Section 16
ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION CHECKOUT AND TESTING
GENERAL
Certain construction tests and checkouts are required
to be performed before the electrical portions of any
systems or equipment can be turned over for startup.
Adequate assurances have to be demonstrated that
construction is complete and the systems or
equipment are ready for startup and operation.
The amount and extent of construction testing varies
from project to project. Each project will clearly
define the area of responsibility of each organization
involved in the construction, startup and operation of
systems or equipment.
Each person involved in construction checkout and
testing is required to review and understand the
following procedures and activities.
• Safety Tagging Procedure - A clearance
procedure designed to protect construction
personnel.
• Turnover Procedures and Documentation -
Construction is usually responsible for turning
over completed systems to startup or operations.
The required flow of information and unique
procedural requirements should be fully
understood.
• Craft Personnel Organization - Lines of
communication between the testing
supervisors/engineers and crafts people should
be clearly understood as should craft work
assignments and jurisdictions.
TEST EQUIPMENT
The great diversity in electrical equipment and
associated circuits requires a large variety of testing
apparatus. Tests can be made easily and accurately
only with well maintained test equipment, so it is
essential all testing apparatus be used carefully and
kept in good condition. Test equipment found to be
in improper condition or out of calibration must not
be used and shall be repaired and/or re-calibrated.
Rev. 0 Electrical Handbook
 Bechtel Corporation 1997.
Certified and calibrated Measuring and Test
Equipment (or Instruments) are requirements to
satisfy ISO9000 (International Organization for
Standardization) or NRC (Nuclear Regulatory
Commission) requirements.
Calibration of Measuring and Test Equipment
Only Measuring and Test Equipment (M&TE)
utilized to perform electrical tests that are required to
be formally documented and/or verified need to be
initally “calibrated” by either offsite certified testing
agencies or laboratories or by qualified on-site
personnel utilizing approved national certification
testing standards and/or programs. M&TE used for
“informational readings or checks” need not be
calibrated. For the measuring and test equipment or
instruments that are calibrated they must:
• Be calibrated to an established national testing
standard and/or by a calibrated testing device or
instrument.
• Be provided with certification documentation
identifying test used. Manufacturer name,
make, model, and/or serial number. The
certification needs to contain test date and
recertification test date (expiration date of
certification).
• The M&TE needs to have a certification
“sticker” with date tested and expiration date
visibly attached to the instrument.
• The certification documentation must be
controlled, updated, (as recertifications or
repairs are performed) maintained, and available
for independent audit, review, inspection, or
compliance by inspecting agencies or
individuals (e.g. QA - Quality Assurance
auditors).
• Certified M&TE must be suitably controlled,
maintained, and recalibrated.
Damaged, lost, or M&TE failing re-calibration
checks may require the issuance of non-conformance
reports or reinspection of electrical components.
The Field Engineer should be apprised of the
requirements for their use on each project.
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Note: For nuclear plants the use and control of
M&TE is a federal requirement and is significantly
more stringent than for most non-nuclear industrial
facilities though for these facilities it is just as
significantly important and should not be
discounted.
Certification of M&TE Procedures
Use of M&TE in nuclear facilities comprise
significantly more than just using electrical testing
equipment. When work is performed in these
facilities a specific “procedural specification” will
address in more detail these requirements. Non-
nuclear facilities may also have a specific procedure
relative to use and control of M&TE.
Relative to M&TE measuring equipment requiring
calibration in industrial facilities they typically
include:
• Multimeters
• AC DC Clamp-on Ammeters
• Meggers
• Measuring or recording instruments (e.g.
pressure guages, test guages, pyrometer)
• Torque Wrenches (inch or foot pounds)
• Hi-Pot
Typical test equipment used or required to support
most industrial projects (either by construction craft
or by start-up personnel) are:
• AC Clamp-On Ammeter - Used to measure AC
current.
• DC Clamp-On Ammeter - Used to measure DC
current.
• Megger (Motor Driven) - Used to measure the
polarization index (P.I.), a measure of the
absorption effect of good insulation compared to
that of moist or contaminated insulation of cable
