between a sinusoid of a given frequency and its phasor and we can
deduce one from the other. Different voltages and currents occurring in an a.c. circuit
(operating with a single frequency excitation) can therefore be represented by an
assembly of directed line segments having a common origin, a representation which is far
more concise and clearer than a display of all the pertinent waveforms on a common time
base. For example, tlne phase difference between two voltages is clearly visu:~lisedas the
.
angle between the respective phasors What is more, several mathematical operations on
sinusoidal functions can be interpreted and more conveniently handled in t e r m of
phasors either graphically or analytically as we shall see in the subsequent sections.
m sin (wr + 30") and
As an example, consider two voltages vA = 2
m sin
VB = 4 (wt + 90") whose waveforms are shown in Figure 3.5(a).
Fig. 3.5 : Two sinusoids with a phase difference of 60' (a) Waveforms (b) Phasors
The phase difference between vA and vB is 60". vB is said to lead vA by 60" as successive
similar events (e.g. upward zero crossings, positive peaks, negative peaks, downward
zero crossings) occur with vB at an angular interval of 60" earlier than with vA (vide
Figure 3.5(a)). By the same token vA is said to lag vB by 60".
Note : In this example, we could as well have stated that VA leads v~ by 300" (vA A.C. Circuits
Example 3.4
Identify the sinusoidal functions of time which correspond to the phasors shown in
Figure 3.7. The frequency of the signals is 50 Hz.
Solution
VA = fi x 5 sin ( 1 0 W + 225")
vB = x 10 sin (100n.C - 30")
SAQ 2 Fig. 3.7 for Example 3.4
positive real number a. The directed line OZ, which is obtained by rotating 0 7in the
positive (anticlockwise) direction by JC radians represents (-1) a. In fact you can readily
see that multiplication of a by (- 1)" is equivalent to rotation of 07by nn; radians for all
integral values of n. We can extend this idea to fractional values of n as well. To do this,
it is adequate if we define that multiplication by (- l)lR is equivalent to positive rotation
by 90". Thus the directed line 0 7= (- 1)'12 ?O = j OY,where the symbol j stands for
\/-1.Multiplication by - j then implies a counterclockwise rotation of 180" + 90"
= 270". Since the square root of a negative number does not exist in the real number
system, j and its product with any real number (eg. j4) are called imaginary numbers. We
now see that any imaginary number has the formjy, where y is real. It call be represented
by a point on the y-axis (also called vertical axis or the imaginary axis) bl units above the
origin i f y is positive and below the origin if y is negative.
Note : Mathematicians use the symbol i for fi. In electrical engineering,
however, the symbol i is reserved for current for historical reasons arising
from the French word intensite du courant for current strength. Hence we
use the next letter in the alphabet, viz. j for \/-1.
The symbol "j" can be interpreted either as an operator rotating the operand by 90" or A.C. Circuits
merely as a number. Using either interpretation, we have
j2=-1; j3=-j; PZletc. (3.5)
In the foregoing paragraph, we saw that real and imaginary numbers are represented
respectively by points on the real axis (x-axis) and the imaginary axis (y-axis). Now the
-
entire x y plane is called the complex plane. An arbitrary point P on the plane with
coordinates (x, y) defines a complex number ?= x +jy, where x and jy are the real and
imaginary parts of 2. We indicate a complex number by a line on top eg, tto differentiate
it from the real positive number z which indicates its magnitude also called modulus.
Note : Other ways of indicating a complex number are the use of boldface type (z),
the use of a cap on top ( 2 ) and underlining ( t).
We can interpret the complex numberzeither as the point P itself or the directed line
segment z. The complex number O ? in Figure 3.10 has a magnitude z and a direction
at an angle 8 to the real line. This leads to two alternative forms of representation of a
complex number.
Rectangular coordinate representation
- - - -
~=OP=OM+ON=X+~Y
=z~0~8+jzsin8=z(cos8+jsin9)
Polar coordinate representation
Recalling the Euler identity eie = cos 8 + j sine, we can p u t t in the following fonn:
-z = z e j e = Z L ~
readily established through
thestandardseries expansions
of the exponential function
2 and the trigonometric
functions ws 0 and sin 0.
Note also that
-- cosme+jsinme
(as0 + j sine)"'
The last expression, read as z at a n angle 8 is a short fonn for the mathematically more
rigorous expression ze$. To convert a complex number from one form to the other, we
use the following formulas :
Polar to rectangular form :
Two angles differing by JCradians have the same tangent. Therefore, while applying the
second expression in Eq. (3.7), you should independently deduce from the signs of y and
x the quadrant into which the particular 8 falls.
The three expressions, z cos 0 + j z sin 8, z eie and z L 8 being alternative descriptions of
a directed line segment, can be used to algebraically denote phasors introduced in the last
section. We therefore take thepllasor for a sinusoidal voltage v = d?Vsin(wt + 8) as the
complex number,
You should carefully distinguish between the phasor Vand its magnitude V. The former
is a complex number, and provides information of both the'rms value and the phase of
the sinusoid. The latter indicates merely the rms value. We sometimes use the notation
(VIas an alternative to indicate the magnitude of V. The angle 8 of a complex number 2
is often indicated as A ~ ~ ( Z ) .
introduction to Circuits Example 3.5
Express the phasors of the three sinusoidal voltages of Example 3.3 as complex
numbers in both rectangular and polar coordinate fonns.
Solution
-
VA= 100 L 30" = 100 eid6 = 100 (COS30' + j sin 30")
vc -
200
a L 150"
=
200
= -(cos
dz
150" + j sin 150")
Example 3.6
Identify the sinusoidal signals of 50 Hz frequency which have the following phasors :
Solution
SAQ 4
Fill up the missing quantities in the table. The entries in each row should correspond
to one another.
Algebraic representation of
phasor Graphical
representation
Function of time
Rectangular of phasor
Polar form
form
a. v(t) = 20 cos (wt + 200")
-.
e. v(t) = 5 (sin wt + cos wt)
3.3.2 Algebra of Complex Numbers A.C. Circuits
The advantage of the phasor approach in a.c. circuit analysis is that it converts many
complicated mathematical operations involving trigonometric functions of time into
equivalent simple algebraic manipulations on complex constants. Let us therefore first
look at the important rules relating to the algebra of co~nplexnumbers. In what follows,
let us take
-z = x + j y = z L B
-
Z, = x2 + jy, =z2 L e2
(a) Equality
Two complex numbers < and 2, are equal if and only if
x1 = X, and yl = y2
or equivalently z, = z2 and B1 = e2
Example 3.7
I f 5 = 10 L el is equal to y2 = 6 + jy,, find 8, and yZ.
Solution
l~~l=m=l~~l= 1 0 * y 2 = ~ = ~ . 3
Arg( F2) = tan- '(& 8/6) = Arg( zl) = 81 * 81 = * 53"
(b) Negation
The negative of a complex number has both its real and imaginary parts reversed in sign
or equivalently it5 angle shifted by x radians.
-
-z=-x-jy=z~8+n (3.9)
The validity of the last term is clear if you consider reversing the orientation of the
directed line segment representing the complex number.
Example 3.8
If (4 + jb) and (a +j5) are negatives of each other, find a and b.
