GILLESANIA Engineering Review and Training Center

SURVEYING AND TRANSPO. ENG’G.

Compilation of Formulas

TRAVERSE MEASUREMENTS East Departures

N Latitude:
𝐿𝑎𝑡 = 𝐿 cos 𝜃,
North(+) & South (−)

Departure:

South Latitudes
North Latitudes
𝐷𝑒𝑝 = 𝐿 sin 𝜃, Direction of
East (+) & West(−) Survey

W
Length of the line:
E
𝐿 = √𝐿𝑎𝑡 2 + 𝐷𝑒𝑝2

S Bearing angle:
𝐷𝑒𝑝
𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
𝐿𝑎𝑡
West Departures

Area of Traverse
DMD (Double Meridian Distance) Method
BALANCING OF A CLOSED TRAVERSE
1. The DMD of the first course is equal to the departure of
that course. Linear Error of measurement
2. The DMD of any other course is equal to the DMD of the A short line of unknown length and direction connecting the
previous course plus the departure of the previous initial and final station of traverse. It is approximately
course plus the departure of the course itself. determined by plotting the traverse to scale, or more exactly
3. The DMD of the last course must be numerically equal to by computing hypotenuse of a right triangle whose side are
the departure of that last course but opposite in sign. the closure in latitudes and departures respectively.
4. The double area of each course is equal to the product of
the DMD and the latitude of the course. D
N
𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐷𝑀𝑆 × 𝐿𝑎𝑡 C
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = |∑ 𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠|
2
DPD (Double Parallel Distance) Method
1. The DPD of the first course is equal to the latitude of that
course.
2. The DPD of any other course is equal to the DMD of the B
previous course plus the latitude of the previous course E
plus the latitude of the course itself.
3. The DPD of the last course must be numerically equal to
the latitude of that last course but opposite in sign.
4. The double area of each course is equal to the product of
the DPD and the departure of the course.
A
𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐷𝑃𝐷 × 𝐷𝑒𝑝
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = |∑ 𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠| 𝐿𝐸𝐶 = √Δ𝑙 2 + Δ𝑑2
2

For a closed Traverse: Where:

Δl= ∑ latitudes
∑ 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑠 = 0
Δd= ∑ departures
∑ 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 0
Relative Precision/Relative Error

Prepared by: Engr. Jobert S. De La Cruz

 𝐿𝐸𝐶
𝑅𝐸 = ∑𝑣 2 𝐸
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝐸𝑚 = ±√ =
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) √𝑛
Compass rule
Compass Rule /Bowditch Method – The correction to be Most Probable Error
applied to the latitude/departure of any course is to the total
absolute correction in latitude/departure as the length of the ∑𝑣 2
course is to the perimeter of the traverse. 𝑃𝐸 = ±0.6745√
Corrections for latitude: 𝑛−1
𝐶𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑒
= Most Probable Error of mean
𝛥𝑙 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒
∑𝑣 2 𝐸
Corrections for departure: 𝑃𝐸𝑚 = ±0.6745√ = ±0.6745
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) √𝑛
𝐶𝑑 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑒
= Weighted Observations
𝛥𝑑 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 Most Probable Value
∑(𝑤𝑥)
Transit rule 𝑚𝑝𝑣 =
Transit Rule – The correction to be applied to the ∑𝑤
latitude/departure of any course is to the total correction in
latitude or departure as the latitude/departure of that course Standard Deviation/Error of unit weight
is to the arithmetical sum of all the latitudes/departures of
the traverse. ∑(𝑤𝑣 2 )
Corrections for latitude: 𝐸𝑢 = ±√
𝑛−1
𝐶𝑙 |𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑒|
= Standard Error of weighted mean
𝛥𝑙 ∑(𝑁𝑙𝑎𝑡 + |𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑡 |)
Corrections for departure:
∑(𝑤𝑣 2 ) 𝐸𝑢
𝐸𝑚 = ±√ =±
𝐶𝑑 |𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑒| ∑ 𝑤 (𝑛 − 1) ∑𝑤
=
𝛥𝑑 ∑(𝐸𝑑𝑒𝑝 + |𝑊𝑑𝑒𝑝 |)
Most Probable Error of weighted mean
Applications of the corrections
Corrected Measurements:
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑟 = 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑒 − 𝐶𝑙 ∑(𝑤𝑣 2 ) 𝐸𝑢
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑟 = 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑒 − 𝐶𝑑
𝑃𝐸𝑚 = ±0.6745√ = ±0.6745
∑ 𝑤 (𝑛 − 1) ∑𝑤
Absolute Length Where:
𝐿 = √(𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑟 )2 + (𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑟 )2 x = corresponding observation
n = size of observation
Corrected Bearing angle Residual value, v = mpv - x
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑟 w = corresponding weight of observation
𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑟 = tan−1 ( )
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑟
Adjustment of weighted observations
▪ The weights are directly proportional to the number of
observations, 𝑤 = 𝑘 𝑛.
STATISTICAL FORMULAS OF ERRORS ▪ The weights are inversely proportional to the square of
the corresponding probable errors, 𝑤 = 𝑘/𝐸 2 .
Single Observations ▪ The weight is inversely proportional to the distance, 𝑤 =
Most Probable Value 𝑘/𝑑.
∑𝑥
𝑚𝑝𝑣 = Propagation of Errors
𝑛 Error in sum