and equipment. The P.I. is a ratio of the ten
(10)-minute insulation resistance value divided
by the one (1)-minute value.
Rev. 0 Electrical Handbook
 Bechtel Corporation 1997.
• Megger (Hand Crank or Battery Operated) -
Used to measure insulation condition of
conductors, motors, transformers, etc., when
making a one-minute insulation test.
• Digital Multimeter - Measures AC and DC
voltages, currents, and DC resistance’s.
• High-Potential DC Tester - Used for proof-
testing the insulation of conductors, motors,
transformers, etc., by measuring leakage current
as a function of voltage. The test is based on the
theory that the electrical stress in the insulation
increases with the applied voltage.
• “Hot Stick” - Voltage Probe used to indicate
high voltage on exposed bus-work and
terminals.
• Ground/Earth Ground Resistance Tester -
Used to measure earth resistance’s for electrical
grounding systems.
• Motor Rotation Tester - Used to determine the
rotation direction of a motor before connecting
the motor to the electrical source.
• Inch Pound and Foot Pound Torque
Wrenches - Used for torquing bolts and screws.
Bus Bars, termination bolts/lugs, supports or
hangers.
• Light Meter - used to measure lumination
levels.
Specialty test equipment that may be required to
support a project or start-up work activities include:
• Dew Point Detector - Used to determine the
temperature at which water vapor condenses.
Typically required when filling transformers
with oil.
• GFCI Tester - Determines the condition of
ground fault current interrupters by measuring
the amount of ground current required to trip
the interrupter.
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ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION CHECKOUT AND TESTING
• Hydrometer - Used to check the specific gravity
of battery electrolyte to determine battery cell
charge condition.
• Infrared Pyrometer - Senses infrared radiation
emitted from the small local area at which it is
pointed and determines the area temperature.
Used for checking potential troublespots such as
loose electrical connections and failing bearings.
• Cable Tracer - Impresses a signal on a cable to
identify, locate, and trace a cable.
• Camera - Provides a permanent record of
equipment condition. Equipment damage can
be photographed for future reference. A digital
camera is recommend to facilitate transfer of
photographs electronically.
• Metal Detector - Used to locate buried metallic
objects such as conduit, cable, and pipe.
• Oscilloscope - Used to analyze power network
waveforms and check electronic/solid-state
circuits.
• Phase Sequence Tester - Checks the phase
rotation or sequence of energized power circuits.
• Psychrometer - Used to determine air humidity
when making insulation resistance tests.
• Recording Meters/Data Loggers - Used for
permanent records of voltage, current, power,
temperature, etc., for analytical study.
• Tachometer - Determines the rpm of rotating
machines.
• Thermometer - Used to measure temperature
when making insulation resistance tests.
• Vibration Analyzer - Detects excessive
vibration and locates imbalance on rotating
components.
Accuracy of tests depends primarily on selection of
proper test instruments. Instruments for each test
Rev. 0 Electrical Handbook
 Bechtel Corporation 1997.
should be selected and connected to give deflections
on the accurate part of the scale.
INSULATION TESTING
The standard tool for insulation testing is the
megohmmeter (megger). They are essentially a
voltage/current generator with a built-in high range
resistance meter allowing megohms to be read
directly. The generator produces high DC voltage
which causes a small current flow through and over
the insulation surface. The resistance values are
then read on the display of the meter. What really
matters are trends in these readings over a period of
time, and the location and importance of the
equipment being tested.
There are three basic insulation test methods
employed to help diagnose problems.
1. Short-time or spot-reading tests.
2. Time-resistance (absorption) tests.
3. Step or multi-voltage tests.
When conducting a Short-Time/Spot-Reading test,
the megohmmeter is connected to the insulation to
be tested and is operated for a short time (60 seconds
is usually recommended). As the capacitance
“charges”, the resistance reading will increase and
one reading is taken at a point on the curve of
increasing resistance values. For example, 30
seconds is typically less than the 60 second reading
of a test operation. Temperature, humidity and
insulation condition will affect readings when
performing spot tests. If the apparatus being tested
has short wiring runs, this test is ideal. However,
most equipment being tested is capacitive so doing
spot readings, without prior testing, can only be used
as a rough guide to insulation condition.
A Time-Resistance test is typically independent of
