What Is This Module About?

Can you recall the definition of matter? Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Therefore, everything around you is matter. Each type of matter has a definite set of properties. Water is colorless, alcohol easily evaporates and copper can be hammered into thin sheets. The characteristics of different types of matter help you distinguish one from another. Suppose you have a teaspoon of sugar. How does it taste? Definitely, it tastes sweet. If you grind the sugar into very fine powder and taste it again, will it still be sweet? Yes, the fine sugar powder will still be sweet. But what is the smallest particle of sugar you can come up with that will still taste sweet? If you look at a substance, it appears to be composed of matter that is visible to your eyes. But if you could divide this substance into smaller and smaller particles, you will finally come up with the atoms of that substance. Atoms are called the building blocks of matter. All substances are made up of these very tiny particles. In this module you will learn more about atoms. You will find out how these atoms are made up of even smaller particles. You will also discover how scientists came up with theories to explain the nature of the atom and the subatomic particles. There are three lessons in this module. These are: Lesson 1 The History of the Atom Lesson 2 The Subatomic Particles Lesson 3 Locating the Electron

Wait!
Before you read this module, make sure you have already read Matter 1A and IB: Forms, Properties and Changes.

What Will You Learn From This Module?

After studying this module, you should be able to: cite the contributions of the early scientists to the development of the atomic theory; identify and describe the subatomic particles; draw a general picture of the structure of the atom; determine the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom; identify and differentiate the isotopes of an element;

identify the atomic orbitals present in each energy level of the atom; and give the number of electrons in each energy level.

Lets See What You Already Know

Before you continue reading this module, find out first how well you know the topics to be discussed by taking the following test. Write the letter of the correct answer on the line before each number. _______ 1. All atoms of the same element are alike. This idea was proposed by ____ . a. b. c. d. _______ 2. Democritus Leucippus Rutherford Dalton

According to Democritus, all forms of matter are composed of tiny particles called _____ . a. b. c. d. electrons protons atoms neutrons

_______ 3.

The nucleus is composed of _____ . a. b. c. d. protons and electrons protons and neutrons electrons and neutrons protons, electrons and neutrons

_______ 4.

The atomic number gives the number of _____ in an atom. a. b. c. d. electrons electrons and protons neutrons neutrons and protons

_______ 5.

The mass number of an atom indicates the number of _____ in an atom. a. b. c. d. neutrons protons electrons and protons protons and neutrons

_______ 6.

All of the following characterize a proton except: a. b. c. d. It is positively charged. It is found in the nucleus. It has a mass equal to that of the neutron. It has no charge.

_______ 7.

If an element is described by these data: Z = 17 and A = 35, which of the following statements is true of the element? a. b. c. d. It has 17 protons and 17 neutrons. It has 17 protons and 18 neutrons. It has 17 electrons and 18 protons. It has 17 electrons and 17 neutrons.

_______ 8.

An electron in the first energy level may be found in a/an _____ . a. b. c. d. s orbital s or p orbital d orbital p orbital

_______ 9.

An atom has an atomic number of 11 and a mass number of 23. Which of the following statements is correct? a. b. c. d. The atom has 11 electrons and 11 neutrons. The atom has 11 electrons and 11 protons. The atom has 11 electrons and 12 neutrons. The atom has 12 electrons and 11 neutrons.

_______10.

For the isotopes 8O16 and 8O17, which statement is not true? a. b. c. d. There are 8 electrons in both isotopes. There are 8 neutrons in both isotopes. The number of protons in both isotopes is 8. O16 has 8 neutrons while O17 has 9 neutrons.

Well, how was it? Do you think you fared well? Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 28 to find out. If all your answers are correct, very good. This shows that you already know much about the topics in this module. You may still study the module to review what you already know. Who knows, you might learn a few more new things as well. If you got a low score, dont feel bad. It means that this module is for you. It will help you understand some important concepts that you can apply in your daily life. If you study this module carefully, you will learn the answers to all the items in the test and a lot more! Are you ready? You may go to the next page to begin Lesson 1.

LESSON 1

The History of the Atom

A lot of people now take for granted that matter is made up of molecules, which in turn are made up of atoms. There are instruments now that enable us to look at these tiny particles of matter. But have you ever thought about what it was like for people who lived in ancient times who did not have powerful optical instruments at their disposal for studying tiny materials? What did they think of matter? Did they see it the way we do now, as being made up of a seemingly infinite number of tiny particles? How did the idea of the atom come about? These are the things you will find out in this lesson. In this lesson, you will find out how our present knowledge of the atom came to be. The atom has a really very interesting history that dates back to ancient times. Would you like to know about it? Read on!