Standard Deviation/Error 𝐸 = ±√𝐸12 + 𝐸22 + 𝐸32 + ⋯ 𝐸𝑛2

∑𝑣 2
𝐸 = ±√
𝑛−1

Standard Error of the mean

Prepared by: Engr. Jobert S. De La Cruz

Error in product 𝑤 2𝑙3
𝐸 = ±√(𝑎 ⋅ 𝐸𝑏 )2 + (𝑏 ⋅ 𝐸𝑎 )2 𝐶𝑆 =
24𝑃𝑚2

Where
w = linear weight of the tape length
Pm = Applied pull to the tape
l = measured length between supported two points

Slope correction:
ℎ2
Approximate, 𝐶ℎ =
2𝐿
DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS
Pace Factor Exact, 𝐶ℎ = 𝐿(1 − cos 𝜃)
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝐹 =
𝑎𝑣𝑒. 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠

Tape corrections Where

Correction for absolute length: θ=Angle between the measured sloped distance Land the horizontal
L=measured sloped distance
𝑒𝐿
𝐶𝑎 = Mean Sea Level correction:
𝑙
Where
e = Correction per tape length 𝐿 𝐿𝑚𝑠𝑙
l = Designated nominal length =
𝑅+ℎ 𝑅
L = Measured length of a line
Correction, 𝐶𝑚𝑠𝑙 = 𝐿 − 𝐿𝑚𝑠𝑙
Where
10cm-mark

tape too long h=Altitude of observation

L=Measured distance at an altitude
R=Radius ofthe Earth, taken (6400km)

standard tape
10cm-mark

True or Laid distance

𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 = 𝐿𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 ± 𝐶𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

For 𝐶 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝐶𝑎

tape too short
𝑒
𝐿𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 = 𝐿𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 (1 ± )
𝑙
Thermal correction:
𝐶𝑇 = 𝛼(𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑠 )𝐿 *Correction will be (+, added) for too long and (-, subtracted) for
too short.
Where
α = coefficient of thermal expansion Stadia Surveying
For steel, α = 11.6×10-6
Tm =Observed temperature at the time of measurement
Ts = Standardized temperature
L = Measured length of the line

Pull of Tension correction:

(𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑠 )𝐿
𝐶𝑃 = A
𝐴𝐸
Where P
Pm = Applied pull during the measurement
Ps = Standard Pull
L = Measured length of the line
A = Cross-sectional area of the tape
E = Modulus of elasticity of the tape material

Sag correction:
Distance along the line of collimation/sight
Prepared by: Engr. Jobert S. De La Cruz
 𝐷 = 𝐾𝑆 cos 𝜃 + 𝐶 LEVELLING
Differential Levelling
Horizontal distance:
Dh = D cos θ

Vertical offset from the middle reading to the horizontal

through the center of instrument
Dv = D sin θ
1 2
Where:
K = Stadia interval facot Reference Datum
C = Stadia Constant
S = Stadia or rod intercept = UP - LR
UR = Upper reading 𝐻𝐼1 = 𝐸𝑙.1 + 𝐵𝑆1
MR = Middle reading
LR = Lower reading 𝐸𝑙.2 = 𝐻𝐼1 − 𝐹𝑆2
Subtense Bar :
Diff. in elevation = 𝐹𝑆 − 𝐵𝑆
Where
HI = Height of instrument from a datum
BS = Backsight reading
FS = Foresight reading
transit