the effects of temperature and can often give
conclusive information without the availability of
past test results. It is based on the absorption effect
of good insulation compared to that of moist or
contaminated insulation. Successive readings are
taken at specific times and the ratio between the
readings is noted. A 30 second versus 60 second test
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ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION CHECKOUT AND TESTING
will work, although a 1,2, 5 and 10 minute test gives
the best evaluation. It will take longer to charge the
capacitance of good insulation, and values will
continually increase due to absorption current. If the
insulation contains moisture or contaminates, the
absorption effect is masked by high leakage current
and the resulting values, over time, will remain
fairly constant. Another benefit of this test is the
values obtained are independent of the size of the
equipment. The increase in resistance for clean, dry
insulation occurs in the same manner whether a
motor is large or small (very small equipment
without much insulation volume may reach
maximum very quickly, flattening the absorption
ratio, but not actually meaning there is a problem).
Step-Voltage tests require the use of multi-voltage
megohmmeter allowing the application of two or
more voltages in steps, like 250, 500 and 1000 volts.
It is only necessary to keep the test voltage constant
between steps for about 60 seconds. The short
period between steps will not affect resistance trends,
however, the time period between steps should be the
same for a given piece of equipment. Reductions of
insulation resistance is looked for as each voltage
increase is made. If the readings become lower it is
a sign of an insulation weakness. Although other
test step ratios can be used, applied voltages should
preferably be in the ration of 1 to 5 or greater. It has
been determined that a change of 25 percent in the
insulation resistance value, at a 1:5 voltage ratio, is
usually due to the presence of excessive moisture or
other contaminates.
The benefit of the Step-Voltage test is effects of
aging or mechanical damage in clean, dry insulation
may not be revealed at lower stress. Applying
voltage in increase steps produces electrical stresses
that simulate or exceed those found in actual service.
Local weak spots then begin to influence overall
resistance, and resistance values begin to drop as
electrical stress increases. Even though the
megohmmeter’s highest voltage does not stress the
insulation beyond its rating, multi-voltage test will
often reveal problems.
POWER AND DISTRIBUTION CABLE TESTING
Rev. 0 Electrical Handbook
 Bechtel Corporation 1997.
Whether it be a single piece of apparatus or multiple
items comprising a system, there are definite
procedures to follow before applying power. If new
wiring in raceways or cable tray has been installed it
should be checked thoroughly and tested for shorts
and grounds. Many times, cables and wires are
damaged during installation. Damage may not show
up until load is applied or the cables approach
maximum current carrying capacity.
Megohmmeter testing of newly installed wiring is a
common practice. Usually a high voltage
megohmmeter is used which will provide a voltage
potential somewhat higher than the voltage rating of
the wire. Megohmmeter testing of medium and high
voltage cables, however, is not considered a
satisfactory method of determining whether cable
insulation has been damaged. A high voltage
megohmmeter will only revel severely damaged
insulation which will probably fail as soon as full
voltage is applied.
Wire/cable pulling is involved when installing power
cables in raceways and cable tray. If, it is an
extended run and several conductors are pulled at the
same time, considerable force is required. This not
only stresses insulation, it could crack protective
outer layers and result in cuts or tears through
several layers of insulation if there are burrs or sharp
edges in the raceway. Conductors in multiple
conductor cables can break or be reduced in cross
sectional area by too much pull. This effectively
reduces the current carrying capacity of the cable,
could produce internal arcing between ends of
broken strands and other progressive deterioration
conditions. These could cause failures months or
years after the cables are installed.
Newly installed cables should be subjected to a
nondestructive test at higher than normal use values.
The test is generally performed using DC high
voltage cable testing equipment. The advantage in
pretesting cables is that any damaged cable can be
repaired/replaced without a service interruption. A
cable failure in a raceway with several cables can be
disastrous. Frequently all cables have to replaced
because of arc damage from the one which failed.
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ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION CHECKOUT AND TESTING