Lets Try This

Before you proceed to learn the history of the atom, do the following activity first to understand the concept of the atom. 1. 2. 3. 4. Get a pile of paper clips, all of the same color and size. Divide the pile into two equal piles. Divide each pile into two smaller equal piles. Repeat step 3 until you are down to a pile containing only one paper clip. Can this paper clip still do the job of a paper clip, that is, can it hold loose sheets of paper together? Of course it can! Take a pair of scissors and cut that one paper clip in half. Can half of the paper clip do the same job as the single paper clip has?

5.

If you do the same thing with any element, you will reach an indivisible part that has the same properties of the element, like the single paper clip. This indivisible part is called the atom.

Lets Learn
Scientific ideas first came about in ancient Greece. Do you know where Greece is? It is a small country in Europe, which is considered the cradle of civilization because it is where art, philosophy and science first flourished. Ancient Greek philosophers were the first to speculate on the structure of matter. These Greek philosophers were definitely different from modern-day scientists. They certainly did not have the scientific method to go by and neither were they patient and industrious enough to

conduct experiments. Their ideas were all based on speculation on the things they saw around them. No wonder, their ideas are so different from what we know now! Empedocles (circa 440 B.C.), for instance, proposed that matter was made up of four elementsfire, earth, water and air. What do you think led him to such a conclusion? Well, maybe he saw a log of green wood burning. He saw the flame (fire) emerge, as well as the sap (water) and smoke (air). What remained was the ashes (earth).

earth

water

fire

air

At around the same time, another philosopher, Leucippus, proposed an entirely different idea. According to Leucippus, matter was made up of particles that were so tiny they could not be divided into smaller units. He and his pupil, Democritus, were able to come to this conclusion through speculation and observation. They saw how a stream of water could be broken into drops and how the apparently solid beach could be seen and felt as grains of sand. This made them come up with the concept of an indivisible unit of matter. In fact, the word atom comes from the Greek words that mean not to cut. The term is attributed to Democritus.

Democritus

Almost a century later, Aristotle (384322 B.C.), the famous Greek philosopher, declared that Leucippus and Democritus were wrong, and Empedocles was right. He was supported by Plato. Because these two were the most influential thinkers of their time, the concept of indivisible units of matter was abandoned and forgotten for centuries.

Democritus is wrong. I agree with what Empedocles said about mte. atr

I agree with Aristotle. There is no such thing as an indivisible unit of mte. atr

It took two thousand years before the concept of the atom was revived. The one responsible for this was an Englishman named John Dalton (17661844). Dalton conducted several experiments on the weights of substances involved in chemical reactions. The data he obtained made him conclude that the ultimate particles of homogeneous matter (elements) are perfectly alike in weight and other properties.
Based on my experiements, I conclude that the smallest particles of all substances are p r e t ya i ei efcl lk n weight and other properties. These p r i l sa ec l e atce r ald atoms.

In 1804, Dalton proposed the atomic theory. According to this theory,

Matter is made up of extremely small indestructible particles called atoms.

All atoms of a given element are alike.

Au Au Au Au Gold ring Au Au Au Au Au Gold atoms Gold bar Gold ring

Au Au

Au Au

Gold atoms Au Au Au Au Au

Gold atoms

Atoms combine with other atoms to form compounds but remain unchanged during ordinary chemical reactions.

Atoms can combine in small ratios of whole numbers such as 1:1, 2:1, 2:3, etc.

H C Gold bar Au Au Au Au Iron metal Fe Fe Fe Fe one atom of carbon H

H C H

four atoms of hydrogen H H H

Daltons theory gained wide acceptance among scientists. It opened the door to a large amount of chemical investigation. Elements were discovered and named, and the periodic table of elements was formulated.

Lets Think About This

There are two important laws of chemical combination that were explained by Daltons atomic theory. These laws are the law of conservation of mass and the law of definite proportions. Below are the definitions of the two laws. Below each definition, write the postulate of the atomic theory that serves to explain the law. 1. The law of conservation of mass states that in an ordinary chemical reaction, there is no detectable change in the masses of the substances involved before and after the reaction. ________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ 2. The law of definite proportions states that a given chemical compound always shows a fixed proportion. A compound always contains the same elements in the same percentages by mass. ________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________ Are your answers the same as these? 1. The law of conservation of mass can be explained by the third postulate of Daltons atomic theory. According to this postulate, when atoms combine with other atoms to form compounds, they remain unchanged. Since the same atoms are present before and after a chemical reaction, the masses of the reactants and products must be the same as well. The law of definite proportions is explained by the second and fourth postulates of the atomic theory. According to the second postulate, all atoms of the same element are alike; according to the fourth postulate, atoms combine in fixed ratios. This means that that the percentage composition of a compound is always the same regardless of its origin and how it was prepared.

2.