Effects of Curvature and Refraction

transit

𝑆
𝐷=
𝜃
2 tan (2)
Where
S = length of bar (usually 2 m)
𝜃 = angle subtended by the bar

Sensitivity of Bubbles - The division of bubble tube are usually

spaced at 2 mm intervals. This is useful in measuring the adjusted
rod reading if the bubble were off centered. Curvature Effect:
Cc = 0.0785D2

Refraction Effect:
level tube
Cr = 0.011D2

Combined Effect
ℎ𝑐𝑟 = 0.0675𝐷2

*Note ℎ𝑐𝑟 is in meters, and 𝐷 in kilometers

Proportion:
Δℎ 𝑆
=
𝐷 𝑅

Where
h1 and h2 = Rod readings
R = Radius of curvature of the tube
S = Equivalent arc of the tube for a deviated rod reading
Prepared by: Engr. Jobert S. De La Cruz
HORIZONTAL CURVES
Simple Curves
External Distance:

𝐼
𝑒 = 𝑅 [sec ( ) − 1]
2
PT
Radius, Long Chord and Middle ordinate

PI

PC O

PC O
Long Chord:
backward tangent

𝐼
𝐿 = 2𝑅 sin ( )
2
Middle Ordinate:

Elements: 𝐼
PC = Point of curvature 𝑚 = 𝑅 [1 − cos ( )]
PT = Point of tangency 2
PI = Point of intersection of tangents
PC-PI = Backward tangent
PI-PT = Forward tangent Stationing, Given Station of PI:
O = Center of the curve
R = Radius of the curve 𝑆𝑡𝑎.𝑃𝐶 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎.𝑃𝐼 − 𝑇
I = Angle of intersection of tangents 𝑆𝑡𝑎.𝑃𝑇 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎.𝑃𝐶 + 𝐿𝑐
T = Tangent distance
L = Long chord
Lc = Length of curve Compound Curves
e = External distance
m = Middle ordinate PI
Solving for Radius with degree of curvature (D) PCC = Point of
Arc basis (20-m arc): compound curvature
3600
𝑅=
𝜋𝐷

Chord basis (20-m chord): PI1 PCC

PI2

10
𝑅=
sin(𝐷/2) PC
PT

Radius, Tangent and External distance

PI

PC O

Stationing, Given Station of PI:

Tangent Distance:

𝐼 𝑆𝑡𝑎.𝑃𝐶 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎.𝑃𝐼 − 𝑥 − 𝑇1
𝑇 = 𝑅 tan ( ) 𝑆𝑡𝑎.𝑃𝐶𝐶 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎.𝑃𝐶 + 𝐿𝑐1
2
Prepared by: Engr. Jobert S. De La Cruz
 𝑆𝑡𝑎.𝑃𝑇 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎.𝑃𝐶𝐶 + 𝐿𝑐2 T = tangent distance
xc = offset distance from tangent through SC
yc = distance along the tangent from TS to SC
Reversed Curves x = offset distance from tangent to any point of the spiral
y = distance along the tangent from TS to any point on the
spiral
p = length of throw
Lt = long tangent
St = short tangent
E = external distance

Formulas:
SC
PT
PI1
PRC PI2

PC PRC = Point of
reversed curvature

Stationing, Given Station of PI1:

𝑆𝑡𝑎.𝑃𝐶 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎.𝑃𝐼1 − 𝑇1
𝑆𝑡𝑎.𝑃𝐼2 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎.𝑃𝐶 + 𝐿𝑐1 + 𝑇2 TS
𝑆𝑡𝑎.𝑃𝑇 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎.𝑃𝐶 + 𝐿𝑐1 + 𝐿𝑐2

*Note: All element of the simple curve are the same elements of the Offset distance
compound and reversed curve. Only with additional point in 𝐿3
the compound curve (PCC) and with reversed curve (PRC). 𝑥=
6𝑅𝐿𝑆
These point are in the figure.

