City University of Pasay

Pasay City
College of Education
NOTES for THE TEACHING PROFESSION
AY 2022-2023, First Semester

Understanding the teaching profession is a lifetime undertaking because of the constant reshaping of education due to the
emergence of educational theories and principles either as a response to an emergent situation or as a response to address
an existing situation. Simply put, the definition of the teaching profession becomes volatile and flexible because it
depends on some potent factors that bring forth such situations. Therefore, a prospective teacher may partly gain an
understanding of the teaching profession by exploring several perspectives in education. Four Essential Lessons that
contain these perspectives are concisely presented and discussed below.

Essential Lesson 1: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES OF EDUCATION

Deepening one’s understanding of the Historical Perspectives of Education leads to a treasure trove of ideas to modern
education. This legacy included many concepts that are still very important even today. Systems of laws and government,
architecture, literature, and language are just some key concepts brought to us by none other than the educational beliefs
and practices by the Ancient as well as today’s World.

Early Athenian Early Athenian’s Perspective of Education was anchored on the philosophy “Sound Mind in a
Education Sound Body”, which emphasized individual’s beauty and grace of the body, mind and spirit
for good citizenship and public usefulness. This educational perspective was developed
through Civic Training, Physical Training, Moral Training, and Intellectual Training.

Spartan Education As response to threats and dangers, Spartans called upon Lycurgus who wrote the Laws of
Lycurgus that became the foundation and formed the basis of the Spartan educational system.
Spartan Education had the main aim of training a powerful body of soldiers to be highly
capable of surviving in the worst possible situations, and to be always prepared in any threat
against themselves and their country. Thus, it emphasized individual excellence in military
affairs for state usefulness following the Homeric ideal: “man of action” rather than “man of
wisdom” with the end goal of developing individual physical perfection and habits of
complete obedience. For the Spartans, the Ideal Good Citizenship was every young man’s
development of strength, courage, endurance, cunning, patriotism, and military efficiency.

Later Athenian The life of Athenians in the later period changed in their educational views and practices after
Education the Persian Wars. Athens began to take more on exchanging ideas with traders, travelers, and
other foreigners. They developed more interests for a more diversified community. As a
result, the old traditions were abandoned, and new ideas emerged. The activity of trading
brought to an individual's wealth. Genuine Service to the State was not the measurement of
greatness, but wealth and power. Citizenship was opened to all free inhabitants, and new
opportunities were offered to the hands of young men of the city. Thus, Later Athenian
Education aimed for the: (1) preparation for personal advancement toward active and
successful life, and (2) development of young men’s individual excellence for individual
success. These aims were anchored on the philosophical perspectives of three great
philosophers. According to Protagoras, a man is the measure of all things. Knowledge comes
from senses. According to Socrates, universal concepts of piety, temperance and justice must
exist in every man and must be understood through thinking. To apply these universal
concepts, virtue is needed. For Aristotle, man has to make rational living: the man’s balance
exercise of this thought and conduct.

Ancient Roman The Roman education system was based on the Greek system – and many of the private tutors
Education in the Roman system were Greek slaves or freedmen. Ancient Roman Education focused on
the development of the Gladiator who would strictly follow the rule of law and join the strong
military; and thus, the Roman Empire ruled most of the western civilized world. Rome's most
obvious strength was its military. The Romans had the best training and training facilities, the
biggest budget and best armory the world at that time has ever seen. Bearing in mind that the
Roman empire spanned continents as well as vast cultural differences. These strengths
included a strong military leadership foundation, the standardization across the empire of
many aspects of life, such as language, law, and especially the extension of citizenship, which
made the empire more cohesive and easier to rule.

Ancient Egyptian Ancient Egyptian education aimed at perpetuating social stability and the status quo.
Education Education perpetuated a socially stratified society by slotting the various classes into their
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 social, political and economic riches in society. The upper class consisted of the royal family,
rich landowners, government officials, important priests, army officers, and doctors. The
middle class was made up chiefly of merchants, manufacturers, and artisans. The lower class,
the largest class by far, consisted of unskilled laborers. Formal education in ancient Egypt was
mostly reserved for the boys of wealthier families. Although there is some evidence that
occasionally, girls did go to school and even became doctors. Boys usually started school at
the age of 7 and they were taught to read and write as well as mathematics. Formal education
was practical and aimed to train scribes and priests. It was extended from basic reading,
writing, and religion to higher learning in law, medicine, and astrology. Generally, youth of
the upper classes were prepared to become scribes, who ranged from copyists to librarians and
teachers.

Ancient Chinese It may sound incredible, but China's formal education system—the oldest in the world—was
Education established nearly two millennia ago. Ancient Chinese Education had four major purposes of
education: cultural conservation, vocational training, moral and character training, and control
of cultural deviation. Confucius greatly contributed to China's educational system not only
through his teachings and ethics but also by promoting education for the poor and
underprivileged. Confucius believed in the equality and educability of all people. He viewed
education as a means of transformation, the discovery of human nature, and the cultivation of
character. Of all the Confucian virtues, Confucius and his followers regarded fairness as the
most important quality of a moral person. The Ancient Chinese were famous for their
inventions and technology. Many of their inventions had lasting impact on the entire world.
Other inventions led to great feats of engineering like the Grand Canal and the Great Wall of
China. Their inventions were paper, compass, silk, gunpowder and fireworks. The ancient
Chinese civilization had a huge impact on the modern world like the Civil Service Exam
system in imperial China, which was a system of testing designed to select the most studious
and learned candidates for appointment as bureaucrats in the Chinese government.

Saracenic Education The Saracens, in the Middle ages, are any persons who professed the religion of Islām,
founded by Mohammed. Early Muslim education emphasized practical studies, such as the
application of technological expertise to the development of irrigation systems, architectural
innovations, textiles, iron and steel products, earthenware, and leather products; the
manufacture of paper and gunpowder; the advancement of commerce; and the maintenance of
a merchant marine. After the 11th century, however, denominational interests dominated
higher learning, and the Islamic sciences achieved preeminence. Greek knowledge was
studied in private, if at all, and the literary arts diminished in significance as educational
policies encouraging academic freedom and new learning were replaced by a closed system
characterized by an intolerance toward scientific innovations, secular subjects, and creative
scholarship.

