Transport within animals

Introduction :
Living organism constantly need the exchange of substances
such as nutrients, waste products and respiratory gases with
the environment in order to survive and grow.

Exchange of substances between the organism and its

environment usually takes place through diffusion.

Factors : Total surface area / Volume Ratio

Source distance
Concentration gradient
Transportation in animals :
Unicellular organisms :
- volume is small (TSA / V ratio high)
- easily obtain substances via diffusion as well as remove
waste products from the cell.
- sp.（草履虫）and sp. （变形虫）
Transportation in animals :
Multicellular organisms (Majority) :
- TSA / V ratio too low
- distance between source and cells are too far
- overcome by having circulatory system, provide distribution
of material to any part of the body and remove waste
products from body.
Transportation in animals :
Multicellular organisms (Minority) :
- The larger an animal, the greater its metabolic rate, the
more likely it require an internal transport system
- Smaller animals from Phylum Platyhelminthes and Cnidaria
do not have blood vascular system.
- Able to maintain the supply of O2 by diffusion alone.
Phylum Cnidaria

放射沟

性腺

感觉棍
 Transportation in animals :
Circulatory system of large multicellular organisms can be
divided into two types :

Open circulatory system

- blood is not enclosed in the blood vessels
and is pumped into a cavity called haemocoel
Closed circulatory system
- blood is pumped through the vessels separate
from the interstitial fluid of the body
Open Circulatory System :
An open circulatory system consists of one or more hearts.

Blood (haemolymph) is pumped at a relatively low pressure

from the heart through the aorta, into the haemocoel （心腔）

Haemocoel (sinuses) contains soft internal

organs, surrounded by haemolymph,
where the exchange of materials happens.

Distribution of blood is poorly controlled

Open Circulatory System :
When the heart relax, haemolymph is drawn back to the
hearts through the pores called ostia (S :ostium).

Ostia are equipped with valves that close when the hearts
contract.

Examples:
- most Arthropod 节肢动物
- molluscs 软体动物
 Blood Circulation :
Pulmonary circulation（肺循环）
- Pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs
- Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood back to the heart

Systemic circulation（体循环）
- Oxygen-rich blood pumped to all
organ systems to supply nutrients.
- The flow of blood between the
heart and the body cells.
(excluded lungs)
Closed Circulatory System :
Single Circulation （单循环）
Incomplete Double Circulatory System（半双循环）
Double Circulation（双循环）
Single Circulation :
Blood passes through the heart ONCE for each complete
circulation of the body.
Heart consists of only TWO chambers
( atrium 心房，ventricle 心室 )
Fish
Single Circulation - Fish
Blood is pumped from the ventricle to
the gills via arteries
Gas exchange in gills.
Pressure drops dramatically as
oxygenated blood leaves the gills
Blood flow to vital organs is both
slower and at a lower pressure,
compared to double circulatory system.
Single Circulation - Fish (extra)
(incomplete) Double Circulation
Incomplete Double Circulation - Amphibian
Two atrium (Atria) and One Ventricle

Both atria contract and pump the blood

to the ventricle at the same time.

Gas exchange at lungs and skin

Mixing of oxygenated blood and

deoxygenated blood in ventricle.
 Incomplete Double Circulation - Reptiles
Two atrium (atria) and one common
ventricle (semi-partitioned)

An incomplete septum divided the

same ventricle, reducing the mixing
of oxygenated blood and
deoxygenated blood.

Left and Right systemic aorta

Double Circulation - Birds & Mammals
2 atrium (atria) and 2 ventricles

Complete ventricular septum

(心室间隔). Prevent mixing of
oxygenated blood and
deoxygenated blood.

Improved efficiency in O2 distribution.

