2nd year, 1st Sem || MINORS

STS: Science, Technology, and Society

Prelim

➔ Intellectual revolutions that defined society

◆ Scientific revolution
● Science
○ Science as an idea
◆ Includes ideas, theories, all available systematic
explanation and observations about the natural and
physical world
○ Science as an intellectual activity
◆ Encompases a systematic and practical study of the
natural and physical world
◆ systematic observation and experimentations
○ Science as a body of knowledge
◆ School of science– Process of learning the natural and
physical world
○ Science as a personal and social activity
◆ Science is both knowledge and activities done by
humansato develop better understaning of the world
around them
◆ Means to impoirve and survive life
◆ Science and technology makes life easier
● Importance of Scientific revolution
○ Period of enlightenment when the developments in the fields of
mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry
transformed the views of society about nature
○ Ideas generated enabled the people to reflect, rethink, and
reexamine their beliefs and their way of life
○ Led to the creation of new research fields in science and
promoted the establishment of a strong foundation for modern
science
○ Transformed the natural world and the world of ideas
● Notable people
○ Nicolaus Copernicus
◆ A renaissance polymath and astronomer
◆ Strongly influenced by a book “Epitome” published in 1464
by a German author– Johannes Mueller
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● Consists of Mueller’s observations of the heavens

and commentary works of the earlier works of
Ptolemaic– geocentric theory
○ Earth was the center of the universe
○ Resulted to Copernicus idea and model of
the universe
◆ Completed his idea and model of the universe in 1510
◆ Published his book entitled De Revolutionibus Orbium
Coeslestioum (on the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres)
in 1543
● Model of the universe where everything moves in a
around a single center at varying rate— sun
◆ Heliocentrism
● Also known as “heliocentric model”
● A concept which suggested that the center of the
solar system was not the earth but actually the sun
◆ Copernican Revolution: Geocentric vs Heliocentric Theory
● Caused the paradigm shift of the earth and sun
were placed on the heavens or universe
● Idea that rejected the Ptolemaic model – earth is
the center of the solar system)
● Proved the heliocentric model – sun is the center of
the solar system having the earth revolving around
it
● Judge to be heretic— unacceptable to be taught ito
catholics
○ Catholic church banned the Copernimodel
○ Rome ignored model within the 16th century
○ Charles Darwin
◆ English naturalist, biologist, geologist
◆ Famous for his “Theory of Evolution”
◆ Changed our concept of the world’s creation and its
evolution
◆ Theory of Evolution: Natural Selection
● Individuals in a species has differences in their
genes which result to variation to characteristics
● Often described as survival of the fittest, where
fitness refers to the ability to survive and
reproduce
● Example: Finches of Galapanos Islands
○ Each kind of Finches developed different
shape in their beaks
○ Take advantage on taking food on different
areas in the island
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◆ The Origin of Species

● Published in 1589
● One of the most important works in scientific
literature
● Species evolved over time
● Presented traits and adaptation that differentiate
species
◆ The Descent of Man
● Introduced the idea of all organic life, including
human beings, under the realm of evolutionary
thinking
● Replaced the dominant views of religions or biblical
design that places human beings in a privileged
position of having been created by God.
○ Sigmund Freud
◆ Famous figure in field of psychology — towering literary
figure
● Talented communicator who did his share to raise
the consciousness of the civilized world in
psychological matters
◆ Able to change people’s perception of psychology with his
revolutionary theory of ‘psychoanalysis’
● Gather reliable data to study humans in our lives
◆ Psychoanalysis
● Scientific way to study the human mind and
neurotic illness
● There are many unconscious and conscious factors
that can influence behavior and emotions
● Model of human mind– iceberg model
○ Id
◆ Instinct to survive (eros)
● Engage in life
● Sustaining life activities
◆ Unconscious
● Reside repository processed
that drive ones behavior–
primitive and instinctual
dsires
◆ Instinct to destroy (thantos)
● Destructive
● Aggressive
● Violent behavior
○ Ego
◆ Reality
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◆ Developed in infancy
◆ Keeps check on Id
◆ Preconsious - consious
● Home of everything we can
recall or retrieve from our
memory
○ Superego
◆ Morality and higher principles
◆ Encourages social responsibility
◆ unconsious
◆ Freud’s hypothesis
● An individual must successfully complete each
stage to become a psychologically healthy adult
with a fully formed ego and superego
○ Otherwise, individuals may become stuck or
‘fixated’ in a particular stage, causing
emotional and behavioral problems in
adulthood
◆ Psychoanalysis contreversies
● Orthodox – focuses on human sexuality and evil
nature of man
➔ Cradles of Early Science
◆ Development of Science in Mesoamerica
● Mesoamerica includes the entire are of Central America (Southern
Mexico to South America borders)
● Mesoamerican region is rich in culture and knowledge prior to the arrival
of its European colonizers
◆ Maya civilization
● One of the famous civilizations
● Lasted approximately 2,000 years
● Incorporated their advanced understanding of astronomy into their
temples and other religious structures
○ Allows them to use their temples for astronomical observation
○ Example: pyramid at Chichen Itza in Mexico is situated at the
location of the Sun during the spring and fall equinoxes
● Knowledge about celestial bodies advances for their time
○ knowledge of predicting eclipse
○ using astrological cycles in planting and harvesting
● Known for measuring time using 2 complicated calendar systems
○ Useful for their life planning their activities and observing their
religious rituals and cultural celebrations
● Developed technology using ordinary machineries and tools
○ growing different crops
○ Building elaborate cities
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○ Built hydraulics system