Solution
z2 sin B2 + zl sin 8,
tan e3=
2, cos e2+ Z1 cos el
You can casily show that the relations in Eq. (3.11) agree with Eq. (3.10a). Subtraction of
:iconlplex nun~hcrcan always be considered to be the addition of its negative, and the
saine parallclogram law call he applied.
Introduclion to Circuits
(a>
Fig. 3.11 : lllusttating the addition of complex numbers
Example 3.8
If zl = 10 L 30" and z2= 4 - j6,
- -
2, - 2, = 10 L 30°- (4 - j6)
- 4 +j6
= (10 cos 30" + j10 sin 30') ,
The product of a complex number and its conjugate is a real number equal to the square
of the magnitude of either.
--
~ Z ' = [ ~ L ~ ] [ Z L - ~ ] = ~ L O = ~ ? ( ~ (3.15)
(f) Division
In polar form, division involves division of magnitudes and subtraction of angles.
A.C. Cirmits
I Example 3.10
! z i d e f i n e d in Example 3.9,
~ o r and
I
= 0.721 L - 109.4"
Alternatively,
SAQ 5
State if the following are true or false.
(a) - [ l o L 30'1 = 10 L - 30"
(b) 10 L 30" + 20 L 60" = j30
(c) [ l o L 30'1 [20 L lo0]= 200 L 300"
(d) [40 L 60'1 / [lo L - 30'1 = 30 L 90"
SAQ 6
Evaluate the following
Fig. 3.12 : Addition of sinusoids (a) Waveform addition (b) Addition of phasors
The two waveforms can be added point by point as shown in Figure 3.12(a) yielding the
waveform of vc = vA + vB . This is not only laborious but also would not yield an accurate
result.
( b ) Manipulation o f trigonometric functions :
vc = VA + vB = 2 M sin (wt + 30") + 4 M sin (wt + 90")
=2 M [sin wt cos 30".+ cos wt sin 30" ]+
40&? [sin wt cos 90" + cos wt sin 90'1
= 1 0 6 sin wt + (1047 + 4 M ) cos wt
= 1 0 6 sin wt +5 M cos wt
E = E + E= 1 7 . 3 2 + j 5 0 = ~ ~ t a n - l ( 5 0 / 1 7 . ) 2 )
= 52.9 L 70.9"
Hence vc(t)= 52.- sin (wt + 70.9").
From the foregoing, the si~nplicityof methods (c) and (d) using phasors in co~nparisoii
with either waveform addition or ~nailipulationof trigonometric functions is evident.
Nor~nallyo ~ i cprefers the algebraic manipulation of pllasors as it givcs thc required result
in a compact and direct manner. Even so, it is a good practice to supplement this work
with a sketch of the phasor diagram, as the latter gives a better physical fcel for the sizc
and relative phases of the quantities involved and also can be used to obtaiu a quick rough
estimate of the final result. You are strongly urged to cultivate the practice of making
rough sketches of phasor diagrams evcn when you obtain the solution algebraically.
I11 the above example, you would have ~loticcdthat twc~si~lusoidalvoltages of 20 V and
40 V rlns values add up to a sinusoid of 52.9 V rms value. This is 1101 a co~~lradiction, but
merely a reflection of the fact that there is a phase differcncc bctwcen the two sinusoids.
Looking at Figure 3.12(a), you would note that the peaks of vA arid v,] do uot occur at thc
same time and hence the peak value of vc is not equal lo the sum of the pcak values of vA
and vg. When considering the addition or subtractio~lof two a.c. quantities you nlust alert
yourself to take into account thcir phasc differc~~cc also and not inercly thcir rnis values.
Our prinlary collcern in this Unit is the a~ialysisof a.c. circuits, in wliich all voltages and
currents are sinusoids of the sanle frequcncy. To illustrate fonuulation of Kirchhoff's
laws in phasor domain for such circuits let us consider ihe portion of an a.c. circuit
shown in Figure 3.1 3(a). Incidentally, the sy~nbolfor a si~lusoidalvoltage source is what
is marked between terminals A and D therein. You would recall from the discussion in
Unit I that Kirchhoff's voltage law for the loop ABCD can be formulated as
vm+vg(-+v,-v,=0,
where the equation holds at every instant of tinlc. Noting that all these voltages are
sinusoidal in nature, we can fonn the equivale~~t coostraint in terms of the respective
phasors as follows
i&j -E=O
+G/BC+FD (3.17)
The four phasors should fonn a closed polygo~las shown in Figure 3.14(a) to satisfy the
above equation. This lnalnler of drawing a phasor diagranl as an allernative to the
conventional way illustrated in Figure 3.14(b) has the merit of bringing out clearly that
ii=VAB+GC+VCA
5
The complex numbers standing for the phasors -I,, andT3 should therefore add up to
zero .
To summarise the foregoing discussion, we may state that KirchhofPs laws for a.c.
circuits can be formulated in terms of the respective phasors in the same manner as
done for d.c. circuits in terns of the d.c. quantities. The only difference is that each
term is a complex number instead of being a real number. Hence both the real parts and
the imaginary parts of the terms on the left hand side of the Eqs. (3.17) and (3.18) should
separately add up to zero. When marking the various voltages and currents along with
their references on the circuit diagram, we can choose to indicate either the time domain
quantities as in Figure 3.13(a) or their phasors as in Figure 3.13(b). Kirchhoff's laws are
satisfied in either form; however for the solution of a network, it is the phasor form that
we would make use of for the most part.
Example 3.11
Refer to circuit of Figure 3.15.
e=2, d-6
Example 3.12
If in the circuit of Figure 3.15, ZB = 6A and Zc = 4A, what can you say about the
value 0fJA ?
A.C. Chcuits
Solution
We h o w l A =TB +Ic.However, the data gives only the nns values and has no phase
r information. Hence we can only fix the limits within which the value ofIAshould lie.
The maximum possible value of IAwould occur whenjB and& are in phase (i.e.,
I have no phase difference) as shown in Figure 3.16(a). Now 1 51= IB+IC= 10 A.
The minimum value of IAoccurs when& andTc are in phase opposition (i.e., have
180" phase difference) as shown in Figure 3.16(6). Now IA= IB- IC= 2 A. For any
other general phase difference 8 (see Figure 3.16(c)), the value ofIAwould be in
between the extreme values of 2 A and 10 A.
Hence 2 A s z As 10A.
SAQ 7
Express the phasors of the following sinusoidal signals in both rectangular and polar
coordinate forms.
(a) v(t) = 100 sin (wt - 45")
(b) ~(t)=5~cos(wt+135~)
(c) i(t) = - 1M sin (wt +, 120")
(d) i(t) = - 20 cos (wt + 30")
SAQ 8
r GiventhatA=5+j5,B=-6+j10, C = 8 + j 4 , f i n d ( a ) A + B - C ( b ) A / B
(c) AB'C (d) A + (BE)
i
SAQ 9
I Two sinusoidal voltages vl and v2 each of 10 V effective value add up to a sinusoid
I
of 15 V effective value. Find the phase difference between vl and v2.
Introduction to Circuits SAQ 10
If in the circuit of Figure 3.13, we have il = 5 sin (wt + 60') and I2= 4 + j l , find i3(t).
(b)
Fig. 3.17 : Response of a resistor to sinusoidal excita~ion
(a) The current and voltage are in phase (is., they have zero phase difference). Bdth vary
in step. The posilive peaks, negative peaks, zero crossings etc occur in both at the
sallle time as shown in Figure 3.17(b).