Saracenic Approach to Education had aims and purposes. Islam placed a high value on
education, and, as the faith spread among diverse peoples, education became an important
channel through which to create a universal and cohesive social order. By the middle of the
9th century, knowledge was divided into three categories: the Islamic sciences, the
philosophical and natural sciences (Greek knowledge), and the literary arts. The Islamic
sciences, which emphasized the study of the Qurʾān (the Islamic scripture) and the Ḥadīth (the
sayings and traditions of the Prophet Muhammad) and their interpretation by leading scholars
and theologians, were valued the most highly, but Greek scholarship was considered equally
important, albeit less virtuous.

Chivalric education Chivalric education was essentially a class education for entrance into aristocracy. This social
discipline taught the young noble to manage his estate and to acquire the class consciousness
of superiority over lower class. The five aims of Chivalric Education are: (1) Morality--to
inculcate in the minds of the young nobles the virtues of honor, bravery, courtesy, etc., (2)
Responsibility--to get the young nobles to assume their responsibilities, how to manage their
own estates, and how to deal with the lower class of people, (3) Horsemanship--to train the
young nobles in horseback warfare, hunting, and tournaments, (4) Gallantry--to train the
young nobles how to deal gallantry with the ladies of the nobility and to protect the weak, and
(5) Social Graces--to train the young girls in the social graces and manners fit for the ladies of
the nobility.

Democratic Education John Dewey championed today’s Democratic Education in higher education, which allows the
decentralization of education because it provides teachers an academic freedom to exercise

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 their teaching profession within the bounds of existing laws and regulations. Moreover, it
aims to empower students to exercise self-determination in terms of their education. It means
that students are allowed to choose what and how they will study within the given framework
of community greater leverage and also make them accountable. In basic education, however,
decentralization happens in the management of basic education schools, but not in the
teaching-learning situations. Because it is a formative education, teachers and learners are
duty bound to follow mandated curriculum guides and prescribed instructional delivery
systems especially from K-10 levels. Generally, choice, the ability to have autonomy in the
direction of one's own educational path, and control, the ability to decide how to approach
major educational needs, are the two main principles of democratic education. To these days,
the public or state schools are the ultimate realization of democratic education.

Essential Lesson 2: PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES OF EDUCATION

Essential Lesson 2 will provide you general understanding of the 10 philosophical perspectives in education which can be
classified in some ways. Those with relatively fixed and absolute beliefs that tend to preserve the past like Idealism,
Realism, Perennialism, and Essentialism can be classified as traditionally teacher-centered as well as homogeneously or
individually oriented educational philosophies. Those with changeable and subjective beliefs that try to reconstruct the
present, and shape the future, or change the society like Existentialism, Humanism, Pragmatism, and Social
Reconstructionism are progressively learner-centered as well as heterogeneously or socially oriented educational
philosophies. However, it must be noted that Existentialism, though progressively a learner-centered philosophy, is not a
socially oriented educational philosophy because it puts freedom, choice, and decision for development exclusively to the
individual or to the learner. Thus, it is highly individualistic.

Traditionalism is an educational movement by academic institutions with a more purely

Traditionalism academic purpose, which is to develop the mental ability of students whose learning and
values must be grounded on the Western cultural heritage specifically on traditional American
education that is strongly founded on Greek and Roman ideas and values, which must be
passed on to the next generation. With the teacher as the sole authority taking the center stage,
traditional education provides less emphasis and concern on learners who must get more
learning outcomes from their mandated lessons which must mold or shape students’ moral
development and competence for their future contribution in the workplace. Moreover, it
protects, preserves, and develops traditional indigenous skills and cultures. By expectation,
traditional education empowers indigenous peoples to participate more fully in their
communities. Through this empowerment, the indigenous peoples are hoped to attain freedom
and social justice in their communities. Thus, traditional education aims to: (1) prepare the
young into adult life; (2) enable the young to understand fully the custom of the society and
traditions; and (3) instill good norms and conduct in the community and the future
workplaces. In the classroom setting, these educational aims are primarily realized by making
students learn mostly through experiences, collaboration, and play.

Progressivism Progressivism is a philosophical movement that responds to traditional methods of teaching;

and thus, advances a way of thinking that focuses on social progress because of the belief that
human society is improving over time. It is based more on experiential learning that
concentrates on the development of a child's talents. Dewey believed that students learn better
by experiencing the idea or principles first-hand, and not vicariously from teachers’ lectures
and discussions or merely from teachers requiring students to just indulge into reading to gain
learning from books. Dewey’s tenet that the school should improve the way of life of the
citizens through experiencing freedom and democracy in schools is the end goal of his
philosophy. Therefore, in a progressive school, the learner becomes the center of the teaching
process of facilitating all processes towards the nurturing of the students for their
development. All teaching processes especially the lesson planning process must be based on
the learners’ developmental needs and interests. These processes are consonant to Dewey’s
belief that education is life, growth, reconstruction of human experiences, and a social
process. This learning-by-doing philosophy engages learners actively into the teaching-
learning processes that is intended to usher them all into individual and collective construction
of learning through the cognitive processes of inquiry, discovery, and then finally, experience.
This learning by experiential construction and training stress that students should test ideas
and principles by active and actual experimentation. According to Dewey, learning is rooted
in the questions of learners that arise through experiencing the world. It is an active, and not a
passive learning process. The learner is a problem solver and thinker who makes meaning
through his or her individual experience in the physical, social, and cultural contexts.

Idealism Idealism generally asserts that "reality" is in some way indistinguishable or inseparable from

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 human perception and/or understanding. Further, it believes that the ultimate nature of reality
is based upon ideas, values, or essences. It holds that the external, or real world cannot be
separated from consciousness, perception, mind, intellect, and reason in the sense of science.
Idealism relates or associates reality to ideas in the mind rather than to material objects. It lays
emphasis on the mental or spiritual components of experience, and renounces the notion of
material existence. Idealism proposes that ideas are universal and eternal, unlike physical
objects, which are subject to the alteration of the forces of nature. Idealism emphasizes the
principle of self-discipline, which leads to the development of the 'Self' of an individual.
Idealistic philosophy in education emphasizes 'the exaltation of personality', which is the
result of self-realization, and is achieved by spiritual knowledge and self-discipline.

Realism In philosophy, realism, which is usually seen as an opposite of idealism, holds the viewpoint,
which accords to things which are known or perceived an existence or nature, which is
independent of whether anyone is thinking about or perceiving them. Philosophers who
profess realism often claim that truth consists in a correspondence between cognitive
representations and reality. When simply put, it is a way of portraying or thinking about
reality through an accurate, detailed, unembellished depiction of nature or of contemporary
life, which is the truthful treatment of the common, average, everyday life. Realism rejects
imaginative idealization in favor of a close observation of outward appearances. Realism
focuses on the immediate, the here and now, the specific actions and their verifiable
consequences. Thus, a realist sees the world “as it is,” and the realist has the natural
inclination to view all sides of an issue from an objective stance. A realist is not swayed by
unconscious bias or idealistic aims that easily move most people; rather, the realist sees the
truth and prefers it to be unvarnished.

