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Mechanics 1
By Adolphe Ratiarison
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Table of contents
I. Mechanics 1_______________________________________________ 3
III. Time_____________________________________________________ 3
IV. Materials__________________________________________________ 3
VI. Content___________________________________________________ 4
6.1 Overview ____________________________________________ 4
6.2 Graphic Organizer______________________________________ 6
I. Mechanics 1
Pr Adolphe RATIARISON
III. Times
120 hours
IV. Materials
• Internet access
• Computer with CDROM
• Adequate software (MS office)
• Television
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V. Module Rationale
This module is part of a training program for teachers. It helps to lay the basic
skills acquired in the secondary school teaching system.
It addresses the movement of objects that are crucial in the physical universe.
The description of these movements is the essential work of physicists in the
development of science since Galileo and Aristotle.
This module helps the learner to better understand the laws governing move-
ment.
VI. Content
Mechanics 1 Module
Sinusoidal movement
Circular movement
Kinematics of a
Curvilinear Cycloidal movement
material point
movement
Helical movement
Cylindrical coordinates
Coordinate
systems Spherical coordinates
Solid Dynamics of a
equilibrium material point
Newton’s 3 laws
Equilibrium
stability
Kinetic moment
Work-Energy-Power
Oscillators
5
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Parametric equations
Equatio ns pa ra métr iqu es x=x=
x(t);x(t);
y=y(t)y=y(t)
f(x,y)=Cte
f(x,y)=Cte
Equatio n d eequation
Trajectory l a traj ectoire
• •
Composante sof
d espeed
l a vit esse x ( t ); y( t )
Components
G énér alités sur la
Generalities
cinématique du Composante s d e l’ a ccélération •• ••
Of Components of acceleration x ( t ), y ( t )
point
kinematics
Composante s int r ins èques d e l’ a ccélération dv v 2
Intrinsic components of acceleration ;
dt R
Composante s d e l a vit esse et d e
l’ac céléra tion danof
Components s diffé r velocity
ents syst èmes deand
coordonn ées
acceleration in different coordinate
systems
1. learn about
- Physical quantities,
- Concepts of energy and work
- Relation between energy and work
2. learn and apply the following concepts :
- One-dimensional movement
- Two and three-dimensional movement
- Newton’s 3 laws
- Kinetic energy
- Working in a group to find solutions to an exercise
3. Students should be able to set, carry out experiments and analyse expe-
rimental data to establish relations between physical quantities
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Unit 2 : (30 H) Learning objectives- Define the trajectory of a moving object
Kinematics of a material point : - Define average velocity
- One-dimensional movement, - Recall the components of acceleration vectors in a (o, x, y,
- Two or three-dimensional z) coordinate system
movement Specific objectives of theoretical knowledge
- Write the parametric equations of movement.
- Calculate average velocity of a moving object.
- Calculate the instantaneous velocity of a moving object.
- Calculate average acceleration of a moving object.
- Calculate the instantaneous acceleration of a moving
object
- Integrate the instantaneous velocity
- Integrate the instantaneous acceleration
- Trace the trajectory of a moving object
- Caclulate the intrinsic (local) components of the
acceleration
Specific objectives of group work
- Accomplish an exercise with group members
9. Preliminary evaluation
QUESTIONS
2. We call the trajectory of a moving object the set of points that a moving object
follows when the time t…………..
7. You are in a car approaching a curve with velocity v. When the car
9. Two vectors which are equal in intensity have between them an angle a. R de-
notes the resultant of two vectors and U the common module of these two vectors.
Associate the correct answers by matching the letter and number
a. a = 90 ° 1. R=0
b. a = 0 ° 2. R = U 2
c. a = 180 ° 3. R=2U
d. a = 45° 4. R = U 3
10. A brick of mass M placed on a smooth table is :
a. subject only to the action of its own weight
b. not exposed to any force
c. exposed only to the reaction of the table
d. exposed to its own weight and the reaction of the table
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Correct Answers
1. Movement means the displacement of a moving object object from one place
to another. Movement is essentially related to displacement.