(b) The nns values of voltage and curreut are related by
V = RI, (3.19)
a fornlula idelltical to Ohm's law in d.c. domain.
(c) The voltage and current phasors being V= VL 0 and 7 = (VIR) L 0 , as shown in
Figure 3.17(c), they are related by
V=RT (3.20)
Note that the above relation is independent of w and 0.
Inductance %
Let now an inductor of L henrys have a voltage v = fi Vsin (wt + 0) applied across it as
shown in Figure 3.18(a). From the fundame~~tal terminal relationship of an inductor we
have
1
i = - 5 v dt =
L
-In
1
L
Vsin (wt + 0)dt
(b) (cl
Figure 3.18: Response or an inductor to sinusoidal excitation
(a) The current has a phase difference of 90" with respect to the voltage and lags behind
it. Similar events (positive peaks;~~egative peaks, upward zero crossings, downward
zero crossi~lgsetc) occur in the voltage wave a quarter-period (equivalent to 90" of the
angle wt) earlier than in the current wave, as seen from Figure 3.18(b).
(b) The rms values of voltage and current are related by
v = (wL) I
4c) The phasors of v and i being V = V L 0 and j = I L 8 - n/2
as shown in Figure 3.18(c). they are related by
v= (~wL)? (3.22)
Capacitance
Figure 3.19(a) shows a capacitor of C farads applied with a voltage v = fi Vsin (wt + 0).
The current through the capacitor would therefore be
99
Introduction to Circuits
(b) The rms values of voltage and current are related by
(c) The phasors Vand?being V L 0 and wCV L 0+ n / 2, as shown in Figure 3.13(c), they
are related by
The properties derived earlier are characteristic of the three elements in a.c. circuits and
hold irrespective of where they are connected in a circuit. A little reflection will show
that item (c) in each case is a complete statement of the relevant properties and
ilicorporates in itself the properties specifically stated under (a) and (b).
To suminarise, the three elelnents R, L and C respond differently to sinusoidal excitations
(current or voltage). T h e current and voltage in a resistor a r e in phase, while they a r e
in quadrature (i.e., have a phase difference of 90") in a n inductor o r a capacitor. In
a n inductor, the voltage leads the current while in a capacitor, the c r ~ r r e nleads
t the
voltage. The rms values of the voltage across and the current through the element satisfy
the proportio~lalityrelationship give11in each case by Eq. (3.19), (3.21) and (3.23)
respectively. For a given value of current to be driven through it, an inductor requires
more voltage as the frequency increases. The capacitor on the other hand, needs only a
smaller voltage as the frequency increases.
Example 3.13
A capacitor draws a current of 5 mA from 200 V, 50 Hz a.c. supply. What current
does it draw from 40 V, 400 Hz supply?
Solution
As mentioned earlier, all values relating to voltages and currents in a.c. circuits are Ic
be taken as rms values uliless specifically stipulated.otherwise. From Eq. (3.23) we
have
For a given C,
SAQ 11
Fill up the blanks:
1
In a capacitor the current the voltage by
3
degress, while in a
the current and voltage are in phase.
4
For a given applied voltage an inductor permits a
current as the frequency is raised.
SAQ 12
Find the inductance of an inductor which draws a current of 1.1 A when connected to
230 V, 50 Hz voltage. What current will it draw if the supply voltage is changed to
150 V, 25 Hz?
q-q Network
The relation between v and i would in general be an involved differential equation with
time as the independent variable. But under sinusoidal regime with an angular frequency
w, the phasors VandTwould have a proportionality relationship independent of time.
This proportionality constant is termed the impedance Zof the network N. Thus
Z= ~ / T = z L ~ (3.25)
where the real and imaginary components R and X are respectively called
the effective resistance and reactance of N. The latter may in general be
positive or negative, but for a network N comprising no active elements
(e.g., dependent sources), R is always non-negative.
- 5 is to be viewed purely as a complex number and cannot be associated with
any sinusoidal signal as its phasor.
Note : Strictly speaking, we should distinguish between a physical element and its
circuit parameter. But expressions like "a resistor having a resistance of
20 51 is connected inparallel with a capacitor of 1 pF capacitance" are not
only inconvenient but may even sound pedantic. Hence you often find in
literature an element itself being referred to by its circuit parameter - .
resistance, inductance or capacitance. Thus the previous expression would
usually be rewritten "a 20 52 resistance is connected in parallel with a 1 pF
Introduction to Circuits capacitance". In the same vein, where it is c o n v e e n t , we may call the
two-terminal network N itself as the impedance 2.
As a dual concept to impedance, we define the admittance 7 of the network N as
- - -
Y=IIV-YLp (3.27)
Also, ~ = z - ' a n d $ = - a
In rectangular coordinate form, 7 may be expressed as
Y =G + ~ B ,
where G and B are referred to as the effective conductance and susceptance of N.
Let us now return to the behaviour of single elements considered in subsection 3.4.1.
From Eq. (3.20), (3.22) and (3.24) and the definition of Z. we deduce the following
expressions for their impedance.
Thus the impedance of a resistor is purely real, equal to its resistance R and has no
imaginary component. It is in anticipation of this that we have used the symbol R for the
real part of Z. On the other hand, inductors and capacitors have purely imaginary
impedances, inductive reactance XL being positive and capacitive reactance (- X,) being
negative.
How does one calculate the impedance of a nenvork with several elements? To obtain a
clue, let us consider a series combination of several subnetworks with impedances
2, ,& ... Z,, as shown in Figure 3.21.
b
Fig. 3.21: Series combination of impedances
When an a.c. current havingj for its phasor passes through the series combination, we
have
In a similar fashion we can show using KCL that the equivalent impedance and
admittance of the parallel combination shown in Figure 3.22 are given by
A.C. Circuits
SAQ 13
'If a sinusoidal voltage v(t) applied to a circuit element delivers a current i(t),then
the impedance of the element is v(t)/ i(t)'. Comment on the above statement.
i SAQ 14
Fill up the following table
Example 3.14
Find the impedances of the element combinations shown in Figure 3.23, taking the
frequency to be 400 Hz.
(b) ~ , ~ ~ ~ + ~ ~ = 1 0 0 + j ~ x 4 0 0 x 1 0 0 x 1 0 ~ ~
= 100 +j2510
(c) . Alternative I
Example 3.15
When a current i(t)= 1.2 cos (wt + 60")passes through a network, the terminal
voltage of the latter is v(t)= 100 sin (wt + 120").Find the impedance of the network.
Solution
i(t)= 1.2 cos (wt + 60")= 1.2 sin (wt + 150")
Example 3.16
When the element combination in Figure 3.23(a)is connected to 200 V, 400 Hz
supply, what would be the current drawn? What would be the voltage across the
resistance and capacitance?
Solution
As the phase of the supply voltage is not specified, we need to compute only the rms
value of the current.
A.C. Circuits
SAQ 15
In Example 3.16, VRand Vc do not add up to the magnitude of the supply voltage. Is
this not a violation of KVL?
SAQ 16
If a current i(t) = fisin (400t + 30")rnA passes through the element combination in
Figure 3.23(b),find an expression for the voltage across the conzbination.
Example 3.17
If a voltage of 200 V, 400 Hz is applied across the element combination in Figure
3.23(c), find the total current taken by the combination.