When applied to education, educational realism is the belief that we should study logic,
critical thinking, and the scientific method to teach students to perceive and understand
reality. Educational realists believe that the job of schools is to teach students about the world
around them. To realize this belief, education should aim to teach the learner truth rather than
beauty, for the learner to understand the present practical life; and thus, prepare the practical
man to the present real world. Moreover, education must provide the learner a complete
knowledge and understanding of human society human nature, motives, and institutions by
explaining how each learner is related to the world of man, and to the world of nature.

Pragmatism Pragmatism is another philosophical movement that includes those who claim that an ideology
or proposition is true if it works satisfactorily, that the meaning of a proposition is to be found
in the practical consequences of accepting it, and that unpractical ideas are to be rejected.
Pragmatism means thinking of or dealing with problems in a practical way, rather than by
using theory or abstract principles. Pragmatism focuses on the practical outcomes of what we
think and do. Thus, a core focus of Pragmatism is on practice. As an educational philosophy,
pragmatism says that education should be about life and growth. That is, teachers should be
teaching students things that are practical for life, and encourage them to grow into better
people. Its key theorist is John Dewey who is the Father of Pragmatism. It has four principles:
Unity, Interest, Experience, and Integration. Pragmatism regards the teacher as a helper, guide
and philosopher. The chief function of a pragmatic teacher is to suggest problems to his
learners, and to guide and stimulate them to find by themselves the solution, which will work.
The essence of pragmatic method is learning through personal experience of the child.
Generally, pragmatist education means preparation for practical life. The child should be
capable of tackling practical problems in real-life situations by the use of a pragmatic method
which is, thus, a problem-solving method. Pragmatic curriculum deals with the integration of
subjects and activities with the end point of making learners practical thinkers whose focus is
on the processes behind any task, initiative, or goal. Pragmatists want to construct flexible,
dynamic and integrated curriculum which aids the developing child and the changing society
more and more as the needs, demands and situation require.

Essentialism As an educational philosophy, essentialism focuses on transmitting a series of progressively

difficult topics and on the promotion of students to the next level or grade. Subjects to be
studied are focused on the historical context of the material world and culture, and move
sequentially to give a solid understanding of the present day. Essentialist teachers believe that
learners should learn the traditional basic subjects thoroughly. Essentialist teaching must
ensure that the accumulated wisdom of human civilization as taught in the traditional
academic disciplines is passed on from the teacher to the student. Henceforth, essentialist
teaching tries to instill all learners with the most essential or basic academic knowledge and

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 skills for character development through traditional (or back-to-basic) approaches that can
promote reasoning, train the mind, and ensure a common culture for all citizens. Moreover,
essentialists believe that learners should be taught to be model citizens by emphasizing
traditional moral values and virtues. Essentialists argue that classrooms should be teacher-
oriented, and the teacher should serve as an intellectual and moral role model for the students.
An essentialist program normally teaches learners progressively, from less complex skills to
more complex lessons. An Essentialist will usually teach the fundamentals of Reading,
Writing, Literature, Foreign Languages, History, Math, Science, Art, and Music. According to
the essentialists, when the essentials of these subjects are imbibed by the learners, students
will develop a sound foundation of basic knowledge. An essentialist curriculum is structured
to develop discipline and a common culture of knowledge. Essentialists value deep knowledge
on a few core subjects, as opposed to more general knowledge on a wider array of subjects.

Perennialism Perennialism was originally religious in nature, developed first by Thomas Aquinas in the
thirteenth century. As an educational philosophy, perennialists believe that the focus of
education should be the ideas that have lasted over centuries. They believe the ideas are as
relevant and meaningful today as when they were written. They recommend that students
learn from reading and analyzing the works by history's finest thinkers and writers. Studying
these finest works can develop learners’ power of thought, make them internalize truths that
are universal and constant, and ensure that students acquire understanding about the great
ideas of Western civilization. Likewise, perennialists believe that learners’ understanding of
great works of art, literature, history and other fields as timeless pieces can create stable,
shared cultures. Thus, teachers are not concerned about the students' interests or experiences.
They use tried and true teaching methods and techniques that are believed to be most
beneficial to disciplining students' minds. In addition, a perennialist classroom aims to be a
closely organized and well-disciplined environment, which develops in students a lifelong
quest for the truth. Perennialists disapprove of teachers requiring students to absorb massive
amounts of disconnected information. Therefore, perennialism is a teacher-centered
philosophy of education, which is the most conservative, traditional, and inflexible
educational philosophy. However, the perennialists’ teachings which focus on everlasting and
enduring truths, which are constant, unchanging, may have been challenged by the sudden
emergence of the COVID 19 pandemic that emphasizes flexibility because it has brought forth
a different way of survival.

Existentialism Existentialism is a philosophical theory positing that people are free agents who have control
over their choices and actions; and thus, society should not restrict an individual's life or
actions because these restrictions inhibit free-will and the development of that person's
potential. More specially, it is a philosophy that emphasizes individual existence, freedom
and choice. It holds that, as there is no God or any other transcendent force, the only way to
counter this nothingness is by embracing existence. From Jean-Paul Sartre’s “existence
precedes essence”, it is only by existing and acting a certain way that a person can give
meaning to his life. According to him, there is no fixed design for how a human being should
be and no God to give him a purpose. Moreover, existentialists advance that NOTHING is
predetermined. There is NO fate or destiny. Humans make themselves what they are. Humans
choose to believe what they do about themselves. Existential themes are individuality,
consciousness, freedom, choice, and responsibility.

Existentialism in education is a teaching and learning philosophy that focuses on the student's
freedom and agency to choose their future. Existentialist educators believe there is no god or
higher power guiding their students. According to existentialists, good education emphasizes
individuality. Making existential methods within the classroom requires a balance during
which both teachers and learners as human beings preserve their identity. The main roles of
teachers are to: (1) help students define their own essence by exposing them to various paths
they take in life, (2) create an environment in which they freely choose their own preferred
way. These existential methods must lead to learners’ development of self-reliance and self-
directedness. Therefore, schools exist to assist children in knowing themselves and their place
in society. The task of teacher is to awaken in students’ self-awareness and help them to be
'original' and 'authentic'. Existentialism states that a person’s life has no inherent meaning or
purpose; rather, it is the purpose that a person creates for his life that gives him a sense of
meaning. Thus, once a person accepts this as reality; then, he can live his life freely, doing
what he enjoys, so far as society allows him.