Lets Learn
When Dalton proposed the atomic theory, a lot of questions about the nature of matter were resolved. The existence of the atom was readily accepted by scientists. But the question of how the atom looked was not quite as easy to agree on. The knowledge of the structure of the atom came to be because of studies on the electrical nature of matter. Discoveries on the nature of electricity led scientists to suspect that there is a relationship between electricity and the structure of matter. However, the atomic theory did not give an explanation of this phenomenon.

Much of the understanding of the atom came from studies on electric discharges through gases, specifically the cathode rays. Cathode rays are some kind of matter that are emitted from the negative electrode (cathode) in a gas tube. These rays made the positive end of the tube (anode) emit a greenish light. Numerous experiments showed that the cathode rays have the following properties: Cathode rays are emitted from the negative end of a vacuum tube when electric current is passed through the tube. They travel in a straight line. The cathode rays cause glass and other materials to fluoresce or glow. The cathode rays bear a negative electric charge. This is shown by their attraction toward positively charged objects held outside the vacuum tube.

The studies on cathode rays led Sir Joseph John Thomson (18561940), an English physicist, to conclude that cathode rays are negatively charged fundamental particles found in all atoms. These cathode rays are now known as electrons. At the same time that studies were being made on cathode rays, Eugen Goldstein (1850 1930), a German physicist, discovered the existence of positive particles which he called canal rays. These particles are attracted to the cathode and are massive. They are now known as protons. With these discoveries, Daltons postulate that the atom was indestructible was proven to be untrue. The atom is made up of even smaller particles!

Lets Review
Differentiate cathode rays from canal rays. How did the existence of these two particles violate the first postulate of the atomic theory? ____________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 28.

Lets Learn
With the discovery of the existence of smaller particles inside the atom, what do you think was the next thing that scientists tried to figure out? How these particles are arranged inside the atom, of course! The first one to propose a model for the structure of the atom was J.J.Thomson who, as you know, was the one who discovered the electron. Thomson offered a model that is called the raisin-bread model of the atom. Do you know what raisin bread looks like? Draw a picture of a slice of raisin bread in the space below.

Compare your picture of the raisin bread slice with Thomsons model of the atom below.

Thomsons model of the atom

Do you now see how they are alike?

10

According to Thomson, the atom was composed of a positively charged sphere with electrons loosely embedded in the surface. Ernest Rutherford (18711937), another British physicist, tested Thomsons model of the atom. In his experiment, he used a beam of alpha rays (positively charged particles) to direct at a sheet of gold foil. These alpha rays were to be emitted by a piece of radium, a radioactive element. He presumed that if Thomsons model was correct, the alpha rays would pass through the foil with very slight deflections because the positive charge of the atom was diffused through the atom. The following is the setup of the experiment:
Radium Lead shield

Thin gold foil

Fluorescent screen

Rutherford recorded the following observations: 1. 2. 3. Most of the alpha particles passed through the foil without deflections. A few alpha particles bounced back with large angles of deflection. A few passed through with large angles of deflection.
A few were deflected at large angles. A few particles bounced back. Most particles passed through in a straight line.

These results amazed Rutherford. They were totally unexpected. Based on the results of this experiment, Rutherford came up with the nuclear model of the atom. In fact, he won a Nobel Prize for his discovery of the nucleus. According to Rutherfords model, the atom is mostly empty space with a tiny, positive central core called the nucleus. This is where most of the mass of the atom is concentrated. Moving around the nucleus are the electrons, which are so light in weight. Below is a picture of Rutherfords atom.

Rutherfords model of the atom

11

Lets Think About This

Can you now explain the results of Rutherfords experiment in terms of his model of the atom? Write your answer in the space below. ____________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ Compare your answer with mine: According to Rutherfords model, the atom is mostly empty space with a tiny positive corethe nucleus. Most of the alpha particles passed through the gold foil without deflection. This meant that they passed through the empty space of the gold atoms. Some alpha particles bounced back with deflections. This meant that they hit the positive nucleus. Since alpha rays are positively charged and like charges repel each other, they were repelled by the nucleus. Some alpha rays passed through with slight deflection. This meant that they hit the electrons, which are so light in weight that they did not cause the alpha rays to bounce at large angles.

Lets See What You Have Learned

A. Identify who/what is being described in each of the following statements. Write your answer on the line before the number. ________________ 1. He based his theory on large amounts of experimental data obtained from the weights of substances involved in chemical reactions. They were later known as electrons. He proposed the raisin-bread model of the electron. He concluded that matter is made up of water, fire, earth and air. According to this theory, the sum of the masses of the reactants in a chemical reaction is equal to the sum of the masses of the products. It comes from the Greek words meaning not to cut. He discovered the nucleus of the atom. He discovered canal rays. They later became known as protons. This is the negative end of a gas discharge tube.