Solution
Since the phase of the supply voltage has not beell specified, let us take it as 0".That
is, we are taking the applied voltage phasor as the so-called reference phasor.
v = 2 0 0 e 0"
NOW'^^ = 200 L 0" /R = 200140 = 5
The phasor diagram showing the relative positions of the different phasors is given in
Figure 3.24.
+ v
Fig. 3.24 for answer to Example 3.17
If 7 has any other phase angle say a" it only means that the entire figure will rotate
by a". There will be no change in either the magnitudes of the voltages and currents
or in their phase differences. This is an important point to note. Wlrat no contrary
information is specified, we are at liberty to arbitrarily assume one co~ivenient
quantity as the reference plzasor.
In the event when the two coils carry currents i, and i2 simultaneously as in Figure 3.26
each coil has both self and mutually induced voltage components. The terminal voltages
of the coils are then given by
di, di,
v 2 = M -dt
+L -
dt
Two terminals called corresponding terminals, one from each coil, are specially marked
with dots (also called polarity markings). If the reference directions,of the two currents i,
and i2 both enter the coils (or both leave the coils) through the dotted terminals, then the
signs of both the self and mutually induced voltages in each terminal voltage equation
would be the same; otherwise they would be different. In Figure 3.26, a and c are
corresponding te'rminals and since the references for both i, and i2 enter the respective
coils through these terminals, Eq. (3.31) has the same signs for both self and mutually
induced voltages.
What we have discussed so far are terminal equations of a pair of coupled coils in a
general framework. In d.c. circuits, the terminal voltages are obviously zero as currents
are steady. In a.c. circuits the tenninal equations, in terms of the respective phasors,
reduce to
& + 0'c(:M>T2
- (3.32)
v, = O'wM)7, + O'WL,&
Recall that if i(t) has 1 as its phasor, then the phasor of dildt is jw 1. This principle is used k c . Circuits
in the phasor transformation of Eq. (3.31) into Eq. (3.32). From the latter, we can say that
two coupied coils have a mutual reactance of wM ohms.
Example 3.18
In the circuit of Figure 3.27, L1 = 4 H, M = 2 H, L2 = 3 H. If 200 V at 50 Hz is
applied to coil 1, find Il and V2.
I Solution
From the figure, we have Vl = 200, I2= 0
Also
Example 3.19
The impedance of a network is R + jX ohms. Find its admittance in terms of R and X.
What will be the relation between the angles of the impedance and the admittance?
Solution
Z = R +jX
~ r g ( Y )= - ~ r g ( Z )
I Example 3.20
In the a.c. circuit shown in Figure 3.28, IR= 8.4 mA and I. = 9.1 mA. What would be
Ic? If the frequency of the source is increased to 288 Hz, what would be the new
value of lo?
b
Fig. 3.28: Circuit for Example 3.20
Solution
Take E b as reference phasor i.e., v$, = 200 L 0'
- -
Icwill lead Eb by 90". i.e., lc= jIc
But ITo] = 9.1 = (8.42 +I:)"~
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.29: Phasor diagram for Example 3.20 at (a) f = 35 Hz (b) f = 288 Hz.
-
I& w'C V w' 288 288
zc WCVI
- P-P-
w 35
* I='= 3.5 x -35
= 28.8 mA
SAQ 17
Fill up the blanks:
In an inductor the leads the
'by ' radians.
4
The reactance of a given inductor increases with
Two inductors in proximity of each other may have j
6
between them. The property of mutual inductance is to induce a
in one coil when the in the other coil varies.
SAQ 18
Fill up the table below :
Circuit
element
Resistor R
Symbol with
reference
directions for
v and i
11.11 General
v - i relationship
v = Ri V=RI v=~7
Inductor L
\ I I I
Capacitor C
I I I I
Coupled coils
with mutual
inductance M
SAQ 19
The voltage and current at the terminals of a 2-terminal network are given by
v(t) = 20 sin (1000d + 45") ;
-
i(t) 0.5 sin (1000~r.t+ 75")
Calculate the impedance of the network and identify an element combination which
provides this impedance.
SAQ 20 k c . Circuits
A resistance of 20 P and an impedance 40 + j60 P are connected across an a.c.
supply source as shown in Figure 3.30. If the voltage across the resistor is 50 V, find
the source voltage. Draw a phasor diagram.
20 9 40 + j60 Q
SAQ 21
A fluorescent lamp may be considered to be a pure resistance. A 40 W lamp is
designed to operate at a voltage of 130 V at 50 Hz. This lamp is connected in series
with a choke coil (which may be considered a pure inductor) across 220 V, 50 Hz
supply. Calculate the required value of inductance of the choke coil.
mi "4-
A series RLC-circuit is shown in Figure 3.31(a). Let Z be the equivalent impedance seen
-
"L
v,=v,~
- "-, 7 - "s
-
I
VR -
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.31 : Series a s . circuit. (a) Circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram.
The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 3.31(b), taking wL > (IlwC). The current lags the
applied voltage by a, where a = tan- '[(wL - l/wC)/R]. If wL c (l/wC), the net reactance
is capacitive in character and the current leads the voltage by tan- '[(llwc - wL)/R].
Example 3.21
A practical lossy induclor coil tiavingR = 10Q and L = 200 mH is connected in series
with a 10 pF capacitor across a 200 V, 50 I-Iz source. Find the current in the circuit
and voltages across the two elements. Draw a phasor diagram.
Solution
The circuit is shown in Figure 3.32. Here the practical illductor is lilodelled ;IS a
series c o ~ n b i ~ l a tof
i oR~ ~and L. Since no phasc information is given, let us take
Fs= 200 L 0"
The phasor diagram is shown. Note that thc capacitor voltage is largcr than even the
source voltage in this example.
Resonance
Reverting to the circuit of Figure 3.31, let us exanline the variation of currcnt as the
frequency of the source is varied, keeping Vs coilstant. From Eq. (3.33) it is clear that Z is
purely real and hence 7 is in phase F, when the source angular frequency is w,, where
-
w J . (l/w,C). This is said to be the resonant coriditiort of the circuit and w, is called the
resonancefrequency. By definition the current is in phase with the supply voltage a t
resonance. The following characteristics of a series resonant circuit are of interest.
- Source frequency at resonance wo = ( 1 I r n ) (3.35)
- Impedance of the circuit at resonance 2, = R
- As ,w varies, Z varies as shown in Figure 3.33(a) and becomes minimum at
w = wo
A.C. Circuits
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.33 : Characteristics of series resonance
(a) Variation of Z & I with frequency (b) Phasor diagram at resonance.
At 2 MHz :
I =10 mV110 S2 = 1 mA ;
At 1.5 MHz :
Note the reduction in the level of response to 1.1 9% when the excitation frequency
shifts by 25% from the resonance frequency.
Introduction to Circuits The parallel RLC circuit excited by a current source has characteristics dual to those of a
series RLC circuit. Referring to Figure 3.34, we have
-
I,= ~ l j w ~ = ( I , l w ~ Y ) ~ - ~ - x 1 2
i c = ~ ~ ~ ) = ( ~ S ~ / ~ ~ n / 2 - p
The phasor diagram for the case wC > (llwL) is given in Figure 3.34.