Humanism Humanism emphasizes the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively.

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 Generally, humanism affirms some notion of human freedom and progress. Moreover, it
believes that human needs and values are more important than religious beliefs, or the needs
and desires of humans. Likewise, it believes that the person creates his own set of ethics,
which is based on reason and common humanity, recognizing that moral values are properly
founded on human nature and experience alone. Thus, humanism is a set of ethics or ideas
about how people should live and act. People who hold this set of ethics are called humanists.
In modern times, humanism is close to secularism. It refers to a non-theistic approach to life,
looking to science instead of religious dogma in order to understand the world.

The ultimate purpose of humanistic approach in education is the learning process of

humanizing humans for the achievement of self-actualization, self-understanding, and self-
realization. The four basic principles of humanistic education can be summarized as follows:
(1) Students' learning should be self-directed. (2) Schools should produce students who want
and know how to learn. (3) The only form of meaningful evaluation is self-evaluation. (4)
Feelings, as well as knowledge, are important in the learning process. The humanistic
classroom provides a holistic approach to learning by keeping the focus on the child. The
student is respected as an individual, and is responsible for making decisions about his
learning. Humanistic lessons are not rigidly prescribed, but flow according to the needs and
inquiries of the student. The humanistic approach emphasizes the personal worth of the
individual, the centrality of human values, and the creative, active nature of human beings.
The approach is optimistic, and focuses on the noble human capacity to overcome hardship,
pain, and despair.

The Humanistic curriculum is based on the belief that education molds the person who will
soon render services for the well-being of the nation. Here, the individual learner is not
regarded as a passive or at least easily managed recipient of input. S/he is the choosing or self-
selecting organism. Learners are taught to value and respect their coworkers for who they are,
despite the presence of individual differences. This leads to stronger workplace relationships
and a more inclusive work environment. Humanistic learning is student-centered, so students
are encouraged to take control over their education. They make choices that can range from
daily activities to future goals. Students are encouraged to focus on a specific subject area of
interest for a reasonable amount of time that they choose.

Social Social reconstructionism addresses social questions and a quest to create a better society and
Reconstructionism worldwide democracy. Reconstructionist educators focus on a curriculum that highlights
social reform as the aim of education. Specifically, concern for social values, humane justice,
human community, world peace, economic justice, equality of opportunity, freedom and
democracy are the significant goals for reconstructionism. In addition, it holds that societies
should continually reform themselves in order to establish more perfect governments or social
networks. In application, the reconstructionist classroom contains a teacher who involves the
students in discussions of moral dilemmas to understand the implications of one's actions.
Students individually select their objectives and social priorities; and then, with guidance from
the teacher, create a plan of action to make the change happen. Thus, the goal of
reconstructionist learning for students is that they themselves may envision the good future
and spend their learning as a preparation for their role in the future. This is an idea of change
for a better educational system. By operational definition, social reconstructionism has the
purpose of making learners aware of the social issues and then drives them to individual
experiences as tools to solving social problems. On the other hand, constructivism works a lot
for active learning; and thus, a constructivist puts the learner at the center point of action.

Essential Lesson 3: PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES OF EDUCATION

In its day-to-day application in the classroom, the Teaching Profession is heavily underpinned and directed by the
Psychological Perspectives of Education, which come in three classifications of theories: Cognitive, Psycho-Social/Sexual
and Behaviorist Theories. The sound practice of the Teaching Profession must be guided by these psychological
perspectives.

COGNITIVE THEORIES—Deriving Principles for Cognitive Teaching and Learning

Piaget’s Key Cognitive Jean Piaget’s key principle is SCHEMAS which are categories of knowledge that help us to
Principle and its Three interpret and understand the world. According to Piaget (1952, p. 7), a schema is a mental
Processes structure that helps us understand how things work. It has to do with how we organize
knowledge. As we take in new information, we connect it to other things we know, believe, or
have experienced. And those connections form a sort of structure in the brain. Moreover, a
schema is a cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information.

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 According to Piaget, there three processes a person can acquire or obtain a NEW SCHEMA,
as follows:

(1) Assimilation is the process of taking in new information into our existing schema. It is the
cognitive process of making new information fit in with our existing understanding of the
world. Essentially, when we encounter something new learning, we process and make sense of
it by relating it to things that we already know. According to Piaget, through assimilation, we
take in new information or experiences and incorporate them into our existing ideas. The
process is somewhat subjective, because we tend to modify experience or information to fit in
with our pre-existing beliefs. He continued positing that assimilation plays an important role
in how we learn about the world around us. In early childhood, children are constantly
assimilating new information and experiences into their existing knowledge about the world.
However, this process does not end with childhood. As people encounter new things and
interpret these experiences, they make both small and large adjustments to their existing ideas
about the world around them. Assimilation and accommodation both work in tandem as part
of the learning process. Some information is incorporated into our existing schemas through
the process of assimilation, while other information leads to the development of new schemas
or total transformations of existing ideas through the process of (2) accommodation. When
the child encounters a horse, he might assimilate this information and immediately call the
animal a dog. The process of accommodation then allows the child to adapt the existing
schema to incorporate the knowledge that some four-legged animals are horses. (3)
Equilibration is Paget’s belief that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation
and accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As
children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a
balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to
account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration helps explain how children are
able to move from one stage of thought into the next.

For emphasis therefore, assimilation and accommodation are complementary learning

processes that play a role at each stage of cognitive development. According to Piaget, the
learning process involves attempting to interpret new information within the framework of
existing knowledge (assimilation), making small changes to that knowledge in order to cope
with things that do not fit those existing frameworks (accommodation), and eventually
adjusting existing schemas or forming new ones in order to adjust to a new understanding
(equilibration).

Piaget’s Genetic In Piaget's view, early cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later
Epistemology progresses to changes in mental operations. Through his observations of his children, Piaget
developed a stage theory of intellectual development that included four distinct stages:

The Sensori-motor Stage (Ages: Birth to 2 Years)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
•Infants know the world through their movements and sensations.
•Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and
listening.
•Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen. According to
Piaget, this is object permanence.
•They are separate beings from the people and objects around them.
•They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them.

The Preoperational Stage (Ages: 2 to 7 Years)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
•Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
•Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of
others.
•While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things
in very concrete terms.