◆ Sophisticated waterways to supply water to different
communities
● Used various tools and adapt to innovations – especially in the field of
arts
○ Built looms for weaving cloth
○ Devised a rainbow of glittery paints made from a mineral — mica
○ Produced rubber products 3,000 years before Goodyear received
its patent in 1844
● Considered one of the most scientifically advanced societies in
Mesoamerica
● Famous as one of the world’s first civilization to use a writing system —
Mayan hieroglyphics
● Skilled in mathematics and created a number system based on the
numeral 20
● Independently developed the concept of 0 and positional value — before
Romans did
◆ Inca civilization
● Made advanced scientific ideas considering limitations as an old
civilization
● Scientific ideas and tools they developed to help them in everyday life
○ Roads paved with stones
○ Stones building
◆ surmounted earthquakes and other disasters
○ Irrigation systems and techniques
◆ Storing water for their crops to grow in all types of land
○ Calendar with 12 months
◆ Mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting
season
○ First suspension bridge
○ Quipu
◆ System knotted ropes to keep records that only experts
can interpret
◆ Inca textiles
● cloth — one of the specially priced artistic
achievements
◆ Aztec civilization
● Contributions
○ Mandatory education
◆ Put value on education
● Children were mandated to get education
regardless of their social status, class, gender, or
age
◆ Early form of universal or inclusive education
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○ Chocolates
◆ Aztec in Mexico – used as currency
◆ Valued cacao beans highly
◆ Made as a tribute to their gods
○ Antispasmodic medication
◆ Prevent muscle spasms and relax muscles— help during
surgery
○ Chinampa
◆ Aztech technology for agricultural farming
● Land is divided into rectangular areas and
surrounded by canals
◆ Aztec calendar
● Enabled them to plan their activities, ritual, and
planting season
◆ Invention of the canoe
● Light narrow boat for traveling in water system
➔ Development of science in Asia
◆ Asia
● Biggest continent in the world
● The home of many ancient civilizations
● Host to many cultural, economic, scientific, and political activities of all
ages
● Field of science, technology, and mathematics: the following civilizations
have stood out in contribution to the development of knowledge during
their time
○ India
◆ Huge peninsula surrounded by vast bodies of water and
fortified by huge mountains in its northern borders
◆ Creatively developed various ideas and technologies
useful in their everyday life
◆ Known for manufacturing iron and metallurgical works
● Iron steel – considered to be the best and held with
high regards in the whole Roman empire
◆ Famous in medicine
● Ayurveda
○ A system of traditional medicine that
originated in aciuent India before 2500 BC
○ Still practiced as a form of alternative
medicine
● Discovered some medicinal properties of plants
○ Led to develop medicines to cure various
illnesses
● Susruta Samhita
2nd year, 1st Sem || MINORS

○ Described different surgical and other

medical procedures famous in Ancient India
◆ Ancient India
● Notable in astronomy
○ Developed theories
◆ configuration of the universe
◆ Spherical self-supporting Earth
◆ Year of 360 days with 12 equal parts
of 30 days each.
● Sama (2008)
○ Noted that their interest in astronomy was
also evident in the first 12 chapters of
Siddhanta Shiromani (12th century)
○ Writings in Siddhanta Shiromani
◆ Mean longitudes of the planets
◆ True longitudes of the planets
◆ 3 problems of dirunal rotation
◆ Syzyies
◆ Lunar eclipse
◆ Solar eclipse
◆ Latitudes of the planets
◆ Rising and settings
◆ The moon’s crescent
◆ Conjunctions of the planets with the
fixed stars
◆ Paths of the sun and moon
● Known for mathematics
○ Bisht (1982)
◆ noted the earliest traces of
mathematical knowledge in the
Indian subcontinent appeared in the
Indus v\Valley Civilization
◆ People during this civilization tried to
standardize measurement of length
to a high degree of accuracy and
designed a ruler — Mohenjodaro
ruler
○ Clifford (2008) & Bose (1998)
◆ Aryabhata (467 -550) - Indian
astronomer and mathematician
introduced a number of trigonometric
functions, tables, and techniques, as
well as algorithms of algebra
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◆ Brahmagupta (682 AD) - suggested

that gravity was a force of attraction;
explained the use of zero as both a
placeholder and a decimal digit,
along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral
system now used universally
throughout the world
◆ Madhava of Sangamagrama -
founder of mathematical analysis
○ China
◆ One of the ancient civilization with substantial contribution
in the area of life – medicine, astronomy, science,
mathematics, art, philosophy, and music
◆ Old silk road – introduced to different countries: Korea,
Japan, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia,
Myanmar
◆ Known for traditional medicines — product of centuries of
experiences and discovery of the Chinese people
● Discovered various medical properties
● Use of different plants and animals to cure human
illness
● Acupuncture
◆ Technology
● Developed different tools
○ Compass
○ Papermaking
○ Gunpowder
○ Printing tools — known in the West by the
end of Middle Ages
○ Iron plough
○ Wheelbarrow
○ Propeller
● Developed and invented
○ design of different models of bridges
○ first seismological detector
○ dry dock facility
◆ Astronomy
● Made significant records that were carefully
recorded and preserved to understand better the
heavenly bodies and effects to our world
○ supernovas, lunar and solar eclipse, and
comets
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● Observed heavenly bodies to understand weather