As in the series circuit, we define the resonant condition for the circuit of Figure 3.34 as
one when the source current and voltage are in phase. This will occur when the imaginary
part of 7 is zero i.e., when JJC= 1, a condition identical to the one obtained for the
series case. Also Y is mii~imulnand V is maximum at w = wo. The curves of Y v s wand
V vs w will be similar to the curves Z vs w and I vs w of Figure 3.33. Note that the
effective impedance Zo = ( l / Y o )at resonance of the parallel circuit becomes infinitely
large when the resistance branch does not exist (R = oc ). In other words, an ideal
parallel LC circuit is equivalent to an open-circuit at resonance.
Example 3.23
The cigcuit of Figure 3.35 is a more practical form of a parallel resonant circuit and
consists of a coil of resistance R and inductance L with a capacitor C in parallel. Find
the resonant frequency of the circuit and its impedance at resonance.
Solution
-
Fig. 3.35: A practical form of Y is purely real at the resonant frequency wo. Hence
parallel resonant circuit
SAQ 22
Fill up the blanks :
In a series RLC circuit fed by a sinusoidal source, the current leads the source voltage A.C. Circuits
when I. This circuit is said to be
in resonance when the impedance of theRLC combination is
2
3
A series LC circuit is equivalent to a
at resonance, while a parallel LC circuit is equivalent to
4
at resonance.
SAQ 23
A 100 S2 resistor, a 100 mH inductor and a 100 pF capacitor are all connected in
parallel across a 200 V, 50 Hz a.c. source. Find the current supplied by the source
and its relative phase with respect to the voltage.
t1
3.5.2 Series-Parallel Reduction Techniques
You would recall from your study of Section 2.2 how the use of simpler equivalents for
series or parallel connected branches facilitated the analysis in d.c. circuits. The same
technique can be employed for a.c. circuits as well. The only difference -and we have to
be constantly attentive to this -is that the impedances and admittances to be processed
are complex numbers and both their magnitudes and angles are to be taken into account.
A couple of examples are now worked out to illustrate these techniques.
Example 3.24
Find the current supplied by the source in the circuit of Figure 3.36.
la
+
= (llz*) + jwC = [1/(18 j9)] + j400 x 20 x
= 0.0444 - j0.0142 = 0.0466 L - 17.7"
Source current = Yc V = (0.0466) 10 = 0.466 A
Example 3.25
The circuit shown in Figure 3.37 is e~nployedin some fornls of electronic oscillators
(generators of sinusoidal voltage signals). It is required that the output voltage
Introduction to Circuits should have a phase difference of 180" with respect to the input voltage 7;at a
frequency of w rls. Find the required conditions on C and R and the value of Vi/Vo
when this condition is fulfilled.
SAQ 24
Find the values of R and L in the circuit of Figure 3.'38 if the source supplies a current
'
of 0.5 A withjlagging 7 by cos- 0.8. Take w = 400 rad / s.
The circuit in Figure 3.39 is used to produce an output voltage having 90' phase
difference with the input v; at a specified frequency w. Given w = 1000 r/s and
C = 10 pF, find the value of R required and the ratio Vi/Vounder these conditions.
A
Fig. 3.40: Circuit for Examples 3.26 and 3.27
Solution
Let us first solve this circuit by the loop current method using the two loop currents
as marked on the figure. The loop equations (KVL equations in phasor form) are now
formulated using the concepts of self-loop impedance and mutual loop impedance.
We then have
Introduction to Circuits ~ l i m i n a t i n ~ ?we
~ ,have,
[(loo + j 5 0 ) ~- 1 0 d l = (100 + j50) 100 - 100 (50 - j86.6)
Similarly,
SAQ 26
In what manner would a loop equation (KVL in phasor form) written for an a.c.
circuit differ from one written for a d.c. circuit ?
SAQ 27
"Two impedances in series have an effective impedance whose magnitude is always
larger than that of either impedance." Is this statement true? If not, why not?
SAQ 28
Fill up the blanks in the following statements.
In a parallel RLC circuit (Figure 3.34) fed from a sinusoidal current source, the
'
1
source voltage leads the source current when
exceeds 2. The largest magnitude of im edance
for this cifcuit occurs at a frequency w= and the
smallest magnitude at w= and
5
Example 3.28
Evaluate & in the circuit of Figure 3.40 using Thevenin's theorem.
Solution
After disconnecting the 100 Q resistor, the Thevenin equivalent for the remaining
network will be as shown within the box in Figure 3.41(a). The voltage across the
100 Q resistor will be V30. the open-circuit voltage is found from the circuit of
Figure 3.41(b). Using the node voltage method,
230V T-gvi
50Hz YI
SAQ 30
Find the currents supplied by the sources in the circuit of Figure 3.43.
Since a.c. circuits have periodically varying voltages and currents, the power delivered to
an element or a section of a circuit is also a periodically varying quantityp(t). You would
recall from our discussion in Unit 1, that a meaningful measure of power in such
situations is the average power over a cycle. The tenn power when used in the context of
an a.c. circuit without any additional qualification means this average value and is
denoted by the symbol P. In a d.c. circuit, the power delivered to a 2-terminal network is
equal to VI, the product of the terminal voltage and current. In what follows, we develop
the corresponding formula applicable to a.c. circuits.
- n
I
+ Z L a
@v-fiVsin(wt+El)
118 Fig. 3.44: Circuit used for discussion oEpower in an a.c. circuit
A.C. Circuits
The phasor 1of the resultant current i in this circuit is
-
I =[ V L 0 / Z L a ] =(V/Z) L ( 0 - a )
Thus i=\/Z(~lz)sin(wt+0-a)=\/Z~sin(wt+0-a)
The instantaneous power supplied by the source to the load is
.- p(t)=vi=\/Z~sin(wt+0).\/ZZsin(wt+0-a)
+ 0) sin (wt + 0 - a )
= 2V7 sin (wt
= Vqcos a - cos (2wt + 20 - a ) ]
The variation of p(t) is shown in Figure 3.45
/P
It is seen from Eq. (3.36) and Figure 3.45 (hatched portion) thatp(t) consists of a constant
component VI cos a and a second component of peak value VZvarying sinusoidally at a
frequency 2w. As the average of the second component over a period of the input voltage
or current is zero, the average ofp(t) is equal to the first component itself. Thus,
P = VZ cos a watts (3.37)
The above formula is of great significance. It indicates that the power received by a load
is not merely the product of the rms values of its terminal voltage and current but
includes an additional multiplicative factor cos a, called the power factor of the load.
Power factor is the cosine of the impedance angle a and hence is a property of the
concerned load. Formally, power factor (p.f.) may be defined as
Power delivered to load - - (3.38)
p.f. =
Product of effective values of terminal voltage and current of the load k7
The power factor is said to be of the leading type if 7 leads v(i.e., X < 0) and of the
logging type if 1 lags (i.e., X > 0).
In a contrast to power P, the product VZ is termed apparent power S and is indicated in
units of volt amperes (abbreviated VA). Though dimensionally 1 VA equals 1 watt, two
different names of the unit are adopted to emphasize the distinction between apparent
power S and power P. Apparent power is an important parameter in the specifications of
electrical equipment, as the size and cost of many electrical machines depend on their VA
rating rather than wattage rating. For instance, a 500 kVA distribution transformer is
rated in terms of its ability to handle S upto 500 kVA level rather than power P it can
deliver to a load.