The Concrete Operational Stage (Ages: 7 to 11 Years)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
•During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
•They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short,
wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example

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 •Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
•Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general
principle

The Formal Operational Stage (Ages: 12 and Up)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
•At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about
hypothetical problems.
•Abstract thought emerges.
•Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that
require theoretical and abstract reasoning.
•They begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific
information.

Sweller’s Cognitive According to Sweller, cognitive load theory posits that learning happens best under conditions
Load Theory that are aligned with human cognitive architecture. Schemas are sophisticated structures that
permit the learners to perceive, think, and solve problems that can lead them to the treatment
of multiple elements as a single element that will make up the learner’s knowledge base.

Four General Principles:

1. Change problem-solving methods to avoid means-ends approaches that impose a heavy
working memory load, by using goal-free problems or worked examples.
2. Eliminate the working memory load associated with having to mentally integrate several
sources of information by physically integrating those sources of information.
3. Eliminate the working memory load associated with unnecessarily processing repetitive
information by reducing redundancy.
4. Increase working memory capacity by using auditory as well as visual information under
conditions where both sources of information are essential (i.e., non-redundant) to
understanding.

Festinger’s Cognitive For Festinger, cognitive dissonance theory centers on how people try to reach internal
Dissonance Theory consistency by ensuring that their beliefs and behaviors are consistent. Inconsistent or
conflicting beliefs lead to disharmony, which people strive to avoid. Further, Festinger
explained that cognitive dissonance can be seen as an antecedent condition, which leads to
activity oriented toward dissonance reduction just as hunger leads toward activity oriented
toward hunger reduction.

Four General Principles:

The degree of dissonance people experience can depend on a few different factors, including
how highly they value a particular belief and the degree to which their beliefs are inconsistent.
The overall strength of the dissonance can also be influenced by several factors, such as:
1. Cognitions that are more personal, such as beliefs about the self, tend to result in greater
dissonance.
2. The importance of the cognitions also plays a role. Things that involve beliefs that are
highly valued typically result in stronger dissonance.
3. The ratio between dissonant thoughts and consonant thoughts can also play a role in how
strong the feelings of dissonance are.
4. The greater the strength of the dissonance, the more pressure there is to relieve the feelings
of discomfort.

Cognitive Flexibility Cognitive flexibility has been more broadly described as the ability to adjust one's thinking
Theory from old situations to new situations as well as the ability to overcome responses or thinking
that have become habitual and adapt to new situations. As such, if one is able to overcome
previously held beliefs or habits (when it is required for new situations) then they would be
considered cognitively flexible. Lastly, the ability to simultaneously consider two aspects of
an object, idea, or situation at one point in time refers to cognitive flexibility. Cognitive
flexibility is a switch in thinking, whether that is specifically based on a switch in rules or
broadly based on a need to switch one's previous beliefs or thoughts to new situations.
Moreover, it refers to simultaneously considering multiple aspects of thought at once, whether
they be two aspects of a specific object, or many aspects of a complex situation. Other terms
for and components of cognitive flexibility include mental flexibility, mental set shifting,
cognitive shifting, tasks switching/shifting, and attention switching/shifting.

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 Influencing Factors:
Cognitive flexibility is a component of executive functioning, higher-order cognition
involving the ability to control one's thinking that includes inhibition, memory, emotional
stability, planning, and organization. Thus, when individuals are better able to suppress
aspects of a stimulus to focus on more important aspects, they are also more cognitively
flexible. In this sense, they are better at planning, organizing, and at employing particular
memory strategies.

Metacognition Metacognition is thinking about thinking. It is an increasingly useful mechanism to enhance

student learning, both for immediate outcomes and for helping students to understand their
own learning processes. Metacognition is the ability to examine how learners processes their
thoughts and feelings. This ability encourages students to understand how they learn best. It
also helps them to develop self-awareness skills that become important as they get older.
Simply put, it refers to the processes used to plan, monitor, and assess one's understanding and
performance. Metacognition enables students to reflect on who they are, what they know,
what they want to know, and how they can get to that point. Metacognition helps students
recognize the gap between being familiar with a topic and understanding it deeply.
Metacognition includes a critical awareness of (a) one's thinking and learning and (b) oneself
as a thinker and learner. Although the term metacognition is complex, it may be summarized
as knowledge of knowledge itself. In other words, the ability to know and regulate how you
think and what the conscious control of cognitive processes such as memory, attention, and
understanding encompasses.

Generally, there are two components of metacognition: (1) knowledge about cognition and (2)
regulation of cognition. Metamemory, defined as knowing about memory and mnemonic
strategies, is an especially important form of metacognition. Metacognitive knowledge refers
to acquired knowledge about cognitive processes, knowledge that can be used to control
cognitive processes. Flavell further divides metacognitive knowledge into three categories:
knowledge of person variables, task variables and strategy variables.

PSYCHO-SOCIAL/SEXUALTHEORIES—Deriving Principles for Affective Teaching and Learning

Freud’s Psychosexual Freud believed that personality developed through a series of childhood stages in which the
Theories pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. An erogenous
zone is characterized as an area of the body that is particularly sensitive to stimulation. During
the five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital stages, the
erogenous zone associated with each stage serves as a source of pleasure. If certain issues are
not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixations can occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on an
earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in
this stage. A person who is fixated at the oral stage, for example, may be over-dependent on
others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.

The Oral Stage

Age Range: Birth to 1 Year
Erogenous Zone: Mouth
During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so
the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the
infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and
sucking. Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for
feeding the child), the child also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral
stimulation. The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become
less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual
would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with
drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biting.

Trust vs. Mistrust: Learning to Trust the World Around Us

The Anal Stage
Age Range: 1 to 3 years
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling
bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training—the child has
to learn to control their bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of
accomplishment and independence. According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent
upon the way in which parents approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards

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 for using the toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel
capable and productive. Freud believed that positive experiences during the toilet training
stage serve as the basis for people to become competent, productive, and creative adults.
However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need during this
stage. Some parents punish, ridicule, or shame a child for accidents.According to Freud,
inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes. If parents take an approach
that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which
the individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive personality. If parents are too strict or
begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in
which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive.

The Phallic Stage

Age Range: 3 to 6 Years
Erogenous Zone: Genitals
Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals.
At this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and females.
Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affections.
The Oedipus describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to
replace the father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished by the father for
these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety. The term Electra Complex has been
used to describe a similar set of feelings experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed
that girls instead experience penis envy. Eventually however, the child begins to identify with
the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls, however,
Freud believed that penis envy was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat
fixated on this stage.