Spiral Curves 𝐿2𝑠

𝑥𝑐 =
6𝑅

PI 𝑥𝑐
Length of throw, 𝑝 =
4

CS Distance along the tangent

ST 𝐿5
𝑦=𝐿−
SC 40𝑅 2 𝐿2𝑠

𝐿3𝑠
𝑦𝑐 = 𝐿𝑠 −
40𝑅 2

Spiral angle
𝐿2
𝜃=
TS 2𝑅𝐿𝑠

Elements:
TS = tangent to spiral 𝐿𝑠
𝜃𝑆 =
SC = spiral to simple curve 2𝑅
CS = simple curve to spiral
ST = spiral to tangent
R = radius of simple curve Deflection angle
𝜃𝑐 = angle of intersection of simple curve
𝜃𝑆 = spiral angle form SC
Prepared by: Engr. Jobert S. De La Cruz
 𝜃 𝜃𝑠 EARTHWORKS
𝑖= & 𝑖𝑠 =
3 3 Cut & FillSta.A Sta.B
Sta.A Sta.B
Degree of spiral at any point
𝐷 𝐿
=
𝐷𝑐 𝐿𝑆
Dc =degree of the simple curve

Radius, Tangent and External Distance

PI

Sta.A Sta.B
Sta.A Sta.B

Tangent distance:

𝐿𝑠 𝐼
𝑇= + (𝑅 + 𝑝) tan ( )
2 2

External distance:
Length along fill
𝐼
𝐸 = (𝑅 + 𝑝) sec ( ) − 𝑅 𝐿𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝐿
2 =
𝐻𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝐻𝑐𝑢𝑡 + 𝐻𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙
Short and Long tangent
Length along cut
SC
𝐿𝑐𝑢𝑡 = 𝐿 − 𝐿𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙

Grades and length relation

𝐿(𝐺𝑔 − 𝐺𝑟 ) = 𝐻𝑐𝑢𝑡 + 𝐻𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙

Short tangent:

𝑥𝑐
𝑆𝑡 =
sin 𝜃𝑆

Long Tangent:

𝑥𝑐
𝐿𝑡 = 𝑦𝑐 −
tan 𝜃𝑠

Desirable length of spiral

0.036𝑣 3
𝐿𝑠 =
𝑅
Where 𝐿𝑆 and 𝑅 is in meters and 𝑣 in kph

Prepared by: Engr. Jobert S. De La Cruz

Cross-sectional Area Calculations Volume of Prismoidal Correction:

road width
𝐿
𝑉𝑃𝐶 = (𝐶 − 𝐶2 )(𝐷1 − 𝐷2 )
h
v
12 1
h
v
Corrected Volume:

𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑟 = 𝑉𝐸 − 𝑉𝑃𝐶
Trapezoidal Rule:
Volume of a Pit or Reservoir
𝑑
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = [ℎ1 + 2(ℎ2 + ℎ3 + ℎ4 + ⋯ ℎ𝑛−1 ) + ℎ2 ]
2

Simpson’s 1/3 Rule:

𝑑
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = [ℎ + 2 ∑ ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑑 + 4 ∑ ℎ𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 + ℎ𝑛 ]
3 1

Volumes of Earthworks

Trapezoidal Rule:

𝑑
𝑉= [𝐴 + 2(𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐴3 + ⋯ 𝐴𝑛−1 ) + 𝐴𝑛 ]
2 1

Simpson’s 1/3 Rule:

𝑑
𝑉= [𝐴 + 2 ∑ 𝐴𝑜𝑑𝑑 + 4 ∑ 𝐴𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 + 𝐴𝑛 ]
End Area Method: 3 1

𝐿
𝑉𝐸 = (𝐴1 + 𝐴2 ) Volume by Unit Area Method
2

Prismoidal Formula:

𝐿
𝑉𝑝 = (𝐴1 + 4𝐴𝑚 + 𝐴2 )
6

Prismoidal Correction (Use for level up to three-level section):

v v
h h

Assembly of rectangular prisms

∑ ℎ1 + 2 ∑ ℎ2 + 3 ∑ ℎ3 + 4 ∑ ℎ4
v
h v 𝑉=𝐴
h 4

Prepared by: Engr. Jobert S. De La Cruz

Where: Unsymmetrical curve
h1 = height found on one area only
h2 = height common to two areas
h3 = height common to three areas PI
h4 = height common to four areas