Table 3.1 gives the particular fonns of the relations discussed above for special
categories of loads. Note that a pure inductor and capacitor have zero p.f. since they are
only energy storage elements and not energy dissipating elements.
I
I Table 3.1
9: a Power P
Load Apparent Power S Power Factor (W,
2
C
jXL(lnductor)
Inductive Impedance
I-!
R (Resistor)
Capacitive Impedance
The expression for P in Eq.(3.37) could be considered either as the power delivered by
the voltage source or the power received by N of Figure 3.44. In the former case the
reference direction for voltage is a rise in the reference direction for current and hence vi
represents instantaneous powerp delivered by the source. The average power P
delivered by the source equals the product of the effective values of voltage and
current and the cosine of the phase difference between v and i. Viewed from the point
of N, the reference direction for voltgge is a drop in the direction of current and hence vi
represents instantaneous power p received by Nand having an average value VZ cos a
SAQ 31
Fill up the blanks :
1
The power in an a.c. circuit is given by tke product of 2
J
'and
The power factor is the cosine of 4. P.F. for a
resistive network equals '. For a purely
capacitive network it is b. Inductive loads
have a ' p.f.
SAQ 32
A voltage 20@ sin (314t + 60") is applied across a load comprising R = 60S2 and
L = 200 mH in series. Find the power drawn by the load and its p.f.
Example 3.29
Find the power supplied by each source of Example 3.26. Show that the total power
supplied by the sources equals the sum of powers received by the passive elements in
the circuit.
Source 1 :
Vl = 100 V,ZI= 1.41 A, Arg (vl) - ~ r ~ (= i0"~+ )34" = 34"
P1= 100 x 1.41 x cos 34" = 117 W
Source 2 :
V2 = 100 V, I2= 0.60 A,
kc.Circuits
Source 2 is actually receiving power. The two inductive reactances do not consume
any power as their p.f. is zero. The current in the resistor has a phasor
-
zl +Tz= 1.41 L - 34" + 0.60 L 160" = 0.84 L - 44".
Power PRabsorbed by resistor = (0.84)' x 100 = 71 W .
P1+ P Z = P R
Example 3.30
, zl
Two impedances = 7 -j24 & and Z2 = 6 + j 8 & are connected in parallel across a
200 V source. Find the power and apparent power supplied by the source.
Solution
yl = ( 7 - j24)- ' = (7 +j24)/625 = 0.0112 +j0.0384 S
-
y2 = (6 + j8)- = (6 - j8)/100 = 0.06 - j 0.08 S
y = 0.0712 - j0.0416 = 0.0825 L - 30.3"
1f 7 = 200 L 00,7 = Y 7 = 16.5 L - 30.3"
Therefore S = 200 x 16.5 = 3300 VA ,
P = 200 x 16.5 x cos 30.3" = 2848 W.
Note that P is also equal to v'R~( fl where Re( Y) is the real part of y ( = 0.0712 in
this example). You are asked to show this result in SAQ 33.
SAQ 33
A load having an admittance Y=
G + jB is connected across a supply voltage of V
volts. Show that the power taken by the load is 9 ~ .
C
where - cos(2wt + 28)]
~ , ( t )= P [ l
px(t) = Q sin (2wt + 28 + n),
and Q = VZ sin a
In this decomposition o f p , we note thatp, is always non negative. It represents the effect
of power dissipated in the resistive elements of N. The average value of thisp, is P. On
the other handpx(t) varies sinusoidally with a peak value of Q. It represents the'energy
exchange between the source on one hand and the energy storage elements (LC elements)
in N on the other. Q is called the reactive power as it is associated with the reactive
elements (LC) and does not contribute to the net transfer of energy from the source to the
load. In contrast P represents the average rate of transfer of net energy and is therefore
also termed active power. Q is measured in volt amperes reactive (abbreviated VAR). We
therefore have the following three power related concepts.
Power P (also called active power) = M cos a' watts (W) (3.3 9a)
Reactive power Q = M sin a volt amperes reactive (VAR) (3.39b)
Apparelit power S = VZ volt amperes (VA) (3.39~)
Introduction to Circuits It is clear that
s2=$+e2
and Q is positive or negative depending on whether a is positive (inductive loads) or
negative (capacitive loads).
There is a simple way by which we can calculate the above quantities directly from Vand
f without finding a. Let
~ = V L O7; = 1 ~ ( 8 - a )
Consider the product of Pwith the conjugate of 1
--
V I * = ( V L ~ ) ( I L ~ - 8 ) =W L a = W c o s a + j ~ s i n a
We recognise the real and imaginary components on the right side of the above equation
as P and Q respectively and refer to P + jQ as complex power 3. The magnitude of 3 is
which is the apparent power S. We then have
?= ~ T * = P + ~ Q (3.41a)
As a resistor is not an energy storage element, its ability to exchange stored energy with
the source is zero and hence its Q is zero.
SAQ 34
Fill up the blanks :
Reactive power supplied to a circuit is the ' value
of the alternating power component, representing the energy interchange between the
elements in the circuit and the source. Its
value is positive for an load and negative
for a load.
SAQ 35
Find the reactive power taken by an impedance Z = 100 - j100, when connected to a
200 V a.c. source.
Example 3.31 kc. Circuits
Find the values of P and Q taken by a load having V = 100 + j40 and?= 20 - j10 for
its terminal voltage and current phasors.
Solution
s=~ ~ * = ( l O O + j 4 0 ) ( 2 0 + j l O1600+j1800
)=
Therefore,
Example 3.32
From the solution obtained in Example 3.26, verify that the sum of the reactive
powers supplied by the sources equals the reactive powers taken by the other
elements in the circuit.
Solution
Source 1:
V1 = 100 V, Il = 1.41A, Arg ( pi) - ArgGl) = 0" + 34" = 34"
Qsl = 100 x 1.41 x sin 34" = 78.85 VAR
Source 2 :
V2 = 100 V, I2= 0.60 A, Arg ( V2) - k g ( & = - 60" + 200" = 140"
SAQ 36
A series RLC-circuit takes 120 W of active power and 90 VAR of reactive power
from a 200 V, 50 Hz source. The voltage across the capacitor is found to be 30 V.
Calculate the values of R, L and C.
Fig. 3.47: Illustrating power factor correction. Condition (a) with load alone (b) with capacitor connected
Let a capacitor C, connected in parallel with the load, draw a current & This current
leads f b y 90". Let
-1, = jZL sin a
t.
which is in phase with Thus the source sees a unity p.f. combined load. The required
value of capacitance can be calculated from the relation
VwC = I , = I, sin a
C = ZL sin a/wV = sin a/wZL (3.42)
It is illustrative to also view the process as cancellation of reactive power supplied by the
source
Reactive power Q, taken by Z, = (v2/ZL)
sin a VAR
Reactive power Qc taken by C = - V%C VAR
To make QL + Q, = 0, we require
C = (sin a / wz,),
which is the same relation given in Eq. (3.42).
In individual cases, one may desire to improve the p.f. to a suitably high value but not
1.0, so as to reduce the cost of capacitors. The decision would be based on what condition
leads to the best overall economy.
SAQ 37
Explain briefly the necessity for p. f. correction.