 Double Circulation - Advantages
Higher pressure and speed in blood circulation.
Low pressure limits the rate at oxygen and nutrients
delivering to respiring tissues

Greater flow of blood to tissues ( ↑exchange )

Complete double circulation separate oxygenated

blood and deoxygenated blood, improve oxygen
distribute efficiency
Heart
Double Circulation - Advantages
Heart
Hollow, muscular organ
Size of clenched fist
(varies by age and gender)
Located in thoracic cavity 胸腔,
between lungs, protected by
the sternum 胸骨
Average mass : 250-350g
Slightly oriented to the left
of the body’s midline.
( 2/3 of its mass )
Heart Structures
Pericardium 心包膜

Epicardium 心外膜

Myocardium 心肌层

Endocardium 心内膜
Pericardium 心包膜 / 围心膜
Heart is enclosed in a protective membrane
called the pericardium
Attached to diaphragm and firmly anchors
the heart in position
Two parts of pericardium:
- Fibrous pericardium 心包纤维
(outermost)
- Serous pericardium
Parietal layer 壁层 (outer)
Visceral layer 脏层 (inner)
Pericardium
Fibrous pericardium 心包纤维 (outermost)
- tough, inelastic
- prevent overfilled and overstrectched

Serous pericardium
- pericardial fluid
- reduce friction between
beating heart and
surrounding stationary
tissues.
Pericarditis 心包炎
Inflammation of any of the layers of the pericardium

Fluid buildup around the heart and poor heart function can
complicate the disorder.

Both acute and chronic pericarditis

can disrupt normal heart rhythm
and/or function and possibly
lead to death （rare）
Epicardium 心外膜
Thin layer of elastic connective tissue and fat. Serve as
additional layer of protection for the heart

Refers to both the outer layer of heart and Visceral layer of

serous pericardium

Contains the coronary blood vessels,

oxygenate the tissues of the heart with
blood supply from coronary arteries.
arise from base of aorta.
Myocardium 心肌层
Composed of mainly cardiac muscle (striated, branched)
proceed myogenic contraction. Intercalated disc synchronize

Thickest layer of the heart wall, with blood supply from

coronary arteries.

Specialized cardiomyocytes form the

cardiac conduction system, responsible
for generating contractile force and
control of rhythmic beating in the heart.
Myocardial Infarction 心肌梗死
Involve blockage of one or more of the coronary arteries.
Blood flow decreases or stops to a part of the heart, causing
damage to the heart muscle.
Most common symptom are chest pain or discomfort which
may travel into the shoulder, arm, back, neck or jaw.
Endocardium 心内膜
Inner layer of the heart wall. Composed of thin layer of
squamous epithelium lining, provide a smooth, elastic,
non-adherent surface for blood collection and pumping
Provide protection to valves and heart
chambers. Contain tendons that hold
the valves open
Control composition of extracellular
fluid which cardiomyocytes bathe
Purkinje fibers are located just beneath
the endocardium.
Atrium 心房
Collect and retain blood returning from body and lungs

Relatively thin-walled. contract minimally to push blood into

the ventricles (short distance)

Separated by atrial septum

Right Atrium - SA node location

(conducting system)
 Atrium 心房
Right Atrium Left Atrium
Blood Oxygen-poor Oxygen-rich
Superior vena cava & 4 Pulmonary veins
Receiving
Inferior vena cava (2+2)
Right ventricle Left Ventricle
Connect
( Tricuspid Valve ) ( Bicuspid Valve )
Participate Systemic circulation Pulmonary circulation
Ventricle 心室
Receive blood from atrium.

Left ventricle is thicker and more muscular than right ventricle

Separated by intraventricular septum

AV node located at the junction

between right atrium and right ventricle
(conducting system)
 Ventricle 心室
Right Ventricle Left Ventricle
Blood Oxygen-poor Oxygen-rich
Lungs Aorta - Body
Connect
( Semilunar valve ) ( Semilunar valve )
Wall Thinner, less muscular Thicker, more muscular
Pressure Lower Higher 6X
Systemic circulation Pulmonary circulation
Involve
Pulmonary circulation Systemic circulation
Other Heart Structure
Septum 心室间隔
- separation of oxygenated blood from deoxygenated blood

