Physical Quantities and Units of Measurement

• Quantities and Units

• A quantity is a definite/indefinite amount or size of something.

• Examples Thing Amount Type

Desire Strong Indefinite
Mass of box Heavy Indefinite
Mass of box 5 kg Definite
Love Deep Indefinite
Height of a person Tall Indefinite
Height of a person 2m Definite
 Physical vs Nonphysical Quantities

• Non-physical quantities (qualitative)

• Examples: love, hate, fear
• Can be quantified (e.g. exam anxiety measured in psychology)
• Not quantities of interest in physics)

• Physical quantities
• can be measured by defining units of measurement or using a measuring
instrument
• Physical quantity = (numerical value) unit
• Example:speed of sound = 331 m/s, mass of box = 5 kg
 Measurement
• A unit of measurement
• A standard unit by means of which the amount of a physical quantity is expressed
• e.g.: “m/s” is a unit of speed, “kg” is a unit of mass

• Measurement
• A process of finding the size or amount of a physical quantity using the standard
unit for that quantity
 Fundamental and Derived Units

• The seven fundamental quantities and their SI units

Basic physical quantity Symbol for quantity Basic unit Symbol for unit
Length 𝑙 metre 𝑚
Mass 𝑚 kilogram 𝑘𝑔
Time 𝑡 second 𝑠
Electric current 𝐼 ampere 𝐴
Temperature 𝑇 kelvin 𝐾
Amount of substance 𝑛 mole 𝑚𝑜𝑙
Luminous intensity 𝐼𝜈 candela 𝑐𝑑
 Fundamental and Derived Units
• All the rest are derived quantities
Derived quantity Unit Symbol
Area square meter 𝑚2 𝑚2
Volume cubic meter 𝑚3 𝑚3
Frequency hertz 𝐻𝑧 𝑠 −1
Density kilogram per cubic metre 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
Force newton 𝑁 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −2
Work, energy joule 𝐽 (𝑁𝑚) 𝑘𝑔𝑚2 𝑠 −2
Power watt 𝑊 (𝐽/𝑠) 𝑘𝑔𝑚2 𝑠 −3
Velocity (speed) metre per second 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑚𝑠 −1

• The derived units are expressed in some powers of the base units.
• These powers are called dimensions
 Dimension and Dimensional Analysis
• The dimension of a physical quantity x is the powers to which the
fundamental quantities are raised
dimensions

𝑥 = 𝑙 𝑎 𝑚 𝑏 𝑡 𝑐 = 𝐿𝑎 𝑀𝑏 𝑇 𝑐
• []≡ dimension of
• [length]=L, [mass]=M, [time]=T (in mechanics)

• Example:
• [𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒] = [𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠][𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛] = [𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠][𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ]/ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 2 = 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2
• [𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒] = 𝐿3
 Dimensional Analysis
• Dimensional analysis is useful in checking or deriving formulas
• Because every formula or equation must be dimensionally consistent

• Examples
• Is the formula 𝑠 = 0.5𝑎𝑡 2 dimensionally correct?

[𝑠] = 𝐿 and [𝑎𝑡 2 ] = 𝑎 𝑡 2 = 𝐿𝑇 −2 𝑇 2 = 𝐿

The formula is dimensionally consistent

 Dimensional Analysis
• Determine whether the equation 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑡 2 is dimensionally correct.
• [𝑥] = 𝐿 and [𝑣𝑡 2 ] = 𝑣 𝑡 2
= 𝐿𝑇 −1 𝑇 2 = 𝐿𝑇 wrong equation!