changes and seasons that may affect their daily
activities
● Used lunar calendar
● Known in seismology
○ Made them more prepared in times of
natural calamities
◆ Cultural factors prevented Chinese achievements from
developing into modern science
● Needham (1986)
○ Religious and philosophical framework of
chinese intellectuals made them unable to
accept the ideas of laws of nature
○ Middle East
◆ Dominantly occupied by Muslims
● Golden Age od Islam
○ Spread of Islam in 7th and 8th centuries
○ period of Muslim scholarship
○ Lasted until 13th century
◆ Arabic
● Common language
● Access to Greek texts from Byzantine Empire
● Proximity to India were contributory to the
intellectualization of Muslims
● Provided their scholars knowledge to create
innovations and develop new ideas
◆ Muslim scientists place great value on science
experiments rather than palin-thought experiments in
contrary to the Greeks
● Led to development of the scientific method in
Muslim world
● Made significant improvements by using
experiments to distinguish between competing
scientific theories set within generally empirical
orientation
● Ibn al-Haytham
○ Father of Optics
○ Regarded for his empirical proof of the
intromission theory of light
◆ Mathematics
● Muhammad in Musa al- Kwarizmi gave
○ Gave his name to the concept of the
algorithm
○ Al-jabr = algebra
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◆ Beginning of one of his publications

● Arabic Numeral System
○ Originally came from India
○ But— Muslim mathematicians did make
several refinements to the number system
◆ Introduction to decimal point
notation
◆ Chemistry and alchemy
● Jabir ibn Hayyan
○ Father of Chemistry
◆ Medicine
● Ibn Sina
○ Pioneered the science of experimental
medicine
○ First physician to conduct clinical tria;s
○ 2 notable works were used as standard
medicinal texts in Muslim world and Europe
in 17th century
◆ Book of Healing
◆ The Canon of Medicine
○ Discovered the contagious nature of
infectious diseases
○ Introduction of clinical pharmacology
◆ Decline of Golden Age of Islam
● Started in the 11th and 13th century
● Due to conquest of the Mongols whereby libraries,
observatories, and other learning institutions were
destroyed
➔ Development of science in Africa
◆ Blessed with natural and mineral resources
◆ Science has emerged long before the Europeans colonized
◆ Ancient Egyptian civilization
● Early science activities
○ Developed to improve quality of life
○ Build early homes and cities
● Great structures of Egyptian pyramids and early dams
○ Built to divert water from the Nile River
○ Proof of their advanced civilization
● Geometry
○ Product of necessity
○ To preserve the layout and ownership of farmlands of the
Egyptians living along the Nile River
○ Rules of geometry was developed and used
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◆ To build rectilinear structures– post of lintel architecture

of Egypt
● Center of Alchemy
○ Known as the medieval forerunner of chemistry
○ Tried to study human anatomy and pharmacology
○ Applied important components for the treatment of diseases –
displayed strong parallels to the basic empirical methods of
studying science
◆ Examination
◆ Diagnosis
◆ Treatment
◆ Prognosis
● Egyptians
○ Good in the 4 fundamental mathematical operations and other
mathematical skills
○ Have knowledge of the basic concepts of algebra and geometry
○ Islamic regions in Africa during medieval period
◆ Benefitted from mathematical learning
● Considered advanced during those times – algebra,
geometry, trigonometry
◆ Africa
● Astronomy
○ Documents show that Africa use 3 types of calendars
◆ Lunar
◆ Solar
◆ Stellar
◆ combination of 3
● Metallurgy
○ Known in African regions
○ North Africa and Nile Valley
◆ Imported iron technology from Near East
● Enabled them to benefit from the developments
during Bronze Age until Iron Age
○ Invented metal tools used in homes, agriculture, magnificent
architectures
● Mathematics
○ Prominent in the life of the early African continent
○ Lebombo Bone
◆ Mountain between Swaziland and South Africa
◆ Tool for multiplication, division,and simple mathematical
calculation
◆ Tool for 6 month lunar calendar
◆ Oldest known mathematical artifact dated from 35,000
BCE
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○ Islamic regions in Africa during medieval period

◆ Benefitted from mathematical learning
● Considered advanced during those times – algebra,
geometry, trigonometry
➔ Summary
◆ Scientific revolution
● Golden age in history of science
● Marked
○ Birth of science
○ As a field of inquiry
○ Birth to the development of scientific method
● Time of development of scientific ideas and discoveries – innovative and
useful
○ Some ideas were controversial in the scientific community and
political arena
● Significantly changed how people study science and do scientific
activities
○ Inspired human creativity and critical thinking
○ Moved away from thought experiments to data-driven and
experiment-based ideas
◆ Intellectuals with essential contributions during scientific revolution
● Nicolaus Copernicus
○ Developed a model of the universe
◆ Everything moved around a single center at unvarying
rates
○ Placed the Sun in the center of the universe and all planets were
surrounding/ orbiting it
○ Model of planets
◆ Automatically positioned the planets into a logical
sequence
● Charles Darwin
○ Contributed in the field of evolutionary biology and philosophy
○ Theory of evolution by natural selection
◆ Useful in many fields
● Sigmund Freud
○ Psychoanalysis
◆ Helped understanding human behavior — neurological
conditions
◆ Science in different parts of the world
● People invented tools to help in everyday life
● Discovered medicines to cure diseases
● Observed heavenly bodies
● Built structures
● Discovered many things
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● Invented mathematics as a tool and discipline

◆ Science in different ancient civilizations
● Provided the mean to survive and understand the natural and physical
world
● Enabled human beings to develop various technologies that helped in
their everyday tasks