Atrioventricular Valve 房室瓣膜

- junction of atrial and ventricular chambers
- bicuspid valve & tricuspid valve
- prevent backflow of blood
- support by chordae tendineae
( 中文名：腱索）（心韧带 )
Other Heart Structure
Chordae Tendineae 腱索
- Tendon-resembling fibrous cords
of connective tissue.
- Prevent valves from flipping up

∆ When ventricle relaxed :

CT loose, AV valve open
∆ When ventricle contracted :
CT tense , AV valve close
Other Heart Structure
Chordae Tendineae
-
Other Heart Structure
Semilunar Valve 半月瓣
- located near origin of pulmonary artery and aorta (arch)
- pumped forward ( one-way )
- prevent backflow of blood
- close when ventricles relax
Other Heart Structure
Venae cavae : deoxygenated blood
Body (except lungs) → R Atrium
Pulmonary artery : deoxygenated blood
R Ventricle → Lungs

Pulmonary veins : oxygenated blood

Lungs → L Atrium
Aorta : oxygenated blood
L Ventricle → Body
自己测试
Conducting System of the HEART !!!
Conducting System of the HEART !!!
Origin of heartbeat is not a nerve impulse (neurogenic)
It’s an inherent property of cardiac muscle.

Heart pumps rhythmically 有节奏性 even after

surgically removed from the body, provided
that it’s maintained in a favourable medium

Cardiac muscle contract spontaneously w/o nervous or

hormonal stimulation. Contraction originate within the
muscle --- Myogenic Contractions 肌源性收缩
Sinoatrial Node (SA Node) 窦房结
Initial stimulus for contraction (systole and diastole) originates

Pacemaker, tiny structure within the wall of right atrium

generate electrical impulse (depolarisation)
determines the beat of the heart.

Excitation begins at this node, spread

through the wall of atria, causing the
contraction of the both atria
Sinoatrial Node (SA Node) 窦房结
From SA Node, depolarisation (去极化) wave spread via
gap junctions, throughout the atria, via internodal pathway
to the Atrioventricular Node (AV Node)

Rate of propagation slows down when

the impulse leaves internodal pathway
and enters the AV Node.

Short delay of 0.1 s to ensure ventricle

contract after atrium.
Atrioventricular Node (AV Node) 房室结
Located at the junction between atria and ventricles.

Connected to Bundle of HIS (房室束) and Purkinje fibers.

Impulses conducted rapidly

along the bundle of HIS and
Purkinje fibers (帕金氏纤维)，
to ventricular muscles to
stimulate ventricular contraction.
Atrioventricular Node (AV Node) 房室结
Both left and right bundle branch extend along the
interventricular septum toward the apex of the heart,
then turn superiorly into the ventricular walls.
Cardiac cycle
The period between the start of one heartbeat and the
beginning of the next is a single cardiac cycle（心动周期）

Cardiac cycle includes alternating periods of contraction

(systole) and relaxation (diastole) of atria and ventricles.

Events in cardiac cycle include the changes in pressure and

volume of blood in the chambers
 Atrium
Cardiac cycle Ventricle
Average heart rate 72 beats / min 0.1s
Each cardiac cycle : 0.8 s

3 Stages :
- atrial systole (0.1 s)
- ventricle systole (0.3 s)
- atrial & ventricular diastole (0.4 s)

Changes in pressure & volume (重点)

 Atrium
Cardiac cycle Ventricle
1) Atrial Systole ( 0.1s ) 0.1s
Both right and left atrium contract
Contraction exerts pressure on the blood within the atrial
chambers, force open the bicuspid and tricuspid valves.
Atrial systole added a small volume of blood to
the volume of blood already in each ventricle.
After receive blood from atrium, each ventricle
contains an average of 130 mL of blood.
(ventricles still in the stage of diastole)
End-Diastolic Volume (EDV) ≈ 130 mL
 Atrium
Cardiac cycle Ventricle
2) Ventricular Systole 0.1s
Ventricular muscles contract, bp in ventricles increases.
1st heart sound “lub” produce as AV Valves close
Meanwhile, blood fill up atria.