• To eliminate the time on the RHS we must divide by T (two ways)

𝐿𝑇 −1 𝑇 2 𝐿 2 𝐿
• = 𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝑇
𝑇 𝑇2 𝑇

• These lead to two possible equations of motion

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 2
• 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡 2 except a dimensionless factor
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 2

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
• 𝑥 = [𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒] ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑡
[𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒]
 SI Prefixes and scientific notation
Prefix Symbol Base Unit Multiplier In Words Exponential
yotta Y 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 septillion 1024
21
𝑺𝑰 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔
zetta Z 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 sextillion 10
exa E 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 quintillion 1018
peta P 1,000,000,000,000,000 quadrillion 1015
tera T 1,000,000,000,000 trillion 1012
giga G 1,000,000,000 billion 109 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 9.1 × 10−31 kg
mega M 1,000,000 million 106 = 0.00000000000000000000000000000091 kg
kilo k 1,000 thousand 103
hecto h 100 hundred 102
= 0.000 91 yg (yoctograms)
deca da 10 ten 101
(base unit) 1 one 100
deci d 0.1 tenth 10−1
centi c 0.01 hundredth 10−2
𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒
milli m 0.001 thousandth 10−3
micro μ 0.000001 millionth 10−6 = 8.8 × 1026 m
nano n 0.000000001 billionth 10−9 = 880000000000000000000000000 𝑚
pico p 0.000000000001 trillionth 10−12 =880 Ym (yotameter)
femto f 0.000000000000001 quadrillionth 10−15
atto a 0.000000000000000001 quintillionth 10−18
zepto z 0.000000000000000000001 sextillionth 10−21
yocto y 0.000000000000000000000001 septillionth 10−24
 Uncertainty and Significant Figures
• Error
• 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 unknown

•
 Uncertainty and Significant Figures
• Uncertainty
• is a quantification of the doubt about the measurement result
• gives the range of values within which the true value is believed to lie
• is determined by statistical analysis of many values of measurement.

𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = (𝒃𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆 ± 𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒚) 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

TRUE value lies here Of TRUE value (usually the MEAN)

Example:

𝑚 = 90 ± 1 𝑔 ⇒ 89 𝑔 < 𝑚 < 91𝑔

ℎ = 20.1 ± 0.1 𝑐𝑚 ⇒ 20.0 𝑐𝑚 < ℎ < 20.2 𝑐𝑚

 Sources and Types of Error
• Sources
• the measuring device
• the measurement procedure
• the measured quantity itself

• Types
• Systematic errors
• bias every measurement in the same direction (higher or
lower).
• Example: An ammeter with zero error
• can be estimated from understanding the instrumentation
used
 Sources and Types of Error
• Systematic errors
• Random errors
• uncontrollable differences between measurements
• unbiased small variations that have both positive and negative values
• Averaging over multiple measurements reduces random errors.
 Accuracy vs. Precision
• Accuracy
• the closeness of a measured value to the ‘true’ (standard or known) value
• describes how well we eliminate systematic error
• Example
• Measured mass = 3.2 kg, known mass = 10 kg ➔ inaccurate measurement

• Precision
• the closeness of repeated measurements to each other
• describes how well we suppress random errors
• Example:
• Mass of measurement gives 3.2 kg each time ➔ measurement is very precise
 Accuracy vs. Precision

High Accuracy Average accuracy

High Precision Poor Precision

Poor accuracy Inaccurate Which digital voltmeter reading is

High Precision Imprecise most accurate? Most precise?
 Absolute, Relative and Percentage Error
• Absolute error
• 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 – 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
• Relative error
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
• 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 =
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

• Percentage error
• 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 × 100%

• Example Solution
• 𝑔 = 9.80665 𝑚/𝑠 2 (accepted value of gravity) 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
• 𝑔 = 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2 (measured value ) = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 – 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
= 9.81 – 9.80665 𝑚/𝑠 2
• What is the absolute error? = 0.00335 𝑚/𝑠 2
 Quantifying Uncertainties
• The mean • Data
𝑵
𝟏 • N=40 values of g measured by
ഥ = ෍ 𝒙𝒊
𝝁≅𝒙
𝑵 science students
𝒊=𝟏
Values of g measured in cm/s2
• The standard deviation
961 972 979 983 986
σ𝑵
𝒊=𝟏 ഥ
𝒙𝒊 − 𝒙 𝟐
965 976 979 985 987
𝒔𝒙 =
𝑵−𝟏 966 975 981 984 987
968 978 979 984 992
• The standard error (uncertainty) 970 977 981 983 991
974 975 984 990 993
𝒔𝒙 971 980 984 988 994
𝒔𝒙ഥ =
𝑵 974 981 985 989 996