Cable testing provides assurance that the cables were

not damaged during installation. If there is any Recommended DC Dielectric Test Voltages for
indication cables have been damaged during New Installations
shipment, or confidence in the cable manufacturer so
dictates, cables should be tested upon jobsite receipt
to provide assurance cables are suitable for XHHW
installation. RHH THHN
SIZE RHW USE THWN
“Megger” Insulation Resistance Test
14 4800 ---- 3200
Low-voltage non-shielded cables can be tested using 12 4800 4800 3200
a megger. Hand held ohmmeters generally have 10 4800 4800 3200
outputs from several volts to 24 volts. They are 8-2 4800 5600 3200
excellent for detecting direct “shorts” such as bolted 1-4/0 6400 6400 4000
faults and low resistance measurements in the 250-500 8000 8000 4800
kilohm range. A megger measures resistance in the 550-1000 9600 9600 5600
megohm range using higher voltages than an 1100-2000 11200 11200 6400
ohmmeter. Manual, battery operated or motor-
driven meggers are available for a range of fixed DC
voltages. Typical fixed DC voltages are 500, 1000,
2500, and 5000 volts. Recommended AC Dielectric Test Voltages for
New Installations
Applied DC potential may be 500 or 1000 volts DC
with the insulation resistance reading taken at one
(1) minute. A megohmmeter reading of less than 50 XHHW
megohms may be used for deciding when to RHH THHN
investigate the cable installation, and readings less SIZE RHW USE THWN
than two (2) megohms will most likely indicate
damaged insulation. Readings of two (2) to 50 14 2400 ---- 1600
megohms are usually associated with long circuit 12 2400 2400 1600
lengths, moisture, or contamination. In most cases a 10 2400 2400 1600
two (2) to 50 megohm reading does not indicated the 8-2 2800 2800 1600
insulation quality, therefore two (2) to 50 megohms 1-4/0 3200 3200 2000
should not be specified as a pass/fail value. 250-500 4000 4000 2400
Insulation resistance readings should be made and 550-1000 4800 4800 2800
interpreted by experienced personnel to determine 1100-2000 5600 5600 3200
the condition of the cable’s insulation.
Alternating current new installation test voltages are
“Hi-Pot” - High Voltage Potential Test 80% of the factory test voltage. Direct current
voltages are two times the alternating current new
High potential tests are “go no-go” tests. The cable installation test voltage. Test duration should not
is required to withstand the specified voltage for the exceed five (5) minutes.
specified time duration. These tests will normally
reveal gross imperfections due to improper field For medium voltage, shielded cables.
handling, such as excessive bending or air gaps With any High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC)
between the insulation and shield interfaces. testing it is highly recommended that IEEE Standard
400 be understood and that there is concurrence of
For low voltage, non-shielded cables.

Rev. 0 Electrical Handbook 16-5

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Section 16
ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION CHECKOUT AND TESTING

the manufacturers of the cables, terminals and
splices prior to the performance of any proposed
testing. IEEE Standard 400 tests are “go no-go”
tests. The system is required to withstand the
specified voltage for the specified time duration.
Field Test Voltages for Shielded Power Cable
Systems 5 kV to 35 kV
For more sophisticated evaluations, it is important to
recognize the components of DC “leakage” current.
The output current of the test set into the cable is not
the true leakage current. The output current is the
sum of three currents; geometric capacitance,
absorption, and true leakage current. The absolute
value of output current is not of primary importance.
This value is virtually impossible to predict and is
dependent upon the previously mentioned factors
which can affect the resultant output current from a
few microamperes to hundreds of microamperes.

System System Acceptance Maintenance It is the shape of the total current curve (it) with
Voltage BIL Test Voltage Test Voltage respect to time that indicates the condition of the
(kV rms) (kV) (kV dc) (kV dc) dielectric. A drop-off of current with respect to time
∅ to ∅ ) (crest)
(∅ (cond-gnd) (cond-gnd) is an indication of sound insulation. A rising current
is and indication of questionable condition or
5 75 28 23 pending failure. A flat curve is generally due to test
8 95 36 29 conditions.
15 110 56 46
25 150 75 61 The output current variation with respect to time of
28 170 85 68 voltage application is generally considered more
35 200 100 75 indicative than the absolute value. The
characteristic shapes of the time-leakage current
curve and probable causes are outlined below.
Acceptance test voltage duration is normally 15
minutes. • A rising leakage curve at a steady voltage may
be indicative of faulty insulation. However,
Maintenance test voltage duration is normally not other leakage paths (over porcelain surfaces and
less than five (5) minutes or more than 15 minutes. through insulating fluids) can contribute to such
a result.
Cable insulation can, without damage, sustain
application of DC potential equal to the system basic • A falling leakage curve is indicative of good
impulse insulation level for very long periods. In insulation characteristics, especially if at similar
contrast, most cable insulation will sustain levels for all phases.
degradation from AC overpotential, proportional to a
high power of overvoltage to time (and frequency) of • A flat leakage curve at low value is generally
the application. Hence it is desirable to utilize direct indicative of acceptable insulation. Flatness
current for any testing that will be repetitive. While may be influenced by circuit length, cable
manufacturers use alternating current for the geometry, and possible presence of moisture or
original factory test, it is almost universal practice to contaminants over terminal surfaces.
employ direct current for any subsequent testing.
• A flat leakage curve at high value may indicate
any of the following conditions
1. Presence of moisture
Time-Leakage Test 2. Contaminants over terminal surfaces or
other creepage surfaces