________________ 2. ________________ 3. ________________ 4. ________________ 5.

________________ 6. ________________ 7. ________________ 8. ________________ 9. _______________ 10.

12

B.

Explain how Rutherford came up with the nuclear model of the atom. _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on pages 28 and 29. Did you get a perfect score? If you did, thats very good! If you didnt, dont worry. Just review the parts of the lesson that you didnt understand very well. Afterward, you may move on to Lesson 2.

Lets Remember
The structure of matter had always puzzled human beings and theories on this structure were proposed even by ancient Greek philosophers. The existence of indivisible units of matter was first proposed by the Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus. John Dalton proposed the atomic theory which proved that matter is made up of atoms. The postulates of the theory are: 1. 2. 3. 4. Matter is made up of extremely small indestructible particles called atoms. All the atoms of a given element are alike. Atoms enter into combination with other atoms to form compounds but remain unchanged during ordinary chemical reactions. Atoms can combine in simple numerical ratios.

The discovery of the electron and the proton led scientists to conclude that the atom is made up of even smaller particles. Sir Joseph John Thomson proposed the raisin-bread model of the atom, which presented the atom as a positive sphere in which electrons are embedded. Ernest Rutherfords experiment on Thomsons model proved that the atom has a small central positive core moving around which are the electrons.

13

LESSON 2

The Subatomic Particles

Isnt it amazing how a tiny particle such as the atom could puzzle the greatest scientists of our time? Do you have any idea how small the atom is? Each atom has an average diameter of 0.1 to 0.5 nanometer (nm). The nanometer is 1/100000000 of a meter. If you get an atom with a diameter of 0.1 nm, you will need around 10 million of this atom in order to form a line across this dot: . John Dalton described the atom as the ultimate particle into which matter can be divided. Of course, his idea of the indivisibility of the atom no longer holds true because of experiments that proved otherwise. The atom can be divided into much smaller particles called subatomic particles. In this lesson, you will find out the characteristics of the three subatomic particlesthe electron, proton and neutron. You will learn where in the atom these particles are located. You will also learn how to determine the number of electrons, protons and neutrons in an atom based on its atomic number and mass number.

Lets Try This

Look at the diagram below. Does it look familiar? It is Rutherfords nuclear model of the atom. Can you identify which are the neutrons, the protons and the electrons in the diagram?

Find out if your answers are correct by reading the following section.

14

Lets Learn
What does the inside of an atom look like? After about 100 years of investigation into the composition of the atom, scientists now know that there are subatomic particlesthese are the electrons, neutrons and protons. These three particles are the fundamental units which make up all atoms. Let us study these particles one by one. Look at the following diagram. It shows the structure of a helium atom.

The center of the atom is made up of two types of particlesthe neutron and the proton. The proton carries a positive charge and has a relative mass of 1.00734 or 1. The neutron is electrically neutral, that is, it carries no charge. It has a relative mass of 1.00866 or 1. The proton and the neutron are referred to as nucleons because they are found in the nucleus of the atom. Revolving around the nucleus are the electrons. The electron is much, much lighter than the neutron and proton. In fact, it is considered to have negligible mass. Its mass is only 0.00055 amu. It carries a negative charge. The following table shows the properties of each of the subatomic particles. Subatomic Particle Electron Proton Neutron Symbol e p n Electric Charge Relative Mass 1 +1 0 0.00055 1.00734 1.00866 Actual Mass 9.10 1028 g 1.673 10-24 g 1.675 10-24 g

15

Lets Think About This

Why is it that despite the presence of electrically charged particlesthe negative electrons and the positive protonsan atom is electrically neutral? Is your answer the same as this? An atom is electrically neutral because the number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons. The electric charges cancel each other out.

Lets Review
Connect with a line the subatomic particle to its description. Has a mass of 1.673 1024 g Carries no electric charge Has a negative charge proton Has a relative mass of 0.00055 Has a mass of 9.1110 1028 g Carries a positive charge neutron Has a relative mass of 1.00734 Has a relative mass of 1.00866 Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 29.

electron

Lets Learn
How will you know the number of electrons, neutrons and protons in an atom? These can be determined by looking at the atomic number and mass number of the atom. Take a look at the following chemical symbol of an element.

mass number mass number

XA Z
symbol of symbol of element
atomic number atomic number

the element

16

Since the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus, the mass number A is equal to the sum of the masses of the neutrons and protons in the atom. The atomic number Z on the other hand is the number of protons in the atom. Since the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons, the atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons.

Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

From the atomic number and the mass number of an atom, you can get the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom.