Midterm

Prefinals

Finals
2nd year, 1st Sem || MINORS

SOCSCI: Gender and Society

Prelim
➔ Gender and Global Issues
◆ Sigmund Freud
● “Despite my thirty years of research into the feminine soul, I have not
been able to answer.. The great question that has never been answered:
what does a woman want?”
○ Freud has a stereotype about women, in general,
○ He really didn’t want to see through the women’s thoughts and
insightful information due to his prejudice about women
○ Women for him should be below men, hence, he doesn’t know his
answer as he didn’t open his thoughts about women and are only
bound to what he generally thinks about them.
● “The ‘sane woman’ is one who actually knows that she’s crazy”
● ”A woman should soften but not weaken a man”
○ Freud as a sexist attribute infers that women should never be
someone who can cause a downfall to a man. Women may be
able to show soft spots to a man but never be someone who
would cause a downfall to them.
◆ Sodom and Gomorrah Destroyed
● Genesis 19: 5-8
○ Women were seen as objects. To protect the angels or guests
from the uproaring men that surrounded the house, the father has
given his virgin daughters to satisfy them instead.
◆ Jesus Feeds Five Thousand
● Matthew 14:21
○ Upon counting heads on whom to be fed, only the number of men
were counted that day. Women and children were only counted as
an addition to whom should be fed.
◆ LGBTQ & FEMINISM
● Lesbian
○ A female homosexual
○ A female who experiences romantic love or sexual attraction to
other females.
○ Example: Aiza Seguerra
● Gay
○ Term that primarily refers to a homosexual person or the trait of
being homosexual.
○ Often used to describe homosexual males
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○ Lesbians may also be referred to as gays

○ Example: Vice Ganda & Brettman Rock
● Bisexual
○ romantic , sexuall attraction, or sexual behavior toward both males
and females
○ Romantic or sexual attraction to people of any sex or gender
identity — sometimes termed as pansexuality
● Transgender
○ Umbrella term for people whose gender identity differs from what
is typically associated with the sex they were assigned at birth
○ Sometimes abbreviated to trans
○ Example: Charice Pempengco > Jake Zyrus
● Queer
○ Umbrella term for sexual and gender minorities that are not
heterosexual or cisgender
○ Originally ised pejoratively againstr those with same-sex desires
but, beginning in the late-19080s, queer scholars and activitsts
began to reclaim the word.
● Intersex
○ Variation in sex characteristics including chromosomes, gonads,
or genitals that do not allow an individual to be distinctly identified
as male or female
○ Umbrella tern that describes bodies that falll outside the strict
male/female binary
○ General term used for a variety of situations in which a person is
born with reproductive or sexual anatomy that doesn’t fit the boxes
of female or male
○ Sometimes doctors do surgeries on the intersex babies and
children to make their bodies fit binary ideas of male or female
● Cisgender
○ Denoting or relating to a person whose sense of personal identity
and gender corresponds with their birth sex
○ Someone who does not identify as transgender
○ –may be related to heterosexuality
◆ Feminism
● Social movement and ideology that fights for the political, economic and
social rights for women
● Femisists believe that men and women are equal, and women deserve
the same rights as men in society.
● Feminist movement has gought for many diffrerent causes
○ Right for women to vote
○ Right to work
○ Right to live free from violence
● 3 waves of feminist movement
2nd year, 1st Sem || MINORS

○ First wave: Suffrage

◆ 19th and early 20th century
◆ Focused mainly on suffrage, alongside other legal rights
◆ Mostly active in the UK, Canada, and United States
◆ Movement succeeded in gaining women the right to vote &
other legal liberties
◆ Known as the suffragettes, they campaigned for women’s
right to vote

○ Second wave : Equal Pay

◆ 1960s and 1970s
◆ Began in the US, then spread to Europe, Asia
◆ Focused mainly on sexuality, reproductive rights, and the
wage gap
◆ Movement succeeded in securing career options for
women, and many reproductive rights
◆ Had a much broader scope of right they were campaigning
for
● Right for equal pay
● Right to live free from both physical and sexual
violence
● Reproductive rights
○ Access to contraception and safe and legal
abortion

○ Third wave: Patriarchy

◆ Started during 1990s and until today
◆ Fights for equality by focusing exclusively on female
victims of gender-neutral issues
◆ Mostly on Tumblr and Facebook
◆ Mostly middle/upper class US
◆ Rejects labeling by adopting labels and identities
◆ Everything is the Patriarchy’s fault, also rape culture
◆ More inclusive from feminism that considers things like
race, ethnicity and secual identity
◆ Recognizes that every woman’s experiences are different
but continues to fight the same rights and principles as the
second wave

Midterm
➔
Prefinals
2nd year, 1st Sem || MINORS

Finals
2nd year, 1st Sem || MINORS

GE-LIT

Prelim
➔ The importance of studying literature
◆ “It helps us growboth personally and intellectual.”
● It allows is to grow personally by learning from the experience of other
people
● Intellectually since it enhances our vocabulary range, thus; making us
think critically to articulate and defend our point of view
◆ “It links us with the world of which we are a part.”
● It helps us understand the people across nations
● Thus, making us recognize and respect the individual differences.
◆ “It sharpens our sense of moral judgment”
● It hones our sense of morality which allows us to draw the line between
right from wrong
● It also allows us to understand that what is ethical may not necessarily be
good in our own personal conscience
◆ “It stimulates our imagination and creativity.”
● It fuels our imagination and ingenuity to make sense of any literary works;
be read, performed, or viewed.
◆ “It shows the significance of different Literary Devices.”
● It acquaints us to different poetic devices to unearth the message of the
writers.
◆ “It reminds us that we are human beings.”
● It makes us realize that we have our limitations, insecurities, and
imperfections.
● Thus, enabling us to learn from our past and other to make us better
individuals.
➔ Different Genres of Literature
◆ Throughout the ages, there have been many different types of genres of
literature. They have evolved in such a way that it accommodates the thought
process of different authors of a certain age.
◆ Literature - written works, especially those considered of superior or lasting
artistic merit
◆ Genres of literature
● Poetry - a form of literature that uses aesthetic and rhythmic qualities of
language
○ Lyric Poetry - a comparatively short, non-narrative poem in which
a single speaker presents a state of mind or an emotional state
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◆ Elegy - a poem of serious reflection, typically a lament for