First phase of ventricular systole

- muscle fibers not shortening (isomeric)
- All 4 valves (AV, SL) closed
- volume of blood remain unchange (isovolumic)
- Isovolumic Ventricular Contraction
 Atrium
Cardiac cycle Ventricle
2) Ventricular Systole ( 0.3s ) 0.1s
Second phase of ventricular systole
- contraction causes rapid increase in pressure
- P(ventricles) > P(aorta / pulmonary trunk) ,
force open semilunar valves
- blood ejected from ventricles ( ≈70mL )
- Ventricular Ejection
- Volume of blood remaining (≈60mL) is
known as End-systolic volume ( ESV )
 Atrium
Cardiac cycle Ventricle
3) Atrial and Ventricular Diastole ( 0.4s )
First phase (Isovolumic Ventricular Relaxation)
- both atria and ventricles relax, pressure in chambers drop
- Semilunar valves close to prevent backflow of blood as
P(ventricles) < P(aorta / pulmonary trunk)
- 2rd heart sound “dub” produce as
Semilunar Valves close
- meanwhile, atria filling with blood
 Atrium
Cardiac cycle Ventricle
3) Atrial and Ventricular Diastole (0.4s)
Second phase (Late diastole)
- both atria and ventricles relax
- pressure in ventricle drop below pressure in atrium
- AV valves open ; SL valves remain close
- Ventricles filling with blood ( 75-85% volume )
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
Every heartbeat is triggered by an electrical signal that
starts at the top of your heart and travels to the bottom.

Heart problems often affect the electrical activity of heart

ECG / EKG is a simple test that can be used to check your

heart's rhythm and electrical activity

Detect ：arrythmias 心律失常，heart attack 心脏病

coronary heart disease 冠心病 ，cardiomyopathy 心肌症
Electrocardiogram (ECG) - extra
5 small squares form 1 larger square
Width (small) : 0.04s
Width (large) : 0.2s
ECG
- Atria (s) & Ventricle (d)

- Lead to Ventricle (s) ,

- Atrial (d)

- repolarisation of ventricles
- ventricle (d)
ECG
impulse conduction from SA→ AV→ Bundle of HIS→ Purkinje

total time ventricular de- & repolarization

ventricular repolarization (d)

ECG
3
ALL IN ONE
ALL IN ONE
a
Cardiac Output
The amount of blood the heart pumps through the circulatory
system in a minute.

Cardiac Output = Stroke Volume X Heart Rate

Cardiac output (litre /min) : around 5L/min

Stroke volume (ml / beat) : EDV-ESV, around 70-80ml/beat
Heart Rate (beat/min) : around 60-100 bpm (resting)
Regulation Mechanisms
Regulation of
heartbeat

Extrinsic Intrinsic
Regulation Regulation

Neural Hormonal Frank-Starling’s

Regulation Regulation Law
Intrinsic Regulation - Frank-Starling’s Law
Cardiac muscle responds to stretching by contracting more
strongly during systole, and an increased volume of blood
is pumped out
Intrinsic Regulation - Conduction system
Heartbeat relies on the regulation of
impulses generated and conducted
within the heart

The intrinsic impulse is affected by the

sympathetic and parasympathetic
divisions of autonomic nervous system
Extrinsic Regulation - Neural Regulation
Nervous control is by reflex action; reflex arcs originate in the
baroreceptors (stretch receptors) and chemoreceptors
located in the wall of aortic arch, sinuses of carotid arteries
and walls of vena cava

Sensory nerves carry impulses to the cardiovascular control

centre (containing accelerator / inhibitory centre) in medulla
oblongata 延髓
Extrinsic Regulation - Neural Regulation
Extrinsic Regulation - Neural Regulation
Cardiac acceleratory centre
- linked by sympathetic nervous system to the SA node
- sympathetic nerve release noradrenaline to SA node,
increase heart rate Cardiac acceleratory
Baroreceptors centre
increase ventricle contraction force less stimulate
(increase cardiac output)
At Low Blood Pressure
Heart Rate and Ventricle SA Node
contraction force increase