The Latent Period

Age Range: 6 to Puberty
Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are suppressed.
Children develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and adults outside of the
family. The development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The stage
begins around the time that children enter into school and become more concerned with peer
relationships, hobbies, and other interests.The latent period is a time of exploration in which
the sexual energy repressed or dormant. This energy is still present, but it is sublimated into
other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important in the
development of social and communication skills and self- confidence.As with the other
psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it was possible for children to become fixated or
"stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and an inability to form
fulfilling relationships as an adult.

The Genital Stage

Age Range: Puberty to Death
Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests
The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the final stage of
psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite
sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life.
Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare of
others grows during this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the
various life areas. If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should
now be well-balanced, warm, and caring. Unlike the many of the earlier stages of
development, Freud believed that the ego and superego were fully formed and functioning at
this point. Younger children are ruled by the id, which demands immediate satisfaction of the
most basic needs and wants. Teens in the genital stage of development are able to balance
their most basic urges against the need to conform to the demands of reality and social norms.

Erik Erikson's Stages of Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential
Psychosocial theories of development. While his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud’s
Development work, Erikson's theory centered on psychosocial development rather than psychosexual
development. The stages that make up his theory are as follows:

Psychosocial Stages: A Summary Chart

Age Conflict Important Events Outcome

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 Infancy (birth to 18 Trust vs. Mistrust Feeding Hope
months)
Early Childhood (2 Autonomy vs. Toilet Training Will
to 3 years) Shame and Doubt
Preschool (3 to 5 Initiative vs. Guilt Exploration Purpose
years)
School Age (6 to 11 Industry vs. School Confidence
years) Inferiority
Adolescence (12 to Identity vs. Role Social Relationships Fidelity
18 years) Confusion
Young Intimacy vs. Relationships Love
Adulthood (19 to Isolation
40 years)
Middle Generatively vs. Work and Parenthood Care
Adulthood (40 to Stagnation
65 years)
Maturity (65 to Ego Integrity vs. Reflection on Life Wisdom
death) Despair

Erikson believed that personality developed in a series of stages. Unlike Freud's theory of
psychosexual stages; however, Erikson's theory described the impact of social experience
across the whole lifespan. Erikson was interested in how social interaction and relationships
played a role in the development and growth of human beings. Each stage in Erikson's theory
builds on the preceding stages and paves the way for following periods of development. In
each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in
development. In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a
psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for
personal growth is high but is likewise the potential for failure. If people successfully deal
with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with psychological strengths that will serve them
well for the rest of their lives. If they fail to deal effectively with these conflicts, they may not
develop the essential skills needed for a strong sense of self. Erikson also believed that a sense
of competence motivates behaviors and actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned
with becoming competent in an area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a
sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is
managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy in that aspect of
development.

Kohlberg’s Moral The psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg modified and expanded upon Jean Piaget’s previous
Development Theories work to form a theory that explained how children develop moral reasoning. He outlines six
stages of moral development within three different levels.

The Heinz Dilemma

Kohlberg based his theory on a series of moral dilemmas presented to his study subjects.
Participants were also interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their judgments of each
scenario. One example was "Heinz Steals the Drug." In this scenario, a woman has cancer and
her doctors believe only one drug might save her. This drug had been discovered by a local
pharmacist and he was able to make it for $200 per dose and sell it for $2,000 per dose. The
woman's husband, Heinz, could only raise $1,000 to buy the drug. He tried to negotiate with
the pharmacist for a lower price or to be extended credit to pay for it over time. But the
pharmacist refused to sell it for any less or to accept partial payments. Rebuffed, Heinz
instead broke into the pharmacy and stole the drug to save his wife. Kohlberg asked, "Should
the husband have done that?" Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to whether
Heinz was wrong or right but in the reasoning for each participant's decision. He then
classified their reasoning into the stages of his theory of moral development.

Level 1. Preconventional Morality

The earliest stages of moral development, obedience and punishment, are especially common
in young children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this
stage, Kohlberg says, people see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important
because it is a means to avoid punishment. At the individualism and exchange stage of moral
development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how
they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best course of
action was the choice that best served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in
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 moral development, but only if it serves one's own interests.

Level 2. Conventional Morality

Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, the stage of the interpersonal
relationship of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles.
There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence
relationships. This stage is focused on maintaining social order. At this stage of moral
development, people begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus
is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting
authority.

Level 3. Postconventional Morality

The ideas of a social contract and individual rights cause people in the next stage to begin to
account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people.6 Rules of law are
important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these
standards. Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based on universal ethical principles
and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice,
even if they conflict with laws and rules.

BEHAVIORIST THEORIES—Deriving Principles for Psychomotor Teaching and Learning

Behaviorism In the 20th century, the clearest heir to associationism is behaviorism, whose principles of
conditioning are based on the association of responses to stimuli (and on one's association of
those stimuli with positive or negative reinforcement). Therefore, behaviorism, also known as
behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are
acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment.
Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shape our behaviors.
Behaviorism is clearly explained by the Stimulus-Response Theory, which is a concept in
psychology that refers to the belief that behavior manifests as a result of the interplay between
stimulus and response. In other words; behavior cannot exist without a stimulus of some sort,
at least from this perspective. The Three Most Popular Behaviorist Theories of Learning are:
Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning, Skinner’s Operant Conditioning, and Bandura’s Social
Learning Theory.

Pavlov’s Classical Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) is learning
Conditioning Theory through association and was discovered by Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. In simple terms,
two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal.
According to this theory, behavior is learned by a repetitive association between the response
and the stimulus. Here, an organism learns to transfer response from one stimulus to a
previously neutral stimulus. Classical conditioning is a type of learning that happens
unconsciously. When you learn through classical conditioning, an automatic conditioned
response is paired with a specific stimulus resulting into the creation of a behavior. There are
5 key elements of Classical Conditioning:

(1) Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically
triggers a response. In other words, the response takes place without any prior learning.
(2) Unconditioned Response (UCR) is the unlearned response to a stimulus. In other words,
it is any original response that occurs naturally and in the absence of conditioning (e.g.,
salivation in response to the presentation of food).
(3) Neutral Stimulus (NS) is a learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (e.g., a tone)
becomes associated with a stimulus (e.g., food) that naturally produces a behavior. After the
association is learned, the previously neutral stimulus is sufficient to produce the behavior.
(4) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) is a previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming
associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned
response. A conditioned stimulus is a learned substitute stimulus that triggers the same
response as an unconditioned stimulus. In other words, a conditioned stimulus is a neutral
stimulus that, over time and training, garners a response by repeatedly being linked with
another naturally occurring stimulus
(5) Conditioned Response (CR) is the learned response (reflexive behavior) to a conditioned
stimulus (CS). For example, a dog salivates (UR) from the smell of a bone (US) naturally,
without any conditioning.