the dead
◆ Ode - a poem in which a person expresses a strong feeling
of love or respect for someone or something
◆ Sonnet - a fourteen-line poem written in iambic
pentameter, which employ one of several rhyme schemes
and adhere to a tightly structured thematic organization
◆ Dramatic Monologue - a poem in the form of a speech or
narrative by an imagined person, in which the speaker
inadvertently reveals aspects of their character while
describing a particular situation or series of events

○ Narrative poetry - a form of poetry that tells a story, often making

use of the voices of a narrator and the voices of a narrator and
characters as well; the entire story is usually written in metered
verse
◆ Epics - a long narrative poem written in elevated style, in
which heroes of great historical or legendary importance
perform various deeds
◆ Mock-epic - are typically satires or paradoies that mock
common classical stereotypes of heroes and heroic
literature
◆ Ballad - a poem or song narrating a story in short stanzas.
Traditional ballads are typically of unknown authorship,
having been passed on orally from one generation to the
next as part of the folk culture

○ Descriptive and Didactic Poetry

◆ Both lyric and narrative poetry can contain lengthy and
detailed description (descriptive poetry) or scenes in direct
speech (dramatic poetry)
◆ The purpose of a didactic poem is primarily to teach
something.

● Prose - written or spoken language in its ordinary form, without metrical

structure
○ Non-fiction - prose writing that is based on facts, real events, and
real people, such as biography or history
◆ Biographies - is a detailed description of a person’s life. It
involves more than just the basic facts like education,
work, relationships,m and death, but also portrays a
subject’s experience of these life events
◆ Autobiographies - is a written account of the life of a
person written by that person
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◆ Essays - is, generally, a piece of writing that gives the

author’s own argument – but the definition is vague,
overlapping with those of an article, a pamphlet, and a
short story.
◆ Articles - a piece of writing included with others in a
newspaper, magazine, or other publication
◆ Humor - situations, speech, or writings that are thought to
be humorous
○ Fiction - literature in the form of prose, especially short stories and
novels, that describes imaginary events and people
◆ Realistic fiction - is a genre consisting of stories that could
have actually occurred to people or animals in
unbelievable setting
◆ Fantastic Fiction - a type of fiction that ideologically and
aesthetically subordinates reality to imagination by
depicting a world of marvels that is contrasted to everyday
reality and to accepted views of what is credible.

● Drama - the specific mode of narrative, typically fictional, represented in

performance
○ Comedy - uses lighter in tone than ordinary writers, and provides
a happy conclusion. The intention of dramatists in comedies is to
make their audience laugh. Hence,they use quaint
circumstances,unusual characters and witty remarks.
○ Tragedy - uses darker themes such as disaster, pain and death.
Protagonists often have a tragic flaw – a characteristic that leads
them to their downfall.
○ Farce - a nonsensical genre of drama, which often overacts or
engages slapstick humor
○ Melodrama - an exaggerated drama, which is sensational and
appeals directly to the senses of the audience. Just like the farce,
the characters are of single dimension and simple or may be
stereotyped
○ Musical- the dramatists not only tell their story through acting and
dialogue, nevertheless through dance as well as music. Often the
story may be comedic, though it may also involve serious
subjects.
○ Fantasy - a complete fictional work where characters virtually
display supernatural skills. It is more appealing to children as
fairies, angels, superheroes, etc., are embedded in the plot. Use
of magic, pseudo science, horror, and spooky themes through
various kinds of technical devices create a perfect world fantasy.
The modern vision of drama incorporates a great deal of special
effects.
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◆ 2 keywords in the topic

● Genre
○ Any category of literature, music, or forms of art or entertainment,
wether written or spoken, audio or visual,m based on some st of
stylistic criteria
○ Form by conventions that change over time as new genres are
invented and the use of old ones is discontinued.
○ Often, works fit into multiple genres by way of borrowing and
recombining these conventions
○ Began as an absolute classification system for ancient Greek
literature. Poetry, prose, and performance each had a specific and
calculated style that related to the theme of the story
● Literature
○ Broadest sense - consist of any written productions
○ Refers to those deemed to have artistic or intellectual value, or
which deploy language in ways that differ from ordinary usage
○ Western Europe prior to the 18th century
◆ Literature as a tem indicated all books and writing (Leitch
et al., The Norton Anthology of THeory and Criticism, 28)
○ The value judgment definition of literature considers it to cover
exclusively those writings that possess high quality or distinction,
forming part of the so-called Belles-letters (fine writing) tradition.
(Eagleton, Literary theory: an introduction, 9)
○ This sort of definition is that used in the Encyclopedia Britannica
11th Edition (1910-11) where it classifies literature as “the best
expression of the best thought reduced to writing”
○ Problematic in this view is that there is no objective definition of
what constitutes “literature”
○ Anything can be literature, and anything which is universally
regarded as literature has the potential to be excluded, since
value judgements can change over time.
◆ 3 genres of literature
● Poetry
○ Form of literature that uses aesthetic and rhythmic qualities of
language
○ Example
“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?
Thou art more lovely and more temperate:
Rough winds do shake the darling of May,
And summer’s lease hath all too short a date:”