Lets Try This

Try to complete the following table. The first item has been done for you. Element Atomic Number (Z) 11 Mass Number (A) 23 Proton Electron Neutron

Na H Mg O Cl Be

11 1

11

12 0 12

24 16 8 17 4 9

18

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 29.

Lets Learn
The second postulate of the atomic theory states that atoms of the same element are alike. The existence of isotopes has contradicted this postulate. Elements have been found to have atoms that differ in mass. Atoms of the same element that have different masses are called isotopes of that element.

17

Hydrogen, for instance, has three isotopesprotium, deuterium and tritium. Where do you think the difference among these atoms lies? Lets look at their symbols: Protium
1

H1

Deuterium 1H2 Tritium

1

H3

Can you now tell where the difference among these isotopes lies? The difference lies in the number of neutrons in each isotope. Protium has no neutron; deuterium has one neutron; tritium has two neutrons. Therefore, we can also say that isotopes of the same element differ in mass number. There are around 250 known naturally occurring isotopes. Around 1000 are made in nuclear reactors. Isotopes have uses in medicine, especially in radiation therapy. Cobalt 60, for instance, is used in cancer therapy while iodine 121 is used in goiter therapy.

Lets See What You Have Learned

A. Fill in the blanks. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. The _______________of an atom indicates the number of protons in the atom. The number of ___________ is equal to the number of ______________ in an atom. A ____________ carries no electric charge. An ____________ has negligible mass.
17

C135 and 17C137 are __________ of chlorine.

The number of ___________ differentiates one isotope of an element from another. A proton carries a ___________ charge. The ____________ and _____________ carry most of the mass of the atom. The ____________ takes up most of the space in an atom. The symbol for the atomic number is _____.

18

B.

Complete the following table. Atomic Number Mass Number Proton Electron Neutron

Chemical Symbol
6 6 8 8 7

C 12 C 13 O 18 O 17 N 14 S32 Ca40 K 39

16 20 19 47

Ag108 Pb207

82

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 30. Did you get a perfect score? If you did, thats very good! If not, thats okay. Just review the parts of the lesson that you did not understand very well. Afterward, you may move on to Lesson 3.

Lets Remember
The three subatomic particles are the neutron, proton and electron. The neutron and proton are found in the nucleus of the atom; the electron moves around the atom. The electron carries a negative charge and has negligible mass. The proton has a positive charge and a relative mass of 1. The neutron carries no electric charge and has a relative mass of 1. An atom is electrically neutral because the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons. The atomic number is the number of protons in the atom while the mass number is the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the atom. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different masses.

19

LESSON 3

Locating the Electron

In Lesson 2, you found out that the three subatomic particles are the neutron, proton and electron. The proton and the neutron are more or less stable in the nucleus of the atom but the electrons are constantly moving around the atom. The atoms, being of negligible mass, are fastmoving particles. Do you think there is a way we could locate an electron inside an atom at any one time? Because it is fast-moving, an electron is very elusive. In fact, the exact location of an electron can never be known. The most we could do is determine the probability or chance of an electron being in a particular spot in the atom. In this lesson, you will find out how to do this. You will know about the different energy levels occupied by electrons in an atom. You will also be able to determine the number of orbitals in a given energy level as well as the number of electrons in a sublevel.

Lets Try This

Try to draw an atomic diagram based on the chemical symbol 8O16. How will you do this? Based on the atomic number and mass number, you can see that the number of protons and electrons is 8 and the number of neutrons is 8. In drawing the diagram of an atom, your main concern is the positions of the electrons. Each electron will occupy a specific level in the atom. Look at the diagram of the oxygen atom below:

Notice that there are two orbits around the nucleus of the atom. In the first (innermost) orbit, there are two electrons; in the second orbit, there are six electrons. Why were the electrons distributed in this manner? You will find out in the following section.

20

Lets Learn
In 1913, a new model for the structure of the atom was proposed by Niels Bohr (1885 1962). According to Bohr, the electrons orbiting an atom could only exist at certain energy levels (or distances) from the nucleus of the atom. When an electron absorbs energy, it jumps to a higher energy level (a greater distance from the nucleus) and as it returns to its original energy level, it emits light. This model of the atom explained several things, such as the periodic behavior of elements. According to this model, each orbit of the same size or energy (energy level or shell) could only hold so many electrons. For instance, the first shell or energy level can hold two electrons; the second energy level, eight electrons; the third energy level, eighteen electrons; and so on. When one shell is filled, the electrons have to occupy higher energy levels. Chemical properties then are based on the number of electrons in the outermost shell. Elements with full outermost shells do not react; other elements take up or give up some electrons to achieve a full outermost shell. Lets study this in detail. Look once again at the diagram of the oxygen atom on page 20. The orbit nearest the nucleus is the first energy level or shell. Notice that there are two electrons in this energy level. This energy level is filled up first and since it can hold only a maximum of two electrons, the rest of the oxygen electrons have to go to the next energy level. The second energy level can hold a maximum of eight electrons. Since there are only six electrons to be distributed in this energy level, this level is not yet full. Hence, the oxygen atom reacts with other atoms in such a way that it can gain the two electrons it needs to fill its outermost energy level. What elements are grouped along with oxygen in the periodic table? These are sulfur (16S), selenium (34Se), tellurium (52Te) and polonium (84Po). Look at the distribution of electrons in each of these elements.