2. We call the trajectory of a moving object the set of points that a moving ob-
ject follows when the time, t varies. Good answer, in fact displacement is
related to time.
3.
b. Very good. A vector is always oriented and has a measure which is not the
case of a ray.
4.
9. a2 ; b3 ; c1. are the correct answers, and you know how to calculate the result
of two forces.
For all other answers (a1, a3, b2, b1, c2, c3, d1, d2, d3, d4, a4, b4, c4,) : Think
before answering.
10.
a. Incorrect.
b. Think about it, it is impossible
c. A solid in equilibrium is subjected to at least 2 forces
d. Correct. You are recalling action and reaction.
11.
a. Watch out. Work is a scalar product of two vectors, but is not itself a vector.
b. Correct. The work of a force is a scalar.
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12.
a. Correct. Work is a form of energy.
b. Incorrect.
13
a. Watch out. Energy and power do not have the same units.
b. Correct. The integration of energy cannot provide power.
14.
a. Correct. Gravity is indeed a force.
b. Incorrect. Think of the units.
15.
a. Correct. Unlike gravity, mass is a scalar.
b. Reread your lesson.
UNIT 1 :
There are four required readings for Unit 1. They are grouped in Appendix 1.
Reading #1
Complete references :
RATIARISON Adolphe (2006). Grandeurs physiques – Mesures-Incertitudes-
opérations vectorielles. Madagascar. Université d’Antanarivo.
The first two parts of this document are drawn from the following sites:
http://www.bipm.fr/fr/si/si_brochure/chapter1/1-2.html
http://www.cegep-ste-foy.qc.ca/freesite/index.php?id=3113
http://www.ulb.ac.be/cours/psycho/content/cognum/calcul.html
Summary : The value of a physical quantity is usually expressed as the prod-
uct of a number by a unit. For a particular quantity, we can use many different
units. Among these units, we distinguish those of the International System (SI)
based on seven base quantities.
The measurement of a physical quantity can be done directly, such as the
length with the meter, the voltage with a voltmeter, or indirectly such as a sur-
face area obtained by the product of the length by width.
Finally, the various operations on vectors are detailed.
Justification:
- Any physicist must know the units of measure because we cannot add
two different sizes without expressing in the same unit.
- The vector addition is not only part of the composition of forces, but it is
also vitally important in the composition of movement that we will see
later.
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Reading #2
Complete references :
http://tanopah.jo.free.fr/seconde/Vct2.html
Addition, opposing, and subtraction of vectors.
Summary : This course and nearly all elements and programming within,
were designed and made by Jerome ONILLON. It is listed by the Irish tavern.
Addition and subtraction of two vectors are well detailed. It highlights the
properties of vector addition as: commutativity, associativity, existence of neu-
tral elements without forgetting the Chasles relationship
Justification: This completes the reading #1 The parallelogram rule used for
addition and subtraction of vectors is well explained.
Reading #3
Complete references :
http://formation.etud.u-psud.fr/pcsm/physique/outils_nancy/apprendre/ chapitre2/
partie2/Title1res.htm
Vectors. Vector addition.
Summary : Vector addition is an internal composition law and has the fol-
lowing properties :
• Associativity
• Commutativity
• Neutral element
• Symmetric element
Hence, we can talk about subtracting a vector from another, and the Chasles
relationship.
The multplication of a vector by a scalar is an external composition law.and
has the following properties:
• Distributivity with respect to vector addition :
• Distributivity with respect to scalar addition :
• Associativity :
• Neutral element :
These properties are followed by :
• The determination of the position of a point M on a segment AB,
• The linear combination of two vectors.
Justification : Starting from the linear combination of several vectors, we can
define the centroid of several points affected by weights ai
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Reading #4
Complete references :
http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9om%C3%A9trie_vectorielle
Vector geometry.
Summary : We develop addition and subtraction of vectors, and multipying a
vector by a scalar. Properties of a scalar product, vector product, mixed pro-
duct and double vector product.