VERTICAL PARABOLIC CURVE PC

Symmetrical curve PT

s
PI

Summit, S
PC X
Grade diagram

PT

x
Grade of the common tangent:

𝑔1 𝐿1 + 𝑔2 𝐿2
Grade diagram 𝑔3 =
𝐿1 + 𝐿2

Vertical Offset from PI to the curve:

Area under grade diagram equals the difference in elevation
between two points on the curve 𝐿1 𝐿2 (𝑔1 − 𝑔2 )
𝐻=
2(𝐿1 + 𝐿2 )
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝛿 And
ℎ1 = ℎ2 = 𝐻/4
Square Property of Parabola:
*Location of the summit or curve can be solve by proportion based
ℎ 𝑦 on the constructed grade diagram. Useful for both Symmetrical
2
= 2 or Unsymmetrical Parabolic Curve.
(𝐿/2) 𝑥
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
Vertical Offset from PI to the curve:
Rate of change of Centripetal Acceleration
𝐿 𝑣3
ℎ = (𝑔1 − 𝑔2 ) 𝑞=
8 𝑅𝐿𝑠

Rate of change of the grade per 20-meter station: Where

v = speed of the vehicle (m/s)
𝑔1 − 𝑔2 R = radius of the simple curve (m)
𝑟= , where n = no. of station Ls = Length of the spiral curve (m)
𝑛

Length of the curve: Superelevation & Impact Factor

𝐿 = 20𝑚 × 𝑛 𝑣2
tan(𝜃 + 𝜙) =
𝑔𝑅
Location of the Summit or Lowest point of the curve, 𝑠: For small 𝜃:
𝑣2
𝑠 𝐿 𝑒+𝜇 ≈
𝑔𝑅
=
|𝑔1 | |𝑔1 | + |𝑔2 |
Where
e = superelevation
𝜇 = coefficient of friction
Prepared by: Engr. Jobert S. De La Cruz
 g = gravitational acceleration Sight distance on Horizontal Curves
R = radius of the curve

Minimum Stopping Sight Distance

𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 𝑅𝐷 + 𝐵𝐷 When 𝑆 ≤ 𝐿𝑐
𝑣2 𝑆2
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑅=
2𝑔(𝜇 ± 𝐺) 8𝑚

Where When 𝑆 > 𝐿𝑐

v = speed of the vehicle before braking 𝐿(2𝑆 − 𝐿)
𝑅=
t = perception-reaction time 8𝑚
g = gravitational acceleration
𝜇 = coefficient of friction Where
G = grade of the road(+, upward motion) (−, downward Lc = length of the curve
motion) R = radius of the curve
S = sight distance
Minimum Passing Sight Distance
Sight Distance on Vertical Summit Curves

When 𝑆 ≤ 𝐿
𝐴𝑆 2
𝐿= 2
200(√ℎ1 + √ℎ2 )

When 𝑆 > 𝐿
2
200(√ℎ1 + √ℎ2 )
𝐿 = 2𝑆 −
𝑃𝑆𝐷 = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 + 𝑑3 + 𝑑4 𝐴

Where
Where
A = g1 – g2 (in percent)
d1= distance covered during the initial maneuver
S = sight distance
d2 = distance covered during the whole maneuver
h1 = height of eye level from the ground
d3 = distance the passing and opposing vehicle at the end of
h2 = height of the object from the ground
the maneuver
d4 = 2/3 d2
Standards for h1 and h2:
t = time covered during the initial maneuver
tp = time passing vehicle occupies the left lane

Prepared by: Engr. Jobert S. De La Cruz

 Sight Distance Driver’s Eye Object Height, Flow rate & Density
Type Height, h1 (m) h2 (m) Flow rate, q is the number of vehicles passing a point during
Car 1.08 0.60 a specified period of time; often referred to as volume when
Truck 2.33 0.60 expressed in vehicles per hour (veh/hr) measured over an
hour. Density, k is the number of vehicles per unit length.
Maneuver 1.08 0.60
Passing 1.08 1.08
Flowrate in vehicles per hour
Car headlight to 0.60 0
road surface
𝑞 = 𝑘 ⋅ 𝜇𝑠
Truck to car tail 2.33 0.60
Where
*Note, the boxed value above are the most common value of h1 and 𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠/𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑑
k = density (vehicles per kilometer) =
h2 (if not given in the problem). 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑑

Sight Distance on Sag Parabolic Curve Speed-density relation (Greenshield’s Model)

speed
When 𝑆 ≤ 𝐿 density

𝐴𝑆 2 The line is defined as speed as a function of density

𝐿=
200(𝑆 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 + 𝐻) 𝜇𝑓
𝜇𝑠 = 𝜇𝑓 − 𝑘
𝑘𝑗𝑎𝑚
for H = 0.61m and 𝛽 = 1°
𝐴𝑆 2 Jam Density:
𝐿= 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥
3.5𝑆 + 122 𝑘𝑗𝑎𝑚 =
𝜇𝑓
When 𝑆 > 𝐿
3.5𝑆 + 122 Where
𝐿 = 2𝑆 − qmax = capacity of a section of road (veh/hr)
𝐴 𝜇𝑓 = free flow speed (kph)
Where
A = g2 – g1 (in percent) Spacing of vehicles (m/veh)
L = length of the curve 1
S = sight distance 𝑆=
𝑘
FUNDAMENTALS OF TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Time headway
Space mean speed - Space mean speed (harmonic mean speed), 1
μs is the average speed of vehicles occupying a given length of
𝑇ℎ =
𝑞
road at an instant of time.

𝐷
𝜇𝑠 =
𝑡𝑎𝑣𝑒

Time mean speed - The arithmetic mean of the speeds of

vehicles passing a point during a given interval of time

𝜇1 + 𝜇2 + 𝜇3 + ⋯ + 𝜇𝑛
𝜇𝑡 =
𝑛 Where
S = 𝜇𝑠 𝑡 + 𝐿 (average center-to-center spacing of vehicles)
Where 𝜇 = average speed of vehicles
D = length of the road
L = average length of the vehicles
tave = average time of the number of vehicles passes the road
𝜇 = velocity/speed t = reaction time

Prepared by: Engr. Jobert S. De La Cruz

 fct = allowable tensile strength of concrete in MPa or psi
Average Daily Traffic (veh/day)
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 Thickness of Flexible Pavement
𝐴𝐷𝑇 = (Cone Pressure Distribution at 45°)
365

Peak Hour factor

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑃𝐻𝐹 =
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Accident Rate Per Million Entering Vehicles for an

Intersection
𝑁 𝑊
𝑅= (1,000,000) 𝑡=√ −𝑟
𝐴𝐷𝑇 ⋅ 𝑡 ⋅ 365 𝜋𝜎
Accident rate per hundred million vehicle-miles of travel for
Where
a segment of a highway
W = wheel load in N or lb
𝜎 = bearing strength of subgrade in MPa or lb
𝑁
𝑅= (100,000,000) r = equivalent radius of contact of wheel to pavement in mm
𝐴𝐷𝑇 ⋅ 𝑡 ⋅ 365 ⋅ 𝐿 or in.

Where Stiffness Factor of Pavement:

N = number of accidents 3 𝐸𝑠
t = time of period of analysis in years 𝑆𝐹 = √
𝐸𝑝
L = length of segment in miles

PAVEMENT DESIGN FORMULAS Where

Es = modulus of elasticity of subgrade (MPa or psi)
Thickness of Rigid Pavement Ep = modulus of elasticity of pavement (MPa or psi)
The thickness of a rigid pavement is designed by its assumption
that it will fail at the corners of a pavement (Older’s Theory) and
will crack at 45 degrees.

Rigid pavement (Without Dowels):

3𝑊
𝑡=√
𝑓𝑐𝑡

Rigid pavement (With Dowels):

3𝑊
𝑡=√ (at the edge)
2𝑓𝑐𝑡

3𝑊
𝑡=√ (at the center)
4𝑓𝑐𝑡

Where
W = wheel load in N or lb
Prepared by: Engr. Jobert S. De La Cruz