Sulfur

Selenium

Tellurium

Polonium

Did you notice that like oxygen, the four elements all have six electrons in the outermost energy level? This similarity accounts for the similarity in their chemical properties. 21

Lets Think About This

Have you ever been to a basketball game? Notice that when you go to a basketball game in a stadium, there are several seating sections. Theres the ringside, which is nearest the basketball court. There are also the lower box, upper box, etc. Look at the diagram below which shows the seating sections in a stadium:

Gallery Upper box Lower box Ringside

Hardcourt

Notice that each section is composed of several seats. However, the nearer the section is to the basketball court, the fewer the seats in that section. This is the same thing with the energy levels in an atom. The nearer an energy level is to the nucleus of the atom, the fewer the electrons it can accommodate.

Lets Learn
How will you know the maximum number of electrons an energy level can hold? The formula for this is 2n2, where n is the number of the energy level. Look at the diagram below:

n=1

n=2

n=3

n=4

22

Keep in mind that the higher the number of the energy level, the farther it is from the nucleus of the atom and the more electrons it can hold. The following is a table of the number of electrons the energy levels of an atom can hold: Energy Level (n) 1 2 3 4 5 Maximum Number of Electrons 2 8 18 32 50

Lets Review
State the maximum number of electrons the following energy levels can hold: Energy Level 4 6 9 Maximum Number of Electrons ______ ______ ______

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 31.

Lets Learn
As I mentioned in the beginning of this lesson, there is no known method for knowing the exact location of an electron in an atom. But we can determine the probability of finding an atom in a region in space. This region in space where an electron is most likely to be found is called atomic orbital. An atomic orbital may be any of four different shapes. These are: Sharp (s)spherical; there can only be one of this in an energy level. Principal (p)dumbbell-shaped; a maximum of three can be found in an energy level. Diffuse (d)four lobe-shaped; a maximum of five can occupy an energy level. Fundamental (f)six lobe-shaped; a maximum of seven can be found in an energy level.

Scientists have found out that only two electrons can share the same orbital, each spinning in a direction opposite to that of the other electron. This is known as Paulis exclusion principle, which, stated in a different way, says that only two electrons can occupy the same atomic orbital at the same time. 23

Thus, based on Paulis exclusion principle, we can determine the number of electrons in an orbital. Look at the following table: Orbital s p d f Number of Atomic Orbitals 1 3 5 7 Number of Electrons 1(2) = 2 3(2) = 6 5(2) = 10 7(2) = 14

Do you think that the number of energy level is related to the number of atomic orbitals? Of course! Look at the following table that shows the relationship between the two: Energy Level 1 2 3 Atomic Orbitals Present s s p s p d s p d f Number of Electrons in the Orbitals 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14 Total Number of Electrons 2 8

18

32

Lets See What You Have Learned

Given the following elements, identify (a) the number of energy levels the electrons of each element will occupy and (b) the number of electrons in the outermost energy level of each element. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
1 5

B F Cl Mg

17 12

Compare your answers with those in the Answer Key on page 31. Did you get a perfect score? If you did, thats very good! If not, dont worry. Just review the parts of the lesson that you did not understand very well before you move on to the next part of the module.

24

Lets Remember
Niels Bohrs model of the atom states that the electrons orbiting an atom could only exist at certain energy levels from the nucleus of the atom. Each energy level of the atom can hold only a specific number of electrons, according to the formula 2n2 where n is the number of the energy level. The higher the number of the energy level, the farther it is from the nucleus and the higher the number of electrons it can hold. The region in space where an electron is most likely to be found is called an atomic orbital. An atomic orbital may be any of four shapessharp (s), principal (p), diffuse (d) and fundamental (f).

Well, this is the end of the module. Congratulations for finishing it! Did you enjoy studying it? Did you learn a lot from it? The following is a summary of its main points to help you remember them better.