Justification : Allows readers to gain an in-depth understanding of vector
operations.
Unité 2 : Kinematics of a material point
1D, 2D, and 3D movement
There are 3 required readings in Unit 2. They are grouped in Appendix 2.
Reading #5
Complete references :
RATIARISON, A. (2006). Cinématique du point. Mouvement à 1D, 2D ou
3D. Madagascar. Université d’Antananarivo. Cours inédit
Summary : The generality of the kinematic point concerns the definition of
referentials, tracking a moving object in space, the curvilinear abscissa, the
velocity vectors and acceleration vectors.
This manual will then examine the rectilinear uniform motion and uniformly
varied motion.
When considering curvilinear movement, we emphasize the intrinsic compo-
nents of acceleration, circular motion, cycloidal and spiral motion.
Finally, the different coordinate systems and components of velocity and ac-
celeration vectors in these coordinate systems are considered.
Reading #6
Complete references :
http://abcsite.free.fr/physique/meca/me_ch3.html
Kinematics of a point
Summary : This reading completes the previous calculations of components
of speed and acceleration vectors in different coordinate systems. Polar coor-
dinates and semi-polar coordinates are also still taught.
In this reading we encounter the so-called hodograph.
The different diagrams are clearly legible.
Justification: This course is easy to read, and can offer significant help to
students.
Reading #7
Complete references :
http://www.chez.com/mecasite/Mecanique/cinematsol.htm
Kinematics of a point.
Summary : This reading reinforces our knowledge of movement, the average
velocity, average acceleration, instantaneous velocity and instantaneous ac-
celeration. The rotational motion and uniform circular motion varied uniformly
are also highly developed.
Justification: In addition to the two previous readings, it completes the course
of the kinematics of the point.
UNIT 3 : Equilibrium of a solid on a horizontal plane
In Unit 3, there are 3 required readings, which are grouped in Appendix 3.
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Reading #8
Complete reference :
RATIARISON, A. (2006). Equilibre d’un solide sur un plan – Faculté des
Sciences- Université d’Antananarivo –MADAGASCAR, Cours inédit
Summary : This reading is mainly concerned with the equilibrium of a solid
on a plane. A solid can slide or rotate on a plane if it is not in equilibrium. To
introduce the equilibrium of a solid, we speak of torque, which is a system of
free vectors. This system of free vectors is reduced to the resultant forces and
resultant moment of all forces applied to the system considered. The equili-
brium condition is defined by a torque of zero, meaning a general zero result
and zero moment.
Justification: In the module only zero resultant forces have been defined, but
to broaden the knowledge of students we must also mention the zero moment
of the forces applied to the system in question.
Unit 3 :
Reading #9
Complete reference :
Statique du solide taken from « http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statique_du_solide »
A Wikipedia article.
Solid Statics
Summary : The possible movements, sometimes called degrees of freedom
are of two kinds: translations (3 main directions) and rotation (around the three
directions). While the translations may not be caused by forces, rotations are
generated by moments of these forces, or other pairs of force. When the equi-
librium point requires that the establishment of 3 algebraic relations (equation
of vector forces in 3 dimensions), while that of the solid demands the consid-
eration of 3 additional equations (moments vector equation). The fundamental
principle of statics can then be considered:
1. the theorem of the resultant (sum of forces is zero).
2. the theorem of the moment (sum of moments is zero).
Unit 3 :
Reading #10
Complete reference :
http://www.ac-poitiers.fr/cmrp/cpge/docs/Coursdemodelisationetdestatique.doc
Solid statics
Summary : The mechanical action is anything likely to maintain a body at rest,
create or modify a motion to deform a body, and manifests itself in two forms:
- The translational motion due to the resultant forces applied to the solid
- The rotation due to the resultant moment of these forces
Before stating the Fundamental Principle of Statics (FPS), the author speaks of
the modeling contact activities:
- Contact with a fluid on a solid,
- The contact of two solids.