Release
Noradrenaline
Extrinsic Regulation - Neural Regulation
Cardiac inhibitory centre
- linked by parasympathetic nerve fibers within the vagus nerve to the
SA node, AV node and Bundle of HIS
- parasympathetic nerve release acetylcholine Cardiac inhibitory
Baroreceptors centre
decrease heart rate stimulated
- no effect on ventricle contraction
At High Blood Pressure
SA Node
AV Node
Heart Rate decrease Bundle of HIS

Release
Acetylcholine
Extrinsic Regulation - Hormonal Regulation
At time of stress, adrenaline (epinephrine) is secreted from
medulla of adrenal glands. (speed up heartbeat)
Heart disease
Angina 心绞痛
- chest pain or discomfort, heart muscle doesn't get enough oxygen
Atherosclerosis 动脉硬化
- plaque builds up, hardens and narrows inside arteries
Coronary Thrombosis 血栓形成造成的心肌梗死
- formation of a blood clot inside a blood vessel of the heart.
Sudden Cardiac Death
- sudden, unexpected death caused by a change in heart rhythm
(sudden cardiac arrest)
Blood vessels
Role of circulatory system is to transport blood to all parts
of the body

Three types :
- arteries
- capillaries
- veins

Each organ has a major artery

supplying it with blood from
the heart as well as a major vein
Structure of blood vessels (artery & vein)
Tunica Externa ( Outermost )
- fibrous connective tissue
- contractile tissues

Tunica Media ( Middle )

- smooth muscle
- elastic fibres

Tunica Intima ( Innermost )

- squamous endothelium
(squamous epithelial type)
 Difference
Aspect Artery Vein Capillary
Tunica
Thick Thin Absent
Externa

Tunica Media Thick, elastic, muscle Thin fewer elastic fiber Absent

Cross-section
Small Large Large
Size
Only in aorta and
Valve Absent in pulmonary vein Absent
pulmonary artery
Transport blood away Transport blood towards Site of materials
Functions
from heart heart exchange

Pressure High Low Falling

Varicose Vein 静脉曲张
Exchange in capillaries
Difference in pressure in blood pressure
and osmotic pressure help fluids
move in and out of capillaries

Interstitial fluid : water, ions, dissolved

gases and food substances. formed
when blood is ultrafiltered from the
capillaries into the intercellular spaces

Exit : aterial end

Enter : venous end
Blood
Blood is a fluid connective tissue contained within a closed systems
of tubes ( blood vessels )
Transportation of oxygen, nutrients, carbon dioxide and
waste products.
Contains regulatory substances such as hormones and enzymes.
6-10% of the body mass
Composition of Blood
Plasma ( 55% )
Blood cells ( 45% )
- Erythrocytes 红血球 - Leucocytes 白血球 - Thrombocytes 血小板
Plasma
Straw-colored, slightly alkaline fluid, consisting largely of water
Plasma protein 血浆蛋白 + Serum 血清

Function : [ Homeostasis 体内平衡 ]

- carry nutrients to the cell
- remove excretory products from the cell
- distribute hormones from endocrine glands to target organ
- distribute heat energy
Plasma
Plasma protein 血浆蛋白 + Serum 血清
Plasma
Plasma Protein Serum
1) Albumin 血蛋白 90% - water
- maintain osmotic
concentration and pH 10% - glucose , fats ,
2) Globulin 免疫球蛋白 amino acids ,
- produce antibody mineral salts ,
3) fibrinogen 纤维蛋白质 gases , urea ,
- assist in blood clotting hormones...
Hematopoiesis 造血作用
Hematopoiesis is the production of all of the cellular components of
blood and blood plasma.
It occurs within the hematopoietic system, which includes organs and
tissues such as the bone marrow, liver, and spleen
Simply, hematopoiesis is the process through
which the body manufactures blood cells.
Erythrocytes (RBC)
Small, circular, biconcave center, flexible
Lack nucleus (mature in bone marrow)

contain haemoglobin, red iron-rich protein that binds with oxygen

In the form of oxyhaemoglobin

Carry carbon dioxide as hydrogen carbonate

Lifespan : about 120 days

Broken down in spleen or liver
Most Iron retained for reuse
Remainder convert to biliverdin & bilirubin
Leucocytes (WBC)
Five different types of leucocytes