Lets Sum Up
This module tells us that: Matter is made up of atoms, the smallest units that retain the properties of matter. The atom has three subatomic particlesthe neutron, proton and electron. An atom is electrically neutral because the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons in the atom. The atomic number of an atom is equal to the number of protons in the atom and is also equal to the number of electrons in that atom. The mass number of an atom is the sum of the masses of the protons and neutrons in the atom. Electrons that orbit an atom occupy certain energy levels or distances from the nucleus of the atom. The higher the energy level, the farther it is from the nucleus and the more electrons it can hold. The maximum number of electrons an energy level can hold is equal to 2n2, where n is equal to the number of the energy level. The region in space where an electron is most likely to be found is called atomic orbital.

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What Have You Learned?

A. Identify what or who is being described in each of the following. ________________ 1. ________________ 2. ________________ 3. ________________ 4. ________________ 5. ________________ 6. ________________ 7. ________________ 8. ________________ 9. ________________ 10. B. Spherical orbital States that only two electrons can occupy an atomic orbital at the same time Proposed the atomic theory A subatomic particle that does not carry any electric charge The region in space where an electron is most likely to be found Dumbbell-shaped orbital Also equal to the number of electrons in an atom Atoms of the same element with different masses Has negligible mass Energy level that can carry a maximum of eighteen electrons

Write the letter of the correct answer on the line before the number. ____ 1. He proposed that matter was composed of four elementsearth, water, air and fire. a. b. c. d. ____ 2. Democritus Empedocles Rutherford Dalton

Atoms are composed of the subatomic particles _____ . a. b. c. d. electrons and protons protons and neutrons electrons, protons and neutrons protons

____ 3.

The region around the nucleus is composed of _____ . a. b. c. d. protons and electrons protons and neutrons electrons protons

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____ 4.

The mass number less the atomic number gives the number of _____ . a. b. c. d. electrons electrons and protons neutrons neutrons and protons

____ 5.

The mass numbers of isotopes are _____ . a. b. c. d. different equal divisible by each other in small whole number ratios

____ 6.

Which of the following statements correctly describes an electron? a. b. c. d. It is positively charged. It is found in the nucleus. It has a mass equal to that of the neutron. It is negatively charged.

____ 7.

If an element is described by these data: Z = 19 and A = 40, which of the following statements is true of the element? a. b. c. d. It has 19 protons and 20 neutrons. It has 19 protons and 19 neutrons. It has 21 electrons and 19 protons. It has 19 electrons and 21 neutrons.

____ 8.

An energy level can hold _____ s orbital(s). a. b. c. d. one two three four

____ 9.

An atom has an atomic number of 17 and a mass number of 35.Which of the following statements is correct? a. b. c. d. The atom has 17 electrons and 17 neutrons. The atom has 17 electrons and 18 neutrons. The atom has 17 electrons and 18 protons. The atom has 18 electrons and 17 neutrons.

____10.

For the isotopes 20Ca40 and 20Ca42, which statement is not true? a. b. c. d. There are 20 electrons in both isotopes. There are 20 neutrons in both isotopes. The number of protons in both isotopes is 20. Ca40 has 20 neutrons and Ca42 has 22 neutrons.

Compare your answers with those found in the Answer Key on page 32. If you got a perfect score, thats very good. This means that you learned a lot from this module. If you did not, just review the lessons you did not understand very well.

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Answer Key
A. Lets See What You Already Know (pages 23) 1. 2. 3. 4. d c b b The atomic number indicates the number of electrons present in the atom. Since the atom is electrically neutral, the number of electrons is also equal to the number of protons. The mass number gives the sum of the protons and neutrons in the atom. One of the assumptions of Daltons atomic theory is that atoms of the same element are alike.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. B.

d d b a c b

Isotopes differ in the number of neutrons.

Lesson 1 Lets Review (page 9) Cathode rays are negatively charged particles while canal rays are positively charged particles. The existence of these two particles violated the first postulate of the atomic theory because it showed that the atom is not indivisibleit is made up of even smaller particles. Lets See What You Have Learned (pages 1213) A. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. John Dalton cathode rays Sir Joseph John Thomson Empedocles law of conservation of mass atom Ernest Rutherford Eugen Goldstein canal rays cathode 28

B.

Rutherford was able to come up with the nuclear model of the atom based on the results of the experiment he conducted to test Thomsons raisin-bread model of the atom. He allowed a beam of alpha particles to pass through a gold foil. Some of the alpha particles went undeflected to the cathode end of the tube; others bounced back with large angles of deflection; still others went to the cathode end with only slight deflections. This made him conclude that the atom is made up of mostly empty space with a positive core or nucleus and negative electrons moving around the nucleus. The undeflected alpha particles passed through the empty space; those which bounced back hit the positive nucleus; while those which had slight deflections hit the very light electrons.

C.