In short, an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) always elicits an unconditioned response (UCR).

When the conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired over and over again with an unconditioned

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 stimulus (UCS), it eventually elicits a response, equivalent to an unconditioned response
(UCR) that is now a conditioned response (CR). For example, the smell of food is an
unconditioned stimulus, a feeling of hunger in response to the smell is an unconditioned
response, and the sound of a whistle when you smell the food is the conditioned stimulus. The
conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound of the whistle.

Skinner’s Operant Operant Conditioning, also known as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning
Conditioning Theory normally attributed to B.F. Skinner who believed that humans and animals learn to behave in
such a way as to obtain rewards and avoid punishments. The basic concept behind operant
conditioning is that a stimulus (antecedent) leads to a behavior, which then leads to a
consequence. This form of conditioning involves reinforcers, both positive and negative, as
well as primary, secondary, and generalized reinforcers.

Positive reinforcement is a process that strengthens the likelihood of a particular response by

adding a stimulus after the behavior is performed while Negative reinforcement also
strengthens the likelihood of a particular response, but by removing an undesirable
consequence. In other words, Positive reinforcement is a reward for doing something well
while Negative reinforcement occurs when an aversive stimulus (a 'bad consequence') is
removed after a good behavior is exhibited.

On the other hand, Positive punishment involves presenting an unfavorable outcome or event
following an undesirable behavior, especially when the subject performs an unwanted action,
then some type of negative outcome is purposefully applied while Negative punishment has
the goal of punishment which is to decrease unwanted behavior. In the case of negative
punishment, it involves taking something good or desirable away to reduce the occurrence of
a particular behavior. Therefore, Positive punishment involves adding an aversive
consequence after an undesired behavior is emitted to decrease future responses while
Negative punishment includes taking away a certain reinforcing item after the undesired
behavior happens in order to decrease future responses. In positive punishment, you add an
undesirable stimulus to decrease a behavior. In negative punishment, you remove a pleasant
stimulus to decrease a behavior. For example, when a child misbehaves, a parent can take
away a favorite toy. In this case, a stimulus (the toy) is removed in order to decrease the
behavior.

The Principles of Operant Conditioning are: (1) Reinforcement that makes use of a
phenomenon in which a stimulus increases the chance of repetition of previous behavior is
called reinforcement, (2) Punishment, and finally (3) Shaping.

Bandura’s Social Social learning theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes the importance of observing,
Learning Theory modelling, and imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Social
learning theory considers how both environmental and cognitive factors interact to influence
human learning and behavior. Social learning theory proposes that individuals learn by
observing the behaviors of others (models). They then evaluate the effect of those behaviors
by observing the positive and negative consequences that follow. Social learning theory
consists of four steps: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. According to
Bandura's social learning theory, learning occurs through observations and interactions with
other people. Essentially, people learn by watching others and then imitating these actions.
Aggression lies at the root of many social ills ranging from interpersonal violence to war.

Social learning theory examples in everyday life are common, with one of the most evident
being the behaviors of children, as they imitate family members, friends, famous figures and
even television characters. If a child perceives there is a meaningful reward for such behavior,
they will perform it at some point. Social learning theory can be used to encourage and teach
desirable behaviors in the classroom through the use of positive reinforcement and rewards.
For example, a student who is praised for raising their hand to speak will more than likely
repeat that behavior.

Essential Lesson 4: SOCIETAL PERSPECTIVES OF EDUCATION

The Philippine society expects all prospective teachers to possess upon graduation the Philippine Professional Standards
for Teachers (PPST).

The Philippine Teachers play a crucial role in nation building. Through quality teachers, the Philippines can

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Professional Standards develop holistic learners who are steeped in values, equipped with 21st century skills, and able
for Teachers (PPST) to propel the country to development and progress. This is in consonance with the Department
of Education vision of producing: “Filipinos who passionately love their country and whose
values and competencies enable them to realize their full potential and contribute
meaningfully to building the nation” (DepED Order No. 36, s. 2013).

Evidences show unequivocally that good teachers are vital to raising student achievement, i.e.,
quality learning is contingent upon quality teaching. Hence, enhancing teacher quality
becomes of utmost importance for long-term and sustainable nation building.

The changes brought about by various national and global frameworks such as the K to 12
Reform and the ASEAN integration, globalization, and the changing character of the 21st
century learners necessitate improvement and adaptability of education, and a call for the
rethinking of the current teacher standards.

Professional standards for teachers

The Philippine Government has consistently pursued teacher quality reforms through a
number of initiatives. As a framework of teacher quality, the National Competency-Based
Teacher Standards (NCBTS) was institutionalized through CHED Memorandum Order No.
52, s. 2007 and DepED Order No. 32, s. 2009. It emerged as part of the implementation of the
Basic Education Sector Reform Agenda (BESRA), and was facilitated by drawing on the
learning considerations of programs, such as the Basic Education Assistance for Mindanao
(BEAM), the Strengthening Implementation of Visayas Education (STRIVE) project and the
Third Elementary Education Project (TEEP).

The K to 12 Reform (R.A. 10533) in 2013 has changed the landscape of teacher quality
requirements in the Philippines. The reform process warrants an equivalent supportive focus
on teacher quality – high quality teachers who are properly equipped and prepared to assume
the roles and functions of a K-12 teacher.

Thus, the Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers (PPST) shall be used as a basis for
all learning and development programs for teachers to ensure that teachers are properly
equipped to effectively implement the K-12 Program. The PPST stipulates the Professional
standards which are statements of a teacher's professional attributes, professional knowledge
and understanding, and professional skills. They provide clarity of the expectations at each
career stage. It can also be used for the selection and promotion of teachers. This set of
standards makes explicit what teachers should know, be able to do and value to achieve
competence, improved student learning outcomes, and eventually quality education. It is
founded on teaching philosophies of learner-centeredness, lifelong learning, and
inclusivity/inclusiveness, among others. The importance of PPST is to ensure better
accountability--holding teachers and schools responsible for what goes on in the classrooms,
and to apply a uniform measure to assess teacher performance, identify needs, and provide
support for professional development.