(i) Agranulocytes (w/o granular cytoplasm)

- Lymphocytes 淋巴球
- Monocytes 单核白血球

(ii) Granulocytes (with granular cytoplasm)

- Neutrophils 中性白血球
- Eosinophils 嗜酸性白血球
- Basophils 嗜碱性白血球
Leucocytes - Lymphocytes 淋巴球 33%
Very large nucleus, agranulocytes

One of the body's main types of immune cells

Made in the bone marrow and found in the blood and lymph tissue

B lymphocytes produce antibodies that can recognize “foreigner”

(antigen), induce immunity

T lymphocytes target specific antigen

Leucocytes - Monocytes 单核白血球 6%
Bean-shaped nucleus

Engulf bacteria and foreign particle by endocytosis

( Major phagocytic cells )

May migrate out of capillaries in response to the

presence of pathogenic microorganisms

Known as tissue macrophages in tissues

Leucocytes - Neutrophils 中性白血球 57%
First cells to arrive on the scene when experience a bacterial infection

Multi lobed nucleus, most abundant granulocytes

Able to squeeze between cells of capillaries, enter

intercellular space

Engulf foreign substances, digest them with

lysosome, hydrolytic enzyme

High neutrophil counts = under infection or stress

Leucocytes - Eosinophils 嗜酸性白血球 3.5%
Increase in number with allergic conditions such as asthma and hay
fever (花粉过敏)

movement to inflamed areas, trapping substances, killing cells,

anti-parasitic and bactericidal activity

Promote inflammation, isolate and control a disease site.

Bi-lobed nucleus

High Eosinophil counts indicates parasitic infection

allergic reaction or cancer
Leucocytes - Basophils 嗜碱性白血球 0.5%
Least common type of granulocyte (up to 300 per ml of blood)

Do not ingest foreign cells

Produce histamine when it encounters allergens, increases blood flow

to damaged tissues, resulting in swelling and inflammation

Draw Neutrophils and Eosinophils to infected area

Thrombocytes (Platelets)
Shaped like small plates in their non-active form

Produced from very large bone marrow cells called megakaryocytes.

Megakaryocytes develop into giant cells, undergo fragmentation,
resulting in the release of over 1,000 platelets per megakaryocyte

Lifespan : 7-14 days, synthesis in bone marrow, destroy in liver/spleen

Anucleate
Blood Clotting (Coagulation 凝血)
Form a network of insoluble fibres which entangles the blood cell and
debris to form blood clot

Vitamin K
Ca2+
Thromboplastins
Transport of oxygen
Approximate 270 Millions haemoglobin (Hb)

Hb = 4 haem group + 4 polypeptide chain (2α+2β)

Haem is composed of a ring-like organic compound

known as a porphyrin, to which an iron atom is attached

Haem groups are responsible for its red

colour and site of oxygen transport
Transport of oxygen
Oxygen molecules fit into pockets in the haemoglobin called binding
sites and formed oxyhaemoglobin [氧合血红蛋白]
Hb + 4 O2 Hb(O2)4

Each Iron atom combines with

a molecule of oxygen, without
oxidation of Iron (II)

Combine with Hb (Most)

Dissolved state in plasma
Transport of oxygen
Haemoglobin combines with the oxygen to form the unstable
oxyhaemoglobin complex