Reading #11
Complete reference :
RATIARISON, A. (2006). Composition de mouvement, Dynamique du point
matériel, Travail – Energie - Puissance, Oscillateurs– Faculté des Sciences-
Université d’Antananarivo –MADAGASCAR, Cours inédit
Topics on dynamics and oscillators were taken from :
http://abcsite.free.fr/index.html
Summary : This unit begins by addressing the law of movement composition
and Newton’s 3 laws, with their practical applications.
It continues by discussing evidence on Coriolis inertial forces.
It highlights the definition and calculation of work produced by the conserva-
tive forces and that produced by non-conservative forces.
It establishes the theorem of kinetic energy and the theorem of mechanical
energy.
It concludes with the study of damped harmonic oscillators.
Justification: To get a general idea of absolute motion and relative motion, the
course begins with the generalization of different velocities and accelerations
of the three Newton laws, and theorems of mechanical and kinetic energy on
the basis of the dynamic point.
Reading #12
Complete reference :
Papanicola Robert, http://www.sciences-indus-cpge.apinc.org/IMG/pdf/ CIN2_
DERIVATION_VECTORIELLE.pdf
Vectorial derivation.
Summary : This course of vector derivation leads to the composition law of
motion. It therefore complements the course of Ratiarison Adolphe. For the
concept of the composition of three rotations, the author brings the three Euler
angles, namely precession, nutation and proper rotation.
Justification:The three Euler angles are not on the agenda because in prac-
tice this concerns the kinematics of sound. It is therefore not essentially that
a student spends considerable time on it. The composition of rotations is well
developed in the course of Ratiarison.
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Reading #13
Complete reference :
http://abcsite.free.fr/physique/meca/me_ch3.html
Dynamics of a material point
Work, energy, and power
Oscillators
Summary : A complete course on the dynamics of a material point. It follows
the site : http://abcsite.free.fr/physique/meca/me_ch3.html that was already cited
in the kinematics portion.
Justification : A course that is easy to read.
Reading #14
Resource #1
Complete reference :
RATIARISON, A. (2006), Cours de mécanique générale 1
Faculté des Sciences -Université d’Antananarivo - Madagascar
Summary : This mechanics course is taught in the first year of university in
the Faculté des Sciences, at the Ecole Normale and l’Ecole Supérieure Poly-
technique at l’Université d’Antananarivo.
It discusses the vector operators, and the kinematic point in a Galilean refer-
ence. The laws of composition of movements are dealt with in the kinematics
portion. Central acceleration movements are also developed.
Justification: This is useful for practical exercises from a distance.
Resource #2
Complete reference:
PEREZ, J. P. (1997). Mécanique – Fondements et applications. Université Paul
Sabatier Toulouse – France. Edition MASSON, 120 bd St Germain 75 280
Paris Cedex 06
Summary : It is a comprehensive manual for students from first to third year.
The mechanics of a material point, the dynamics of solids, the movement of
central acceleration, oscillators, analytical mechanics, and fluid mechanics are
treated.
Justification: Students will always need this book during their studies, be-
cause apart from the topics of kinematics and mechanics of a solid, there are
also fluid mechanics topics and several applications that are treated..
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Resource #3
Complete reference :
http ://www.hazelwood.k12.mo.us/grichert/sciweb/applets.htlm
Summary : This site is a compilation of links leading to other internet sites
containing physics-based simulations.
Justification : Students will always have a need for this manual during their
studies, as many physics topics are developed.
Resource #4
Complete reference:
CAZIN, M. (1995), Cours de mécanique générale et industrielle– Gautier
Villars – tome 1, NY 1003 -1995
Summary : A complete course, but slightly difficult to read. However, it
contains many applications and is very useful in further studies.
Justification : The student will find many applications to mechanics.
Resource #5
Complete reference:
The Free High School Science Texts: A Textbook for High - School Students
Studying Physics.- FHSST Authors1 - December 9, 2005 -http://savannah.
nongnu.org/projects/fhsst
Summary : Many physics topics are in this manual, including mechanics,
electricity, optics, and electromagnetism.