ഥ ± 𝒔𝒙ഥ
Reporting Data: 𝒙 = 𝒙
• Mean of g
σ𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑔𝑖 39227
𝑔ҧ = = = 981 cm/s2
𝑁 40
• Standard deviation
• Find deviations from the mean
Deviations of values from mean in cm/s2
Values of g measured in cm/s2
-20 -9 -2 2 5
961 972 979 983 986 -16 -5 -2 4 6
965 976 979 985 987 -15 -6 0 3 6
966
968
975
978
981
979
984
984
987
992 → -13
-11
-3
-4
-2
0
3
2
11
10
970 977 981 983 991
974 975 984 990 993 -7 -6 3 9 12
971 980 984 988 994 -10 -1 3 7 13
974 981 985 989 996 -7 0 4 8 15
• Standard deviation
• Next square all the deviations and add them
𝑵=𝟒𝟎

ഥ
෍ 𝒈𝒊 − 𝒈 𝟐 = 𝟐𝟕𝟏𝟏
𝒊=𝟏

• Divide this sum by 𝑁 − 1 = 40 − 1 = 39 and take the square root

σ𝑵 ഥ
𝒊=𝟏 𝒈𝒊 − 𝒈
𝟐 𝟐𝟕𝟏𝟏
𝒔𝒈 = = = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟑 c𝒎/𝒔𝟐
𝑵−𝟏 𝟑𝟗

Which is the standard deviation (of a single measurement)

• The standard error (uncertainty) in the
measurement of g

𝒔𝒈 𝟖. 𝟑𝟑
𝒔𝒈ഥ = = = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟐 cm/s2
𝑵 𝟒𝟎

• Reporting the result

• The students should report the value of g as

ഥ ± 𝒔𝒈ഥ = (𝟗𝟖𝟏 ± 𝟏) 𝒄𝒎/𝒔𝟐

𝒈=𝒈
 Error Propagation
• Errors propagate through calculations that depend on other uncertain
quantities
• The rules for uncertainty propagation (based on standard error)
• Assumption: errors from different quantities are uncorrelated (completely
random)

1. Multiplication by a constant: If 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑥, then 𝛿𝑧 = 𝑐𝛿𝑥

2. Addition or subtraction of a constant: If 𝑧 = 𝑐 + 𝑥, then 𝛿𝑧 = 𝛿𝑥
3. Addition or subtraction: If 𝑧 = 𝑥 ± 𝑦, then 𝛿𝑧 = 𝛿𝑥 2 + 𝛿𝑦 2
𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑥 2 𝛿𝑦 2
4. Multiplication or division: If 𝑧 = 𝑥𝑦 or 𝑧 = 𝑥/𝑦, then = +
𝑧 𝑥 𝑦
𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑥
5. Power: If 𝑧 = 𝑥𝑐, then = 𝑐
𝑧 𝑥
 Error Propagation: Examples
• Thickness of a pack of cards is • Solution
measured to be: • Step 1: obtain estimated thickness of
the pack of removed cards
• 𝑙1 = (32.3 ± 0.5) mm
Uncertainty 𝑙 = 𝑙1 − 𝑙2 = 32.3 − 20.4 = 11.9 𝑚𝑚
Estimate
• Step 2: find the uncertainty in taking
• Some cards are removed and the the difference (rule 3)
thickness is measured again 𝛿𝑙 = 𝛿𝑙1 2 + 𝛿𝑙2 2
• 𝑙2 = (20.4 ± 0.5) mm
𝛿𝑙 = 0.5 2 + 0.5 2 = 0.7 mm