Hemoglobin has a remarkable property of forming a weak chemical

bond with oxygen so the reaction is readily reversible
Transport of Carbon dioxide
CO2 is transported in the blood from tissue to the lungs in four ways :

- dissolved in plasma ( about 5 % )

- buffered with water as bicarbonate ions ( Plasma 65 % + RBC 25 % )

- loosely bound to haemoglobin

(carbamino haemoglobin , Hb-CO2 , 5 %)
[氨基甲酸血红蛋白]

- transported as carbonic acid ( < 0.1 % )

Transport of Oxygen and Carbon dioxide
Transport of Oxygen and Carbon dioxide
Pulmonary capillary
Transport of Oxygen and Carbon dioxide
Pulmonary capillary

- O2 diffuses into RBC, combine with haemoglobin to form an

oxyhaemoglobin, a hydrogen ion is free
O2 + HHb → Hb-O2 + H+
- released hydrogen combine with bicarbonate ions, release CO2
H + HCO3- → CO2 + H2O

Haldane Effect
- ↑oxygen tension, ↑delivery of carbon dioxide
Transport of Oxygen and Carbon dioxide
Tissue fluid
Transport of Oxygen and Carbon dioxide
Tissue fluid

- CO2 diffuses into RBC, combine with water to form carbonic acid,
release a hydrogen ion
CO2 + H2O → HCO3- + H+
- free hydrogen combine with oxyhaemoglobin and release O2
H + HbO2 → HHb + O2

Bohr Effect
- ↑carbon dioxide tension, ↑delivery of oxygen
Transport of Oxygen and Carbon dioxide
CO2 reacts with the water in the red blood cell, forming carbonic acid
(H2CO3), catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase [碳酸酐酶]

Carbonic acid dissociates into bicarbonate ion and hydrogen ion

Carbonic
anhydrase
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-

Haemoglobin acts as buffer by accepting hydrogen ions

H+ + Hb → HHb ( haemoglobinic acid 血红蛋白酸 )

This enables large quantities of carbonic acid to be carried to the lungs

without any major alteration in blood pH
Oxygen Dissociation Curve

High P (O2) in alveoli

- more O2 attach to Hb

Low P (O2) in tissue

- less O2 attach to Hb
Myoglobin
Conjugated protein, chemically similar to haemoglobin

Consists of a single haem-globin unit

Mostly found in skeletal muscle, as a reserve of oxygen

Its pigment gives characteristic red colour of meat

Much higher affinity for oxygen

than haemoglobin
Myoglobin
Myoglobin is saturated with oxygen at rest

Only release oxygen at a very low

partial pressure of oxygen

Myoglobin hold much more oxygen

at a low partial pressure than Hb
Fetal haemoglobin 胎儿血红素
The main oxygen transport protein in human fetus during last seven
months of development, until roughly 6 months old (newborn)

Fetal and maternal blood run close but never mixed

Has greater affinity for oxygen than adult haemoglobin

(better access to oxygen from mother’s bloodstream)
At each partial pressure of
oxygen, fetal haemoglobin is
more saturated than adult
haemoglobin
Oxygen Dissociation Curve
The shape of the oxygen dissociation
curve of Hb is sigmoidal (S shape),
whereas the shape of other oxygen
carrying molecules (Myoglobin) is
hyperbolic

hyperbolic curve indicates that much

lower P(O2) are needed to saturate
myoglobin molecules compared with
haemoglobin molecules

Myoglobin > Fetal haemoglobin > Adult haemoglobin

Oxygen Dissociation Curve
Carbon monoxide binds to Hb at the same site as oxygen, form
carboxyhaemoglobin

CO has 210 times greater affinity for Hb than O2

CO is a competitive inhibitor to O2
when it comes to binding to Hb

CO also binds to myoglobin

(60 times greater than O2)
Altitude sickness
Air is "thinner" at high altitudes meaning
there are fewer oxygen molecules per
volume of air

Acclimatization (1-3 days)

erythropoietin (EPO), triggers the

production of more red blood cells to
aid in oxygen delivery to the muscles