The student can learn all about physics by consulting this site.
Justification: Students will always find a use for this book, since the physics
topics are very well developed.
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Resource #6
Complete reference:
http://www.google.ca/search?client=firefox_a&rls=org.mozilla%3Aen-US%Aofficial-
&hl=en&q=c3%A9equilibre+d%27un+solide+sur+plan&meta
Summary : This site contains practical exercises of equilibrium of a solid on a
place, subject to many forces.
Justification: Students can do practical exercises on the site.
Resource #7
Complete reference:
http://www.chimix.com/an5/prem5/hotp5/force1htlm
Summary : This site contains practical exercises of equilibrium of a solid on a
place, subject to many forces. Visualisation of free fall and apparent motion.
Justification: Students can do practical exercises on the site.
Resource #8
Complete reference:
http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/statique-du-solide
Summary : This page summarizes static equilibrium of a solid.
Justification : Students can do practical exercises on the site.
Resource #9
Complete reference:
http://formation.edu-psud.fr/pcsm/physique/outils_nancy/apprendre/Chapitre2/Title-
1res.htm
Summary : Developed in this site:
- the vector sum and its properties (associativity, commutativity, identity
element, element symmetrical), the difference of two vectors, the rela-
tionship Chasles
- the product of a vector by a scalar and its properties (distributivity over
vector addition, distributivity with respect to the addition of scalar, asso-
ciativity, and the existence of the neutral element).
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Resource #10
Complete reference:
http://formation.edu-psud.fr/pcsm/physique/outils_nancy/apprendre/Chapitre3/partie3
/ Title1res.htm
Summary : This document geometrically represents complex numbers. Addi-
tion and subtraction of complex numbers relates to addition and subtraction of
vectors.
Justification: This site demonstrates that addition and subtraction of vectors
has other applications in the field of science.
Resource #11
Complete reference:
http://msch2.microsoft.com/fr-fr/library/system.windows.forms.paddings.op_addition.
aspx
http://msch2.microsoft.com/fr-fr/library/system.windows.forms.paddings.op_methods.
aspx
http://mathexel.site.voila.fr/index.htlm
Summary : These documents execute the addition and subtraction of vectors
on the computer screen.
They show different operations using the « Padding » method.
Justification: The student is, with the aid of an instructor, familiarized with
vector operations.
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Resource #12
Complete reference:
http://www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/physique/perso/corticol/bibliohtml/lissajou_
j.html
http://www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/physique/perso/corticol/bibliohtml/cycloi_j.html
http://www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/physique/perso/corticol/bibliohtml/pndhgs_
j.html
Summary: The first document sets out a Lissajous curve corresponding to the
addition of two perpendicular sinusoidal movements of their phase.
A cycloid is the trajectory of a fixed point of a circle when it rolls without slip-
ping on a line. The second document shows how to trace a cycloid as a func-
tion of the travel speed of the circle.
The third document highlights the oscillation of a cycloidal pendulum, which
is called the Huygens pendulum.
Resource #13
Complete reference :
http://electronics.free.fr/school/article.phys3?id_article=9#5
Summary : This site belongs to a young Moroccan born February 5, 1988 who
is passionate about philosophy, mathematics and computing. That’s why he
created this site which is a medium of exchange of knowledge and experience.
This article is a summary of the kinematics of a particle in a Galilean refer-
ence. It defines:
- The position vector
- The velocity vector
- The acceleration vector
- The average acceleration vector
- The average velocity
- Cartesian coordinates of the acceleration vector
- Coordinates of the acceleration vector in the Frenet reference
It develops some specific movements:
- The rectilinear motion (uniform and uniformly varying)
- The circular motion (uniform and uniformly varying)
Justification: We have already developed all of the topics, but it is interesting
to see what others are doing.