Example 3.33
The electrical load of a consumer comprises 1 kW of lighting load and 10 kVA of
motor load at 0.75 p.f. lagging. The lighting load may be taken to operate at a p.f. of
1.0. The power supply is at 240 V, 50 Hz. Evaluate the capacitance needed to be
connected in parallel with these loads to bring the overall p.f. of the installation to
0.95 lagging.
Solution
The circuit representation of the loads is given in Figure 3.48 where M represents
motor load.
Alternative I
Let V=240L0°
-
I, = (10001240) L 0" =4.17+jO; Ic=+jIc
IM= (100001240) = 41.67A , cos- 0.75 = - 41.4"
Therefore,
-
IM= 41.67 L-41.4" = 31.26 - j27.56;
-
I, =TI +IM+Tc = 35.43- j(27.56 -
-
Ic= VwC
- -
Is should lag behind f by an angle cos- '(0.95) = 18.2". So
(27.56 - Ic)/35.43 = tan 18.2" 0.33 Ic = 15.87 A
* C = 15.87/(314 x 240) F = 211 pF.
Alternative 2
We consider P and Q of each load
P(W Q (VAR)
Lighting load^ 1000 0
Motor 10000 x 0.75 = 7500 10000dl - (0.75)' = 6614
Capacitor 0 Q,
Overall 8500 6614 + Q,
6614-PwC-2794 -
Overall Q = I d 1 - 0.95~10.95= 2794 VAR
V%C=3820 * C=211pF
Introduction to Circuits SAQ 38
An inductive load draws 1000 W from a 200 V, 50 Hz source. A capacitor of
25.3 p F connected in parallel with the impedance raises the overall p.f. of the
combination to unity. What is the p.f. of the inductive load?
Example 3.34
A load impedanceZL = RL +jXL is fed from an active network whose Thevenin
equivalent is as shown in Figure 3.49. Find the value of ZLwhich draws maximum
power from the network.
-
zo-R~+jXo
r\
-
zL= RL + j X L
r\
Solution
~ e t j b the
e phasor of current in the circuit
d
PLis maximum when -[(R: / RL) + 2Ro + RL]= 0
~RL
For maximum power transfer to ZL, a
= R, - JX, = Z,*.
RL = RO -
This is an extension of the maximum power transfer theorem in d.c. circuits (vide
Section 2.6.4) to the a.c. situation.
SAQ 39
What are the power factom of the following loads/circuits?
(a) A pure capacitor
(b) A series RLC-circuit at resonance
(c) A series combination of R and L with equal rms voltages across the two
elements.
(d) A parallel combination of R and C with the rms values of the currents in the
two branches (R & C) being in the ratio 2 : 1.
SAQ 40 A.C. Circuits
Two loads are connected in parallel across a 2200 V supply. The first load is
capacitive, taking a power of 20 kW at p.f. of 0.8. The second load is inductive and
takes a power of 30 kW and a reactive power of 30 kVAR. Calculate the current
taken from the supply. If the current is to be minimised by connecting a capacitor in
parallel with the two loads, what should be its capacitanceXAssume f = 50Hz.
SAQ 41
When the terminal voltage and current of a load have the following phasors, the
power and reactive power taken by the load are 40 Wand 180 VAR respectively.
Evaluate a and b.
-
I = b-jl
3.7 SUMMARY
Sinusoidal voltages and currents - also called a.c. voltages and currents - play a key role
in the theory and practice of electrical engineering. In this Unit you were first introduced
to the various useful parameters of a sinusoidal signal like period, frequency, angular
frequency, peak value, effective value and form factor.
When a linear circuit is driven by sinusoidal sources of a given frequency, all voltages
and currents in the circuit under steady state are also sinusoids of the same frequency.
One signal differs from another only in its effective value and phase. Each sinusoidal
signal can then be represented in a compact fashion by a directed line segment called a
r '?asor. A phasor can be considered a complex number. You were therefore introduced to
the nature of complex numbers aud to the related algebra.
You have seen how linear operations like addition, subtraction, differentiation and
integration of sinusoidal functions of time are much more conveniently handled in the
phasor domain by equivalent simpler algebraic operations on complex constants. This
property leads to simpler formulation of Kirchhoff's laws and element terminal relations.
The latter relate the phasors of the terminal voltages and currents by proportionate
complex constants called impedances/admittances. You learnt how to calculate
impedance and admittance parameters of R, L, C elements and saw how the reactance
parameter relates the rms values of terminal voltage and current in an energy storage
element L or C. In this Unit, you were also introduced to an additional circuit element,
viz., magnetically coupled coil pair and the related parameters L,, L2 and M. You have
learnt how to formulate the terminal equations of this 2-terminal pair element in phasor
form.
In terms of voltage and current phasors and element impedances and admittances, the a.c.
circuit equations are formulated in a completely analogous matlner to the d.c. circuits.
The solution of these a:gebraic equations is however more complicated since they
involve complex numbers. The particular methods of a.c. circuit analysis you had studied
in this Unit are the series-parallel reduction techniques and those based on loop currents
and node voltages as variables. The phenomenon of resonance in series and parallel
circuits and related properties formed another topic of study in this unit.
Introduction to Circuits
In the last section of the unit, you learnt how to calculate power P in an a.c. circuit and
the significance of power factor. You werepalsointroduced to the concepts of apparent
power S, which essentially fixes the size of the power supply equipment, and the reactive
power Q which represents the peak value of the idle exchange of power between the
energy storage elements on one hand and the source on the other. You also gained an
appreciation of the need for p.f. improvement of electrical installations and learnt how to
calculate the capacitance value needed for the purpose.
SAQ 3 :
v, = 3 f i sin (wt + 90") ; vg = 4 f i sin (wt + 180")
v, = 5 f i sin (wt - 37")
SAQ 4 :
(a) V=1 m L 290" = 4.84 - j 13.29, since cos (wt + 200") = sin (wt + 290")
(b) v(t)= 1 0 m sin (wt + 120") ; V = - 50 + j86.7
(c) i = l.h/Zsin(wt + 112.62") ;1=1.3 L 112.62"
(d) i = 2 f i sin (wt + 75") ;1=2 L 75" = 0.52 + j1.93
(e) V = 5 L 45" = 3.54 + j3.54
(4 (4
Figure for Answer to SAQ 4
SAQ 5 : k c . Circuits
All are false.
SAQ 6 :
-
10 L 30 = 10 (cos 30" +j sin 30") = 8.67 + j5
4 - '6
(6 +I@
-
(5 +j2) = (- 0.24 - j0.68)(5 + j2) (see Ex. 3.10)
SAQ 10 :
-
11 = (5/Q L 60" = 1.77 + j 3.06
Using K C L , =TI
~ ~ -I, = 1.77 +j3.06 - (4 + jl)
=- 2.23 + j2.06 = 3.04 L 137"
Thus ig(t)= 3.04fl sin (wt + 137") = 4.3 sin (wt + 137")
SAQ 11 :
(1) leads (2) 90 (3) resistor (4) smaller
SAQ 12 :
230 = (hx 50) L x 1.1 +L = 0.666 H
150 50
Changed current = 1.1 x -x -= 1.435A
230 25
Introduction to Circuits
SAQ 13 :
The statement is false. It is the ratio ofphasors of v(t)and i(t)which is equal to the
impedance.