Rev. 0 Electrical Handbook 16-6

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Section 16
ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION CHECKOUT AND TESTING

3. Surface leakage greater than volume Fall of Potential Method

leakage
4. Moist laminated insulation This involves the passing of alternating current in
5. Condition of insulating fluids known magnitude throughout the grounding
6. Air Ionization losses (corona) from electrode (or grounding network/grid) under test and
projections. an auxiliary current electrode, and measuring the
influence of this current in terms of voltage between
• Dissimilar leakage curves are indicative of the electrode under test and a second auxiliary
nonuniformity or circuit insulation. The potential electrode.
characteristics curve of each phase should be
analyzed to determine the cause of dissimilarity.
Air ionization losses from projections may affect
one phase more than the others, dependent upon
corona shielding (such as terminals),
temperature and humidity transients, air
movement, and the like.

Generally speaking, the increase of current with test

voltage is approximately linear for sound insulation.
Care should be exercised to prevent terminal corona
and minimize terminal surface leakage as these can
mask test results.

GROUND RESISTANCE TESTING

This section discusses commonly used methods of

measuring ground resistance. The ohmic value
measured is called resistance; however, there is a
reactive component that should be taken into account
when the ohmic value of ground under test is less
than 0.5 ohms, as in the case of large substation
grids. This reactive component has little effect on
grounds with an impedance higher than one (1)
ohm.

Ground resistance can be measured by commercially
available, self-contained instruments, which give
readings directly in ohms. These instruments are
small in size and very easy to use because they
require no external power source. It is recommended
the test instrument manufacturers’ instructions be
followed when setting up the test equipment and
taking measurements.
The four most commonly used methods of
testing/measuring ground resistance are:
For a large grounding network, both current and
potential electrodes should be placed as far from the
grounding network under test as practical
(depending on the geography of the surroundings),
so that they are outside the influence of the ground to
be tested. A distance of 750 to 1000 feet or more
from the grounding network is recommended for
grounding mats with dimensions in the order of 300
feet x 300 feet. This is required to obtain
measurements of adequate accuracy. The potential
electrode, for large grounding networks (low-
resistance grounds), should be driven in at a number

Rev. 0 Electrical Handbook 16-7

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Section 16
ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION CHECKOUT AND TESTING

of points. Resistance readings are then plotted for

each point as a function of distance from the
grounding network, and a curve is drawn. The value
in ohms at which the plotted curve appears to level
off is taken as the resistance of the grounding
network under test. When it is found that the curve
is not leveling off, the current electrode should be
moved farther from the grounding electrode under
test. However, for a high-resistance ground, there is
no preferred placement of electrodes, and the most
practical placement of electrodes should be chosen.

The resistance between the ground network Two-Point Method

(electrode) under test and the auxiliary electrodes
should be measured. The resistance measured
should be no more than 500 ohms for increased
accuracy in the measurement of low-resistance
ground network. In order to obtain the lowest
possible auxiliary electrode resistance, locate the
electrodes in moist locations, such as drainage
ditches or ponds, or drive two or more rods spaced
three (3) or four (4) feet apart, or where practicable,
use long rods driven to considerable depths.
After checking the auxiliary electrodes’ resistance,
connect test probes to the instrument. Reverse
connections at the instrument and take another
reading. The difference in both readings should be
less than 15%, otherwise auxiliary electrodes should
be moved farther away from the ground network
(electrode) under test.
The two-point method is usually used to determine
the resistance of a single grounding rod where it is
necessary to know only that a given grounding
electrode’s resistance to earth is below a stipulated
value. In this method the total resistance of the
unknown and an auxiliary grounding rod, usually an
existing know object which is well grounded
(metallic water pipe with no insulating joints), is
measured. Since the auxiliary ground resistance is
considered negligible, the resistance measured by the
meter will be that of the grounding electrode under
test.
This method is subject to large errors for low-
resistance grounding networks but is very useful and
adequate where a “go no-go” type of test is required.