• What is the thickness of the pack of • Write the final result

removed cards?
𝑙 = 11.9 ± 0.7 mm
 Error Propagation: Examples
• The width and length of a piece of paper are measured to be:
𝑊 = (5.63 ± 0.15)𝑚𝑚 and 𝑙 = (64.2 ± 0.7)𝑚𝑚
• What is the area of this piece of paper?
• Solution
• Step 1: Obtain estimated area paper: 𝐴 = 𝑙 × 𝑤 = 64.2 × 5.63 = 361.446

• Step 2: Find the uncertainty in calculating the product (rule 4)

2 2 2 2
𝛿𝐴 𝛿𝑙 𝛿𝑤 0.7 0.15
= + = + = 0.0288
𝐴 𝑙 𝑤 64.2 5.63

𝛿𝐴 = 361.446 × 0.0288 = 10.4

• Write the final result: 𝐴 = (361.4 ± 10.4) 𝑚𝑚2

 Significant Figures
• In a measurement, a significant figure is any digit 1 to 9 and any zero
which is not a place holder.
• The rules for significant figures
1. All non-zero figures are significant: 25.4 has three significant figures.
2. All zeros between non-zeros are significant: 30.08 has four significant figures.
3. Zeros to the right of the decimal point and following a non-zero figure are
significant: 304.50 have five significant figures.
4. Zeros to the right of a non-zero figure but to the left of the decimal point are
not significant (unless specified with a bar): 109 000 has three significant
figures.
Trailing zeros are not significant if they are placeholders. Use Sci. Not. To show sig. figs.]
5. Zeros to the right of a decimal point but to the left of a non-zero figure are not
significant: 0.050, only the last zero is significant.
Leading zeros are not significant.
 Significant Figures
• Take sig. figs. into account when carrying out calculations
• Find the difference 264.68 – 2.4711
• Solution: 264.68? ? −2.4711 = 262.21? ? = 262.21 (5 sig. figs)

• Evaluate the product 2.345 × 3.56 = 8.3482 = 8.35

• The final answer has 3 sig. figs because the least number of sig. figs. in the
operation is 3.
 Order of magnitude
• The order of magnitude of a number
• is the value of the number rounded to the nearest power of ten
• indicates how large or small a number is
• Is expressed only in powers of ten
• indicates that the accuracy of the measurement is limited

• Examples
1. The velocity of light is 3.0 × 108 m/s. The order of magnitude of this velocity is 108 .
2. The order of magnitude of 142 particles is 102 . Since 142 in scientific notation is 1.42 × 102 .
3. The order of magnitude for 10kV would be given as 104
4. The average distance between two atoms is 1.6 × 10−10 m. The order of magnitude is 10−10
• Categorize each quantity as being either a vector or a scalar.

Quantity Category Quantity Category

5m 5 kg, down
30 m/sec, East 5 N, down
5 km, North 9.8 m/s2, up
20 degrees Celsius 10 μC
256 bytes 45° South of East
4000 Calories 45° clockwise

• A physical quantity is a genuine vector if it adds to another vector

according to the law of parallelogram.
• Obeys commutativity law
 Geometrical
Vector notation
Representation
• Bold face: 𝑨

• Arrow above: 𝑣Ԧ

• Harpoon above: 𝐹റ

• Overbar: 𝑃𝑄
 Equality of Two Vectors

• Two vectors are equal if they have

the same magnitude and direction
as illustrated by the figure
 Adding and Subtracting Vectors geometrically
• head-to-tail (triangle) method

A A
-B
B

B
A Note:
𝑨+𝑩≠𝐴+𝐵
 Components of a vector
• Use the rectangular coordinate system

• 𝑨𝒙 and 𝑨𝒚 can be taken as

vector components
𝑨 = 𝑨𝒙 + 𝑨𝒚
A • 𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜,
𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃
)𝜃 𝐴= 𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃

−1
𝐴𝑦
𝜃 = tan
𝐴𝑥
 Components of a vector: Example
• Magnitude and direction of vector B
• Find the magnitude and direction of
each vector.
𝐵= 𝐵𝑥2 + 𝐵𝑦2 = (−6)2 +82 = 10 units

Vector x-component y-component 𝜃 = tan−1

𝐵𝑦
= tan−1
8
= −53.13° [incorrect]
𝐵𝑥 −6
A 3 units 4 units 𝜃 = −53.13 + 180 = 126.87° [correct]
B -6 units 8 units
• Magnitude and direction of vector C
C -9 units -12 units
D 12 units -16 units 𝐶= 𝐶𝑥2 + 𝐶𝑦2 = (−9)2 +(−12)2 = 15 units

𝐶𝑦 −12
𝜃 = tan−1 𝐶 = tan−1 −9 = 53.13° [incorrect]
𝑥
• Solution 𝜃 = 53.13 + 180 = 233.13° [correct]
• Magnitude and direction of vector A
• Magnitude and direction of vector D
𝐴= 𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 = 32 + 42 = 5 units
𝐴𝑦 4 𝐷= 𝐷𝑥2 + 𝐷𝑦2 = 122 + (−16)2 = 20 units
𝜃= tan−1 = tan−1 = 53.13° [correct]
𝐴𝑥 3
𝐷𝑦 −16
𝜃 = tan−1 𝐷𝑥
= tan−1 12
= −53.13° [correct]
 Unit Vectors
• Definition 1: A unit vector is a vector of magnitude one.
• So, if 𝑢ො denotes a unit vector, then 𝑢ො = 1.

𝐴Ԧ
• Definition 2: A unit vector in the direction of any vector 𝐴Ԧ is given
by
𝐴Ԧ
𝑢ො𝐴 = , where 𝐴 = 𝐴Ԧ 𝑢ො𝐴
𝐴

• Definition 2 is consistent with Definition 1 because

𝐴Ԧ 𝐴
𝑢ො𝐴 = = =1
𝐴 𝐴
 Unit Vectors
• The unit vectors in the rectangular 𝑥𝑦 coordinate system are:

𝑖Ƹ = unit vector in the direction of +𝑥

𝑗Ƹ = unit vector in the direction of +𝑦

𝑘෠ = unit vector in the direction of +𝑧

• Unit vectors provide a convenient notation in vector algebra:

So, if 𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗Ƹ and 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗,Ƹ then

𝑅 = 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + 𝐵𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗Ƹ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗Ƹ
 Unit Vectors: Examples
1. Given the vector 𝑟Ԧ = 12𝑖Ƹ − 9𝑗,Ƹ find the unit vector 𝑟.Ƹ
Solution

𝑟Ԧ 12𝑖Ƹ − 9𝑗Ƹ 12𝑖Ƹ − 9𝑗Ƹ 4 3

𝑟Ƹ = = = = 𝑖Ƹ − 𝑗Ƹ = 0.8𝑖Ƹ − 0.6𝑗Ƹ
𝑟 122 + −9 2 15 5 5

2. Given the vectors 𝐴Ԧ = 2𝑖Ƹ + 5𝑗Ƹ and 𝐵 = −𝑖Ƹ + 15𝑗,Ƹ find 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵 and 𝐴Ԧ − 𝐵
Solution

𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵 = 2𝑖Ƹ + 5𝑗Ƹ + −𝑖Ƹ + 15𝑗Ƹ = 2 − 1 𝑖Ƹ + 5 + 15 𝑗Ƹ = 𝑖Ƹ + 20𝑗Ƹ

𝐴Ԧ − 𝐵 = 2𝑖Ƹ + 5𝑗Ƹ − −𝑖Ƹ + 15𝑗Ƹ = 2 + 1 𝑖Ƹ + 5 − 15 𝑗Ƹ = 3𝑖Ƹ − 10𝑗Ƹ
 End of
Chapter
One