Lesson 2 Lets Review (page 16) Has a mass of 1.673 1024 g

electron

Carries no electric charge Has a negative charge

proton

Has a relative mass of 0.00055 Has a mass of 9.1110 1028 g Carries a positive charge

neutron

Has a relative mass of 1.00734 Has a relative mass of 1.00866

Lets Try This (page 17) Element Atomic Number (Z) 11 1 24 8 17 4 Mass Number (A) 23 1 12 16 35 9 Proton Electron Neutron

Na H Mg O Cl Be

11 1 12 8 17 4

11 1 12 8 17 4

12 0 12 8 18 5

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Lets See What You Have Learned (pages 1819) A. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. B. Chemical Symbol C 12 C 13 O 18 O 17 N 14 S32 Ca40 K 39 Atomic Number Mass Number 6 6 8 8 7 16 20 19 47 82 12 13 18 17 14 32 40 39 108 207 Proton 6 6 8 8 7 16 20 19 47 82 Electron 6 6 8 8 7 16 20 19 47 82 Neutron 6 7 10 9 7 16 20 20 61 125 atomic number protons; electrons (Answers may be in any order.) neutron electron isotopes neutrons positive protons; neutrons (Answers may be in any order.) electron (This is because it is moving around the atom all the time.) Z

6 6 8 8 7

16 20 19 47

Ag108 Pb207

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D.

Lesson 3 Lets Review (page 23) Energy Level 4 6 9 Lets See What You Have Learned (page 24) 1. a. b. 2. a. number of electrons = 1; therefore, only 1 energy level is occupied. Since there is only 1 electron, 1 electron will occupy the outermost energy level. number of electrons = 5; two electrons will occupy the first energy level, three will occupy the second energy level. Therefore, 2 energy levels will be occupied by the electrons. There are 3 electrons in the outermost energy level. number of electrons = 9; two will occupy the first energy level, seven will occupy the second energy level. Therefore, 2 energy levels will be occupied by the electrons. There are 7 electrons in the outermost energy level. number of electrons = 17; two will occupy the first energy level, eight will occupy the second energy level and seven will occupy the third energy level. Therefore, 3 energy levels will be occupied by the electrons. There are 7 electrons in the outermost energy level. number of electrons = 12; two will occupy the first energy level, eight will occupy the second energy level, two will occupy the third energy level. Therefore, 3 energy levels will be occupied by the electrons. There are 2 electrons in the outermost energy level. Maximum Number of Electrons 32 72 162

b. 3. a.

b. 4. a.

b. 5. a.

b.

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E. What Have You Learned? (pages 2627) A. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. B. 1. 2. 3. 4. s orbital Paulis exclusion principle John Dalton neutron atomic orbital d orbital atomic number isotopes electron third energy level b c c c The subatomic particles found in the atom are the electrons, protons and neutrons. The region around the nucleus is where electrons may be found. The mass number gives the number of protons and neutrons while the atomic number indicates the number of protons/electrons. Therefore, the mass number less the atomic number gives the number of neutrons. Isotopes have the same atomic number but different mass numbers.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

a d d a b

An energy level can hold a maximum of one s orbital. The atomic number indicates the number of protons which is also equal to the number of electrons. The mass number minus the atomic number gives the number of neutrons. Isotopes differ in the number of neutrons.

10.

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Glossary
Alpha ray A positively charged particle identical with the helium atom, having two protons and two neutrons. Anode The positive end or electrode. Atom The smallest particle of an element that has the same properties as the element. Cathode The negative end or electrode. Chemical reaction A process that causes a change in one or more substances, resulting in the formation of one or more new substances. Compound Two or more elements combined in fixed proportions. Deflection A turning aside or off course. Indestructible Cannot be destroyed or broken down into smaller parts. Model A description or analogy used to help visualize something that cannot be directly observed. Negligible Extremely small or unimportant. Nuclear Pertaining to the nucleus of the atom. Nucleus The center of an atom. Postulate A statement accepted as true as the basis for an argument or reasoning. Probability The chance that a given event will occur. Product The substance produced in a chemical reaction. Proportion The relation of one part to another or the whole in terms of quantity. Radiation therapy Treatment of a disease by exposing the patient to particles emitted by a radioactive substance. Radioactive Capable of emitting high-energy particles through disintegration of the nucleus of the atom. Ratio The relationship in quantity between two or more things; similar to proportion. Reactant The starting material in a chemical reaction. Relative mass Average mass. Subatomic Of, relating to or being particles smaller than the atom. Vacuum Devoid of matter; empty space.

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References
Keenan, Charles W., Jesse H. Wood and Donald C. Kleinfelter. General College Chemistry. 5th ed. New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1976. Mortimer, Charles E. Chemistry: A Conceptual Approach. New York: Van Nosstrand Co., 1975. Redmore, Fred. Fundamentals of Chemistry. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1979.

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