This method should be used for large substations,
industrial plants, and generating stations where
grounding network resistance is usually less than one
(1) ohm. For a small ground mat or single-rod-
driven electrode, the influence of the ground to be
tested is assumed to be negligible at about 100 to 125
feet, so the current electrode can be placed at about
that distance from the ground rod under test. To
measure earth resistance of a single-rod-driven
electrode or small ground mat, the potential
electrode can be placed midway between the current
electrode and the ground electrode under test.
Readings with the circuit connected as per the
accompanying illustration are taken.
ELECTRICAL TESTING OF INSULATION OF
ROTATING APPARATUS
Electrical tests should discover existing weaknesses
or faults in the insulation system and give some
indication of the expected service life expectancy and
reliability.
WARNING
Do not make electrical insulation tests on motors
or generators unless they have been electrically
isolated and will remain so during the test.
Failure to do so before testing begins can result in

Rev. 0 Electrical Handbook 16-8

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Section 16
ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION CHECKOUT AND TESTING
serious injury or death by electric shock, and
damage to equipment.
The following tests and testing principles should be
considered in planning diagnostic tests:
Insulation Tests at Low Voltage
The simplest and most easily made insulation
resistance test is the megohmmeter measurement.
This is a low voltage, direct current measurement of
leakage relative to surface contamination and
moisture content of the insulation. It is important to
understand the limitations of these tests.
• Megohmmeter tests will not usually reveal
complete but clean, dry ruptures in the ground
wall insulation.
• When applied to high voltage insulating
systems, megohmmeter tests do not offer any
proof of the physical integrity of insulation or its
ability to withstand high voltage tests or even
service potential.
• Megohmmeter measurements are commonly
made to determine insulation condition with
regard to contamination before overvoltage tests
are made. When testing a stator winding, it is
preferable to test one phase at a time, to ground
with the other two phases grounded as this
procedure allows a comparison between phases
and also tests the insulation between phases and
between phase and ground.
Dielectric Absorption Testing
Dielectric absorption tests are a measurement of
insulation resistance against time. The time period
will usually be until resistance stabilizes, or as much
as ten minutes.
Insulation leakage is not constant. It starts at a
relatively high value and decreases until it reaches a
stable value. This stable value is called the
conduction component, and is established by the
direct current resistivity of the material. On an
Rev. 0 Electrical Handbook
 Bechtel Corporation 1997.
energized system, the difference between the total
leakage and the constant steady state value
(conduction component) is due to a phenomenon
called dielectric absorption.
Dielectric absorption tests, as described in IEEE No.
43, are more significant than one-minute insulation
resistance tests, (particularly on higher voltage
windings) because the slope of the time-resistance
characteristic gives further information about the
condition of the insulation with respect to moisture
and contamination. This slope is expressed as the
ratio of ten to one-minute insulation resistance and is
called the polarization index. The ratio which is
non-dimensional, aids in making comparisons
between insulations of machines of different size. It
also allows comparison on measurements on the
same machine taken at different times.
Dielectric absorption measurements can be made at
voltages as low as 500 volts, but higher voltages are
recommended, particularly on high voltage stator
windings.
A polarization index of 2.0 or more is normal for
asphalt , bitumen, and varnish impregnated
windings. Modern impregnated insulation systems
will produce higher index values. This index applies
only to a stator winding and could be considerably
different if the measurements were made with parts
external to the windings such as leads, cables, or
protective equipment included in the test circuit.
A polarization index of less than 1.0 indicates time-
dependent leakage. The causes should be
investigated and corrected before the machine is
either tested or placed in service.
Over-Potential Tests
Low voltage insulation resistance and dielectric
absorption test do not produce electrical stresses of
sufficient magnitude to expose faults which might
lead to in-service failure. Power factor (or tangent
delta) measurements which are an effective tool used
by the manufacturer in insulation development and
quality control, are not effective in assessing either
the condition of insulation or suitability for
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ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION CHECKOUT AND TESTING
continued operation. Electric strength has been
demonstrated to be the most effective criterion for
determining the condition of an insulation system
which has been subjected to long use and aging
conditions.
Over-potential testing requires experience testing
personnel and should only be performed by a
manufacturers’ representative, personnel from a
motor repair organization or by a electric testing
organization.
TRANSFORMER TESTING
The following tests should be made before a
transformer is energized. The results of these tests