SAQ 14 :
R lljwL, jwC
SAQ 15 :
No. V R and vc have a phase difference of 90" since one is in phase with the current
and the other lags the current by 90". The magnitude of their phasor sum is
(v:+ v:)" = (89.8' + 178.7~)"~, which is indeed the rms value of the supply voltage
vs. KVL implies that vs = vR + vc or equivalently Vs = VR+ %and not Vs = VR+ VC.
SAQ 16 :
-
I = L 30" ; Z= 100 + j251- 270 L 68.3"
V = 27 = [270 L 68.3'1 [lo- L 30'1 = 0.27 L 98.3"
Hence v(t)= 0.27fi sin (400t + 98.3")
SAQ 17 :
(1)voltage (2)current (3)rc/2 (4) frequency (5) mutual inductancelmagnetic
coupling (6)voltage (7) current
SAQ 18 :
SAQ 19 :
v = l m L 4 5 " ; -1 - 0 . 2 5 f l L 7 5 "
2 = 10 f l L 45'10.25fl L 75" = 40 L - 30" = 34.6 - j20 B
A resistance R and a capacitance C in series would provide this 3, where R = 34.6 B
and C = (1110001~ x 20)F = 15.92 pF.
SAQ 20 :
- -
W e have Vs = VR+ & Let us take VRas reference.
-
vR= 50 L 0"
-
I = (50120)L 0" = 2.5 L 0" = 2.5
- -
V z =Z I = (40 +j60) 2.5 = 100 +j150
From the discussion in Unit 1, we luiow power in a resistor equals v%/ R. Here
V, = 130V.
SAQ 22 :
(1) wL < (llwC) (2) purely real (3) short-circuit (4) an opencircuit
SAQ 23 :
P
The same voltage appears across each of these elements. Taking its phasor as
200 L 0°,
-
zR= 200 L 0°/100= 2 L 0 ° = 2+jO
-
Zc = (200 L 0") j314 x 100 x = j6.28
-
zs =IR
+IL
+Ic = 2 - j0.09 = 2 L - 2.6".
The source current Is is 2 A and lags the source voltage by 2.6"
SAQ 24 :
cos- 1 0.8=37"=Arg($-kg(?)
Impedance 2 seen by the source = (150 / 0.5) L 37" = 240 + j180 S2
Impedance of capacitor = - j I400 x 15 x 10- = - j167 S2
Impedance of parallel RC branch = (125) (- j167) = 80 - j60
125 - j167
Z = R+jwL+80-j60 => (R+jwL)=(240+j180)-(80-j60)
R - 160S2
L =240/400= 0.6H
SAQ 25 :
Let jX be the impedance of each capacitor.
I V,=%jxl(R+jX) => V b , = K ( R + j X ) / j x
c=Go +R[(&,lIX)+ ~ / I X ) ] = ( ~ ( R + j X ) / f l + ( ~ ~ / j X )
L
= VO [(R / jX) + (R + jX)'~(jx)~]= [(x' - R2 - 3 j W / x'] Vo
For 90" phase difference (Vi / V,) is to.be purely imaginary. Therefore,
- - -
R' = X' => d c 2 R 2 1 => R I/& (10~/1000x 10) 100 S2 -
With this value of R, (VjV,) = 3RIX = 3.
SAQ 26 :
The variables are current phasors instead of real quantities. The coefficients of the
variables are complex numbers representing impedances instead of real numbers
representing resistances. The right hand side expression is a complex number
representing the phasor of net source voltage in the loop instead of a real number
representing net d.c. voltage source strength.
SAQ 27 :
zl
False. 5 = + 2' does not mean Zs = Z1 + Z,. The angles of 2, and ZZmay make
zl
the resultant have a smaller magnitude than either. For example, if = 10 +j20 and
-
~~=-j20,Z~+~=10.
SAQ 28 :
(1) llwc (2) WL (3) 1m (4) 0 (5) 00
SAQ 29 :
-
Fp of the parallel combination (11100) + j314 x 10 x 10- ti + 14314 x 0.2
= 0.01 - j0.0128 = 0.0162 L - 52"
Zp of the combination = ($)- = 61.73 L 52" = 38.00 +j48.64
-
Impedance Zs seen by source 20 +j314 x 0.05 + &
= 58.00 +j64.34 = 86.62 L 47.97"
Current Is in source = 2301 86.62 = 2.66 A
Voltage across the parallel combination = IsZp = 2.66 x 61.73 = 164 V
Current in 10052 resistor = 1641100 = 1.64A
Current in 10 pF capacitor = 164 x 0.00314 = 0.51 A
Current in 0.2 H inductor = 164I 62.8 = 2.61 A
SAQ 30 :
-
Vsl = 100 L 0°, V , = 100 L - 30"
zl- +
= 10 j314 x 0.159 = 10 + j50 = z2
Z3 = 100 +j314 x 1.59 = 100 -tj500
Let us assume reference directions for loop currentsT1 and& similar to what are
marked in Figure 3.40. We then have :
(110 + j550)T1 + (100 +j500)T2 = 100
(loo+j500)T1 + (110+j550)T2- 100L - 30°,
yielding?l = 0.52 L - 13.8" andT2 = 0.52 L 186.4"
SAQ 31 :
(1) V (2) I (3) p.f. (4) angle of load impedance (5) 1.0 (6) zero leading
(7)lagging.
SAQ 32 :
z=60 +j314 x 0.2 = 60 + j62.8 = 86.86 L 46.3"
I = 200186.86 = 2.30 A , cos a = 0.69
P = W cos a = 200 x 2.30 x 0.69 = 317.4 W,
P.F. = 0.69 lagging
SAQ 33 :
Let the supply voltage have the phasor V L 0"
-
-
I (G + jB)V- v(G2+ B2)ln L tan- '(BIG)
E'.I;== m s [ - tan- '(BIG)] = [G/(G2+ B2)ln]
P = W (pn = (V) v(G2 + B2)'" [G/(G2+ B ~ )= ~v2G
] watts
SAQ 34 :
(1) peak (2) reactive or energy storage (3) inductive (4) capacitive
SAQ 35 :
I = 200/(100~+ 1 0 0 ~=)fi
~A
a = t a n - ' L-15-45"
~=Wsina=200xfix(-1~=-200VAR
SAQ 36 :
S ISOVA OVA
W - 150 + I=150/200=0.75A
I ~ R= 120 + R = 120/(0.75)~= 213.3 52
kc. Circuits
SAQ 37 :
The current for a given load power and system voltage is reduced with increased p.f.
The size of the supply equipment, the line losses and the line voltage drop can
thereby be reduced. The power supply authorities therefore adopt a tariff which
penalises low p.f. operation of consumer loads. It is therefore economical for the
consumer to save on electricity bills by installing p.f. correcting capacitors. This also
helps him to get a better regulated supply voltage (one without large voltage dips).
SAQ 38 :
-Let supply voltage be V =200 + j O and the current taken by the inductive load be
r zL= Zl - jZ2. Current taken by capacitorjc = jwCV = j1.59.
~ u t +7j c~should not have an imaginary part. Therefore, Z2 = 1.59 A
r F= PI*= (20+ja)(b + j l )
= (20b - a) +j(ab + 20) = 40 +j180
20b - a = 40, ab = 160
I
(20b - 40)b = 160 3 b2 - 26 - 8 = 0 * (b - 112= 9
b = 4 o r - 2 ; a - 4 0 or-80
Hence either a=40, b = 4 ora=-8O,b=-2