○ 3 different kinds of poetry

◆ Lyric poetry
2nd year, 1st Sem || MINORS
Elgy
O Captain! My Captain!
My Captain does not answer,
his lips are pale and still;
My father does not feel my arm,
he has no pulse nor will;
The ship is anchor’d safe and
sound, its voyage closed and
done;
From fearful trip, the victor ship,
comes in with object won;
Exult, O shores, and ring, O
bells! But I, with mournful tread,
Walk the deck my Captain lies,
Sonnet
Fallen number
cold and18 by William
dead.
Shakespeare
Shall I compare thee to a summer’s Turn wheresoe’er I may,
day?
Thou art more lovely and more
temperature:
Rough winds do shake the darling
buds of may,
And summer’s lease hath all to short
a date:
Sometimes too hot the eye of
heaven shines,
And often is his gold complexion
dimmed,
And every fair from fair sometime
declines,
By chance, or nature’s changing
course untrimmed:
But thy eternal summer shall not
fade,
Nor lose possession of that fair thou
ow’st,
Nor shall death brag thou wonder’st
in his shade,
When in eternal lines to time thou
grow’st,
So long as men can breathe, or eyes
can see,
So long lives this, and this gives life
to thee.
● Comparatively short, non-narrative poem in which a
single speaker presenters a state of mind or an
emotional state
○ 4 kinds of lyric poetry
◆ Elegy - a poem of serious reflection,
Ode on Intimations of typically a lament for the dead
Immortality from
◆ Ode - a poem in which a person
Recollections of Early expresses a strong feeling of love or
Childhood by William
Wordsworth. respect for someone or something
There was a time when ◆ Sonnet - a 14-line poem written in
meadow,m grove, and stream, iambic pentameter, which employ
The earth, and every common one of several rhyme schemes and
sight
adhere to a tightly structured
To me did seem
Apparelled in celestial light, thematic organization
The glory and the freshness of◆ Dramatic monologue - a poem in the
a dream. form of a speech or narrative by an
It is not now as it hath been of
imagined person, in which the
yore;-- speaker inadvertently reveals
aspects of their character while
By night or day,
The things which I have seen I describing a particular situation or
now can see no more. series of events
◆ Narrative poetry - a form of poetry that tells a story, often
making use of the voices of a narrator and characters as
well; the entire story is usually written in metered verse.
● 3 kinds of Narrative poetry
○ Epics - a long narrative poem written in
elevated style, in which heroes of great
historical or legendary importance perform
valorous deed (ex. Beowulf)
○ Mock-epic - are typically satires or parodies
that mock common Classical stereotypes of
heroes and heroic literature. (ex. Alexander
Pope’s The Rape of the Lock)
○ Ballad - a poem or song narrating a story in
short stanzas. Traditional ballads are
typically of unknown authorship, having
been passed on orally from one generation
to the next as part of the folk culture (ex.
The Second Coming William Butler Yeats,
1865 - 1939)
◆ Descriptive and Didactic Poetry
● both lyric and narrative poetry can contain lengthy
and detailed descriptions (descriptive poetry) or
scenes in direct speech (dramatic poetry)
2nd year, 1st Sem || MINORS

● Didactic poem is primarily to teach something

● Prose - written or spoken language in its ordinary form, without metrical
structure.
○ Example
“The woods look lovely against the setting darkness and
as I gaze into the mysterious depths of the forest, I feel like
lingering here longer. However, I have pending
appointments to keep and much distance to cover before I
settle in for the night or else I will be late for all of them.”

○ 2 kinds of Prose
◆ Fiction - short stories and novels, that describes imaginary
events and people
● 2 kinds of Fiction literature
○ Realistic fiction - genre consisting of stories
that could have actually occurred to people
or animals in a believable setting
○ Fantastic fiction - ideologically and
aesthetically subordinates reality to
imagination by depicting a world of marvels
that is contrasted to everyday reality and to
accepted views of what is credible.
◆ Non-fiction - based on facts, real events, and real people,
such as biography or history
● 4 kinds of nonfiction literature
○ Biographies - a detailed description of a
person’s life it involves more than just the
basic facts like education, work,
relationships, and death, but also portrays a
subject’s experience of these life events
○ Autobiographies - written account of the life
of a person written by that person
○ Essay - piece of writing that gives the
author’s own argument – but the definition is
vague, overlapping with those of an article,
pamphlet, and a short story.
○ Articles - a piece of writing included with
others in a newspaper, magazine, or other
publication
○ Humor - situations, speech, or writings that
are thought to be humorous.
● Drama - a piece of writing that tells a story and is performed on a stage
○ Example
2nd year, 1st Sem || MINORS