should become part of the permanent record of the
transformer. They will allow for comparison with
future maintenance test comparison checks.
It is best practice to have the transformer tests done
by a manufacturers’ representative, who are fully
knowledgeable of the equipment being tested and the
proper testing techniques and procedures.
Insulation-Resistance Test
A megohmmeter insulation-resistance test, made in
the field and compared with measurements made at
the factory will indicate if a transformer is
sufficiently dry to energize. Insulation-resistance
measurements are made on each winding with all
other windings grounded. No windings with
external bushings should be left floating during the
insulation-resistance measurements. Normally-
grounded windings must have the ground removed
to measure insulation-resistance to the other
grounded windings. If it is not practical to remove
the ground, as in the case of solidly grounded
neutrals, the insulation resistance of the winding
cannot be measured; treat it as part of the grounded
circuit.
If field measurements of insulation resistance
indicate a wet transformer, dry it out before
energizing. Moisture is the greatest enemy of
insulation and the cause of many transformer
Rev. 0 Electrical Handbook
 Bechtel Corporation 1997.
failures. There are many methods of drying out
transformer insulation in the field; all of them
require considerable equipment and one to four
weeks of drying time, depending on the size of
transformer and the degree of wetness. Consult the
manufacturer for directions if a transformer requires
drying before energization.
Oil Tests
Test all oil in each shipping container (drums, tank
truck, or railroad car). The dielectric strength,
power factor, water content, interfacial tension and
neutralization number should be determined. If tests
cannot be made at site, certified test reports from the
supplier should be available for tests made on
samples taken from each shipping container,
showing that the oil meets specifications.
It is recommended that the dielectric strength of oil
from each container be checked in the field prior to
installation to assure the oil has not been
contaminated in transit.
Most of the desirable properties of insulating oil are
affected by impurities, particularly water. It is
important to avoid contamination when obtaining
samples. All equipment used in taking samples
should be clean and dry. Sample containers should
be amber glass bottles of at least 16 fluid ounce
capacity. The bottles should be cleaned with a
suitable solvent and dried. No rubber gaskets or
stoppers should be used because the rubber will
dissolve and contaminate the sample.
A sample thief which permits taking the sample
from the bottom should be used when taking samples
from drums. The thief should be cleaned with an
appropriate solvent and dried before each use.
Samples from each drum should be tested for
dielectric breakdown strength. Where large numbers
of drums are to be tested for a single transformer it is
permissible to mix samples from as many as five
drums and test the composite. If the breakdown
values meet the 30 kV minimum all the drums
represented in the composite may be used. If the
breakdown value of the composite does not meet the
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30 kV minimum, each drum must be tested to find
the offending oil.
For sampling from a tank car, truck or large tank, a
thief employing a bottom valve may be used. The
thief should be solvent cleaned and thoroughly dried
before each use.
When taking an oil sample from electrical
equipment it should be drawn from the sampling
valve at the bottom of the tank. Two or three quarts
of oil should be drawn off and disposed of before the
sample is taken to assure the sample is representative
of the whole. Disposal of oil shall be in accordance
with environmental requirements.
The dielectric breakdown test measures the stress
which an insulating liquid can withstand without
failing. The measurement is made by applying a
voltage between two electrodes immersed in the
liquid, and under prescribed conditions. This test
also serves as an indication of the presence of
contaminants, particularly moisture and conducting
particulate. Dielectric testing is performed as
described in ASTM Procedures. ASTM D-877
specifies a test cup equipped with one inch diameter
vertical disc electrodes spaced 0.100 inch apart be
used.
ASTM D-1816 specifies a test cup equipped with a
spherical electrodes spaced 0.04 inch or 0.08 inch
apart. This cup includes a stirrer and is sensitive to
small amounts of contaminants. It is primarily
suitable for use with new oils. A portable dielectric
strength tester may be used and tests can be made in
the field.
The dielectric strength of the oil must be at least 30
kV.
VIBRATION TESTING
Vibration is readily detectable, even without
instruments. A simple vibration check is to stand a
coin on edge on a running machine. On a well
balanced machine the coin will not fall over. New
motors, depending on type and speed, will have been
balanced to operate within 0.5 to 2.5 mils (one mil =
Rev. 0 Electrical Handbook
 Bechtel Corporation 1997.
1/1000 inch). Factory tests are made using accurate
instruments, with the motor resting on a resilient
support. Large motors are bolted to the test floor
bedplate.
Factory balancing is precise, a half-key is used to
compensate for the unbalance of the shaft extension
keyway if the motor is shipped without half of the
coupling mounted. Balancing checks are always
made after the coupling installation at the factory.