The PPST has seven Domains, namely: Content Knowledge and Pedagogy, Learning
Environment, Diversity of Learners, Curriculum and Planning, Assessment and Reporting,
Community Linkages and Professional Engagement, Personal Growth, and Professional
Development. The PPST Career Stage 1 sets the minimum expectations for pre-service
teachers. With this in place, a strong link between DepEd (schools) and CHED (TEIs) can be
implemented by placing both institutions on the same 'quality' teacher continuum.

The 1987 Code of Ethics The Philippine society expects every professional teacher to observe the 1987 Code of Ethics
for Professional for Professional Teachers which outlines teachers' primary responsibilities to their students
Teachers and defines their role in a student's life. The professional teacher must demonstrate
impartiality, integrity, and ethical behavior in the classroom, whether virtual or in-person and
in their conduct with parents and coworkers. Every teacher shall uphold the highest possible
standards of quality education, shall make the best preparations for the career of teaching, and
shall be at his best at all times and in the practice of his profession. Likewise, it is designed to
protect the rights of all students. Therefore, it is important that teachers understand the
contents of the code as they embark into the teaching profession. The professional teacher is
governed by these important articles: (1) The teacher and the State, (2) The Teacher and the
Community, (3) A Teacher and the Profession, (4) The Teachers and the Profession, (5) The
Teacher and Higher Authorities in the Profession, (6) School Officials, Teachers, and other

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 Personnel, (7) The Teachers and the Learners, (8) The Teachers and the Parents, (9) The
Teacher and Business, and (10) The Teacher as a Person.

The Philippine The PQF is a national policy that describes the levels of educational qualifications and sets the
Qualifications standards for qualification outcomes. It is a quality assured national system for the
Framework (PQF) development, recognition and award of qualifications based on standards of knowledge, skills
and values acquired in different ways and methods by learners and workers in the country. It is
competency-based, labor-market driven, and assessment-based qualification recognition. Its
objectives are to: (1) establish national standards and levels for outcomes of education and
training, (2) support the development and maintenance of pathways and equivalencies which
provide access to qualifications and assist people to move easily and readily between different
sectors and the labor market, and (3) align the PQF with international qualifications
framework to support the national and international mobility of workers thru increased
recognition of the value and comparability of Philippine qualifications.

The ASEAN The AQRF is a hierarchy of levels of complexity of learning, which use learning
Qualifications Reference outcomes as the metric for the hierarchy. To use other measures such as duration of
Framework (AQRF) programs is not a feasible option. Thus, the descriptors in the AQRF aim to use learning
outcomes to facilitate comparisons of and links between qualifications and
qualifications systems.

It follows that to facilitate the linking of NQF levels against the levels in the AQRF,
NQFs or qualifications systems should have qualifications ‘demonstrably based on
learning outcomes’. For NQFs that are not based on learning outcomes, the
referencing process and report should demonstrate progress towards a learning
outcomes-based approach.

Level descriptors
The level descriptors of the AQRF aim to provide a reference point for the levels in
NQFs and national qualifications systems. To facilitate the referencing process, the
AQRF is based on broad level descriptors which include eight levels of complexity of
learning outcomes. The level descriptors include the notion of competence, which is the
ability that extends beyond the possession of knowledge and skills. It includes:

 Cognitive competence involving the use of theoryand concepts, as well as informal

tacit knowledge gained experientially
 Functional competence (skills or know-how), those things that a person should
be able to do when they work in a given area
 Personal competence involving knowing how to conduct oneself in a specific situation
 Ethical competence involving the possession of certain personal and
professional values (Coles and Werquin 2006)

The level descriptors do not make explicit reference to personal competence or

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 ethical competence. However, personal competence and ethical competence are
valued by ASEAN Member States as they contribute to the capacity of people to know
things, act skillfully, work effectively in different settings, and to show responsibility
and accountability. Personal competence and ethical competence include attributes
such as attentiveness, intercultural awareness, active tolerance and acceptance of
diversity. These attributes could be included in individual NQFs.
The level descriptors include two domains:

1. Knowledge and Skills

2. Application and Responsibility

The Knowledge and Skills domain includes the various kinds of knowledge such as
facts and theories as well as the skills used, such as practical and cognitive skills.
The Application and Responsibility domain defines the context in which the
knowledge and skills are used in practice as well as the level of independence including
the capacity to make decisions and the responsibility for oneself and others.

The level descriptors assume that the learning outcomes are cumulative by level. In other
words, one level assumes that the knowledge, skills and conditions at one level include
those at the lower levels. In addition, the domains must be read together to give a true
indication of level.

Some Significant Legal R.A. 7836 (The Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994) is an act that
Issuances on Education mandates the conduct of the Licensure Examination for Teachers of LET. Enacted
in recognition for the "role of teachers in nation-building and development through a
responsible and literate citizenry."

RA 7784 is OTHERWISE KNOWN AS “AN ACT STRENGTHENING

TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES BY ESTABLISHING
CENTERS OF EXCELLENCE, CREATING A. TEACHER EDUCATION
COUNCIL FOR THE PURPOSE, APPROPRIATING FUNDS.

PD 1006 declares a policy that teacher education shall be given primary concern and
attention by the government and shall be of the highest quality, and strongly
oriented to Philippine conditions and to the needs and aspirations of the Filipino
people even as it seeks enrichment from adoptable ideas and practices ...

RA 6713 is also otherwise known as the. “Code of Conduct and Ethical Standards
for Public Officials and Employees”.

Republic Act No. 10627 or the "Anti-Bullying Act of 2013" is a relatively new law
which seeks to address hostile environment at school that disrupts the education
process which, in turn, is not conducive to the total development of a child at
school.

RA No 9155 is AN ACT INSTITUTING A FRAMEWORK OF GOVERNANCE

FOR BASIC EDUCATION, ESTABLISHING AUTHORITY AND
ACCOUNTABILITY, RENAMING THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION,
CULTURE AND SPORTS AS THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, AND
FOR OTHER PURPOSES.

Republic Act No. 11313 or The Safe Spaces Act (Bawal Bastos Law) covers all
forms of gender-based sexual harassment (GBSH) committed in public spaces,
educational or training institutions, workplace and online space.

Republic Act (R.A.) 7836 is the The Philippine Teachers Professionalization Act of
1994 mandating the conduct of the Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET). It
was enacted in recognition of the ''role of teachers in nation-building and
development through a responsible and literate citizenry.

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