Miranda Priestly: Do you know why I hired you? I always

hire the same girl- stylish, slender, of course… worships
the magazine. But so often, they turn out to be- I don’t
know- disappointing and, um… stupid. So you, with that
impressive resume and the big speech about your so-
called work ethic- I, um- I thought you would be different, I
said to myself, go ahead. Take a chance. Hire the smart,
fat girl. I had hope. My God. I live on it. Anyway, you
ended up disappointing me more than, um- more than any
of the other silly girls. (Meryl Streep, The Devil Wears
Prada, 2006)
○ 6 kinds of Drama
◆ Comedy - lighter in tone than ordinary writers, and
provides a happy conclusion. The intention of dramatists in
comedies is to make their audience laugh. Hence, they use
quaint circumstances, unusual characters and witty
remarks
◆ Tragedy - use darker themes such as disaster, pain and
death. Protagonists often have a tragic flaw– a
characteristic that leads them to their downfall.
◆ Farce - nonsensical genre of drama, which often overacts
or engages slapstick humor. Also called as a “Parody”
◆ Melodrama - an exaggerated drama, which is sensational
and appeals directly to the senses of audience. Just like
the farce, the characters are of single dimension an simple,
or may be stereotyped.
◆ Fantasy - complete fictional work where characters virtually
display supernatural skills. It is more appealing to children
as fairies, angels, superheroes, etc., are embedded in the
plot. Use of magic, pseudo science, horror, and spooky
themes through various kinds of technical devices create a
perfect world fantasy. The modern version of drama
incorporates a great deal of special effects.
➔ 7 literary standards
◆ A work of art is excellent if it possesses the following characteristics
● Artistry
○ Appeals to the readers’ standard of beauty
○ It’s elements working together to express its intended meaning
● Intellectual value
○ Appeals to the intellect
○ Inflames critical thinking and allows you to uncover indispensable
truths about life and human nature
● Suggestiveness
○ Appeals to the emotion
2nd year, 1st Sem || MINORS

○ Makes us empathize and sympathize with the people involved in

an artwork
● Spiritual value
○ Appeals to our sense of morality
○ Subsumes the capacity to inspire ordinary people to do
extraordinary things
● Permanence
○ An excellent artwork lasts
○ It can be read on several occasions where every time you read
provides new insight about the world we live in
● Universality
○ A superb artwork is not only timeless but timely as well
○ Appeals to all regardless of gender, race or educational
attainment
● Style
○ Manifests the author’s ingenuity and originality
○ Deviates from social conventions, but is able to showcase his
talent beyond mediocrity
➔ Elements of a short story
◆ Authors become remarkable short story writers as they become true masters at
combining the 5 key elements that into every great short story
● Plot
○ Body of the story
○ Series of events and character actions that relate to the central
conflict
◆ Exposition - opening section
◆ Complications - rising action
◆ Conflict - problems/ adversities are faced
◆ Climax - peak of the story
◆ Falling action
◆ resolution/ denouement - end of story
● CHaracter
○ Person or sometimes an animal who takes part in the action of a
story or a literary work
◆ Role and Importance - antagonist or protagonist
◆ Complexity of characterization - flat or round
◆ Role in advancing the plot - dynamic or static
● Setting
○ Refers to the place of the story and the specific time, climactic
actions, and historical period during which the story took place
◆ Atmosphere - describes the mood or feeling that prevails a
literary work
● Point of view
○ Significant difference between a narrator and an author
2nd year, 1st Sem || MINORS

○ 5 kinds of POV of narrator

◆ First person
◆ Second person
◆ Third person Objective
◆ Third person limited
◆ Omniscient
● Theme
○ Central idea or belief in a short story
○ Soul of the story
➔ Elements of Drama
◆ Different from other literary works because it is meant to be performed on a stage
◆ Popularly known as “play”
◆ 3 key elements
● Dialogue
○ Indispensable element — no dialogue = no play
○ Makes up the bulk of drama
○ Acts like the expository section of a short story plot
○ Where the characters are revealed
○ Serves as directions
○ Establishes a situation and conveys a tone.
○ Conveys a dramatic tension and conflict
● Plot
○ Tells us why it happens
○ Contains same components as what a short story have
◆ Series of events and character actions that relate to the
central conflict
● Exposition - opening section
● Complications - rising action
● Conflict - problems/ adversities are faced
● Climax - peak of the story
● Falling action
● resolution/ denouement - end of story
○ Structured with
◆ Acts - main division
◆ Scenes - smaller unit
● Characters
○ Work together with plot
○ Can’t be expository like in short story
○ 3 methods of characterization
◆ Through name and physical appearance
◆ Through action— what the character does in the course of
the play
◆ Through dialogue
➔ Elements of Poetry
2nd year, 1st Sem || MINORS

◆ Not mandatory for a poet to use all the elements

◆ Elements form an important aspect of poetry
◆ Allegory
● Story that is used to represent a more general message about real-life
(historical) issues and/or events.
● Typically an entire book, novel, play, etc
● Example - George Orwell: dystopian book - Animal Farm
○ Allegory for the events preceding the Russian Revolution and the
Srtalinist era in early 20th century Russia
◆ Alliteration
● Series of words or phrases that all )or almost all) start with the same
sound
● These sounds are typically consonants to give more stress to that syllable
● Example: Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers
○ “P” sound is repeated at the beginning of all major words
◆ Colloquialism
● Use of informal language and slang
● Often used by authors to lend a sense of realism to their characters and
dialogue
● Example: Hey, what’s up, man?
○ Uses common everyday words and phrases, namely “what’s up”
and “man”
◆ Euphemism
● When a more mild or indirect word or expression is used in place of
another word or phrase that is considered harsh, blunt, vulgar, or
unpleasant
● Example: i’m sorry, but he didn’t make it
○ “Didn’t make it” is a more polite and less blunt way of saying that
someone has died
◆ Hyperbole
● Exaggerated statement that’s not meant to be taken literally by the reader
● Often used for comedic effect and/or emphasis
● Example: I’m so hungry I could eat a horse
○ Emphasizes how starved the speaker feels
◆ Imagery
● When author describes a scene, thing, or idea so that it appeals to our
senses (taste, smell, sight, touch, or hearing)
● Often used to hel the reader cleats visualize parts of the story by creating
a strong mental picture
● Example:
○ His hands, wrinkly and old with the roughness that can only be
acquired by doing manual labor at a very young age, held mine as
we crossed the threshold of the universe
◆ Irony
2nd year, 1st Sem || MINORS