The coupling, as delivered by the supplier, is seldom
precision balanced. Motor manufacturers must
compensate for the added coupling weight. An
unbalanced condition places excess strain on
bearings and if allowed to progress can result in very
bad machine performance.
Excessive vibration, if not transmitted from some
other source, is always a symptom of something
wrong. Some driven apparatus is designed to vibrate
violently; stokers, screen separators, ball-mills, rock
crushers, etc. transmit vibrations to the driving
motor. Many of these are belted applications and the
vibrations are damped by the belt drive, but some are
direct drive. In these situations greater attention
must be directed at assuring that vibration does not
damage the driving motor. Motors react to
conditions of vibration even when not directly
coupled to the apparatus producing the vibration.
Effects of Vibration
Excessive vibration is a serious condition requiring
immediate correction. There are many negative
effects of vibrations, direct and indirect:
• It imposes unnecessary forces and stresses on
equipment. Standard motors are not designed or
warranted for use where there is excessive
vibration.
• The effect on foundations can be so severe as to
cause them to shift and cause misalignment.
Concrete can be deteriorated by the powdering
of the bonding materials. Weight combined
with torsional forces can cause foundations to
shift, producing cracks and changes in
elevation. These are conditions that may remain
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hidden until cracks appear and misalignment
occurs.
• Vibration frequently creates objectionable noise.
• When several units of rotating equipment are
operating simultaneously they produce a variety
of vibration frequencies. Since drive motors and
coupled equipment constitute a system, there are
many variable frequencies which can combine to
set up vibrations no inherent in the operation of
any of the machines.
• Ambient noise and physical vibration often
result from cyclic variations in the vibratory
forces in a resonant system.
Vibration Analysis Checks
Vibration is an oscillating motion. One of the
factors needed to evaluate the extent of motion is the
distance traveled, or the excursions occurring at each
cycle. The amplitude of motion is usually expressed
in mils peak-to-peak. A one mil excursion in one
direction is actually two mils peak-to-peak
amplitude.
Frequency is the rate at which oscillations occur.
The unit of measurement is cycles per second (cps)
or cycles per minute (cpm). Frequency does not
always indicate true revolutions per minute, it can
contain a number of harmonics.
Velocity and acceleration are two other vibration
parameters that may enter into calculations to
accurately evaluate the effect of vibration. A
vibrating body or a rotating mass, such as a motor,
moves with a given amplitude and frequency. The
speed at which it moves (velocity) is expressed in
inches per second (ips) and is directly related to
displacement. Any change in velocity affects
vibration.
Acceleration of deceleration of massive rotors in
turbines and large motors accompanied is always
accompanied by some vibration. At critical speeds
oscillations can cause flexing and bending of the
supporting shaft. For this reason machines are
Rev. 0 Electrical Handbook
 Bechtel Corporation 1997.
accelerated and decelerated through their known
critical speed as rapidly as possible. Prolonged
operation at critical speed can damage a machine by
breaking a shaft and destroying bearings, and other
components.
The techniques of measurement have advanced from
simple vibrometers requiring much analysis of their
output, through oscillographic and light beam
devices, to today’s electronic measuring equipment.
Some high speed apparatus is manufactured with
built-in sensors which are connected to recording
devices to monitor vibration.
Most vibration measurements are obtained by using
portable electronic equipment. Electronic pick-ups,
hand-held probes or proximity sensors are used to
feed electrical signals into the analyzer. The
electrical impulses produced by even minute
amounts of vibration are amplified and read directly
from meters on the vibration analyzer. Use of
modern equipment results in accurate measurement
of amplitudes, indicates phase angles of
displacement, and, if an oscilloscope is used, visually
display the wave form. An experienced person with
proper instruments can very quickly locate the source
of vibration without resorting to complex
mathematical calculations.
While this basic procedure is easily learned, there is
a real skill involved in correcting vibration. The
field engineer will be responsible for taking readings
and helping to determine the source of vibrations.
Manufacturers’ representatives and vibration experts
will be required to correct the vibrations.
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT TESTING
Electrical equipment is furnished with Instruction
Manuals which provide instructions on what and
how to test prior to energization of the equipment.
These tests are safety related to determine no short
circuits or ground faults exist in the equipment.
Components of electrical equipment is tested
individually and collectively at the factory prior to
shipment. Further testing is not required in the field
unless there are signs of shipping damage.
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Any testing required beyond those required by the

inspection manual should be done by the
manufacturer’s representative.

Rev. 0 Electrical Handbook 16-13

 Bechtel Corporation 1997. 11/26/97