● When a statement is used to express an opposite meaning than the one

literally expressed by it.
● 3 types of irony
○ Verbal irony - when someone says something but means the
opposite— like sarcasm
○ Situational irony - when something happens that’s the opposite of
what was expected or intended to happen
○ Dramatic irony - when the audience is aware of the true intentions
or outcomes, while the characters are not. As a result, certain
actions and/or events take on different meanings for the audience
than they do for the characters involved.
◆ Malapropism
● When an incorrect word is used in place of a word that has a similar
sound
● This misuse of the word typically results in a statement that is both
nonsensical and humorous
● Commonly used in comedic writing
● Example: I just can’t wait to dance the flamingo!
○ A character has accidentally called the flamenco (a type of dance)
the flamingo (the animal)
◆ Metaphor/ simile
● Metaphor
○ When ideas, actions, or objects are described in non-literal terms
○ When author compares one thing to another
○ 2 things being described usually share something in common but
are unalike in all other respects
● Simile
○ Type of metaphor
○ An object, idea, character, action, etc. is compared to another
thing using words “as” or “like”
◆ Onomatopoeia
● Word (or a group of words) that represents a sound and actually
resembles or imitates the sound it stands for
● Often used for dramatic, realistic, or poetic effect– sound effects
● Example: Buzz, boom, chirp, creak, sizzle, zoom
◆ Oxymoron
● Combination of two words that, together, express a contradictory meaning
● Often used for emphasis, for humor, to create tension, or to illustrate a
paradox
● Combination of just 2 words that has contradictory meaning
● Examples: Deafening silence, organized chaos, cruelly kind, insanely
logical
◆ Paradox
2nd year, 1st Sem || MINORS

●Statement that appears illogical or self- contradictory but, upon

investigation, might actually be true or plausible
● Entire phase or sentence is contradictory
● Example:
○ If the statement is true, then it isn;t actually false. But if it’s false,
then the statement is true
◆ Statement is both true and false at the same time— but it
really suggest that the statement is false
◆ Personification
● When a nonhuman figure or other abstract concept or element is given
human-like qualities or characteristics
● Used to help the reader create a clearer mental picture of the scene or
object being described
● Example: the wind moaned, beckoning me to come outside
○ The wind (nonhuman element) is being described as if it is human
—- moans and beckons
◆ Synechdoche
● Part of something is used to represent the whole, or vice versa
● Similar to metonym —- doesn’t have to represent the whole but just
something associated with the word.
● Example: “Help me out, I need some hands”
○ Hands — used to refer to people (the whole human
l(a ◆ Elements
le ● Form
af ○ This is the way a poem is arranged on the page
fa ○ Poetry is written in lines and are grouped into stanzas
○ Form of the poem can add to its meaning
ll
○ Example: L(A by E.E Cummings
s) ● Sound
one ○ Control the sound of their poem
l ○ Rhyme - words that end in the same sound
◆ End rhyme
iness
◆ Internal rhyme
◆ Slant rhyme
◆ Half rhyme
◆ Near rhyme
◆ Off rhyme
○ Rhythm - patterns of stressed (/) and unstressed (-)
◆ Iamb or Iambic Foot (afraid)
◆ Trochee or Trochaic Foot (freedom)
◆ Anapest or Anapestic foot (in a flash)
◆ Dactyl or Dactylic Foot (feverish)
○ Repetition - helps poet to emphasize an idea or create a particular
feeling
2nd year, 1st Sem || MINORS

◆ Example: it was the best of time, it was the worst of times,

it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness…”
● Imagery
○ Involves words that appeal to the 5 senses
○ Used to reminds readers about familiar sensations
○ Example: He felt like the flowers were waving hello, the lake left
shivering by the touch of morning wind
● Theme
○ The message about life that it conveys
○ Example - Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice
◆ matrimony , love, friendship, and affection
◆ The whole narrative revolves around the major theme of
matrimony
➔ Introduction to Literary studies
◆ English
● Language/ linguistics
○ Language is the foundation of human civilization. It is the glue that
keeps people together and the first weapon drawn in a conflict –
Louise Banks, played by Amy Adams in Arrival (2016)
○ Cornerstone of human civilization
○ Without proper communication, then there will be no proper
interactions in individuals — what makes us go around
○ Allowed literature to spread in different eras and time
● Literature
◆ Importance of studying literature
● “It helps us grow both personally and intellectually”
○ Allows us to grow personally by learning from the experience of
other people and intellectually since it enhances our vocabulary
range, thus making us think critically and defend our own point of
view.
◆ Grow personally
● Learn and reflect from other people’s experiences
◆ Grow intellectually
● Learn and encounter new vocabularies
● Analyze and introspect in the literary piece
● “It links us with the world of which we are a part.”
○ Helps us understand the people across nations. Thus, making us
recognize and respect individual differences
◆ Allows connect nations
◆ Recognize and respect individual differences
◆ Understand cultural differences
● “It sharpens our sense of “Moral judgment”
○ It hones our sense of morality which allows us to draw the line
between right from wrong. It also allows
2nd year, 1st Sem || MINORS

Midterm

Prefinals

Finals
2nd year, 1st Sem || MINORS

PE 103

Prelim

Midterm

Prefinals

Finals