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Resource #14
Complete reference:
http://www.chez.com/Mecanique/cinematipts.htm
Summary : After defining the kinematic characteristics (velocity and accelera-
tion) the author speaks of:
- Uniform rectilinear movements and uniformly varying
- Movements of rotation, the normal components and tangential acceleration
- Movements of uniform rotation and uniformly varying
Justification: We have already developed all of the topics, but it is interesting
to see what others are doing.
Resource #15
Complete reference :
http://www.chez.com/Mecanique/dynamiqu.htm
Summary : This site contains :
Fundamental principle of the dynamics of solids under rectilinear translation.
D’Alembert ;s principle ;
Rotational movement with respect to a fixed axis.
Justification: We have already developed all of the topics, but it is interesting
to see what others are doing.
Resource #16
Complete reference :
http://www.chez.com/Mecanique/energeti.htm
Summary : This site summarizes the mechanical energy of a point. The work
of a force, the work of a couple, the gravitational potential energy, elastic
energy of a spring, kinetic energy of a solid translation, the kinetic energy of
a solid rotation, the average power, the power developed by a force, and the
concept of performance are shown.
Justification : This completes our course.
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Resource #17
Complete reference :
http://www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/physique/perso/gtulloue/aquadiff.html
Summary : The purpose of this site is to illustrate the solution of linear dif-
ferential equations of first and second order frequently encountered in physics.
The solution itself is developed in mathematics courses and will not be detailed
here. However, there is a summary of results and examples.
Illustrations and animations found here include:
- The presentation of the harmonic oscillator.
- The horizontal linear oscillator
- The elastic pendulum
- The weighted pendulum
- The tension of a pendulum wire
- The period of the pendulum weight
- The Botafumeiro
- The cycloidal pendulum
Justification : This is useful for practical exercises from a distance.
Resource # 18
Complete reference
http://www.n-vandewiele.com/TDMeca2.pdf
Summary : Seven corrected exercises concerning the composition of move-
ment and changing reference states.
Justification: Since there are not many exercises concerning the compostion
of movement, the student should familiarize themselves with this topic from
other resources as well.
Resource # 19
Complete reference :
http://www.ens-lyon.fr/Infosciences/Climats/Dynam-atmo/Cours-Coriolis
Summary : The purpose of this site is to supplement knowledge of the
Coriolis force. The author tries to introduce the concepts gradually so that the
Coriolis force is understandable with minimal prior knowledge.
• This site consists of seven paragraphs:
• The first shows the existence of forces of inertia and the Coriolis force.
• The second gives us the mathematical expression of the Coriolis force.
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Resource #20
Complete reference :
http://www.ucd.ma/fs/modules/meca1/um1./modules3/cin2.htm
http://perso.orange.fr/rmchs/physique_05/cours_physique/cours_mecach5_cinemati-
que.pdf
Summary : A course on different coordinate systems and on the laws of com-
position of velocities and accelerations.
Justification: We have already developed all of the topics, but it is interesting
to see what others are doing.
Resource #21
Complete reference :
http://www.keepschool.com/cours-fiche-les_systèmes_oscillants
Summary :
This site serves as a supplement to courses on oscillators. It talks about:
- classification of experimental oscillators (experimental properties and
characteristic properties of oscillators)
- free mechanical oscillators (simple pendulum, horizontal elastic pendu-
lum)
- mechanical oscillators forced (torsion pendulum in forced oscillations,
resonance phenomena)
Justification:
The course of this site is given a simple way. It can help the student understand
oscillators.
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Resource #22
Complete reference:
http://www.logitheque.com/fiche.asp?I=18755
Summary : Static is an educational software used in physical science at the
high school level dealing with the static point of solid material subjected to one
or more forces (or forces couples) to show the conditions of equilibrium solids.
STATIC revolves around six themes related to statics
- Equilibrium point;
- Equilibrium of a solid rotation about an axis;
- Equilibrium of a solid subjected to couples of forces;
- Equilibrium of a rod rotating about an axis;
- Static solid on an inclined plane with or without friction forces;
- Static floaters (Archimedes principle).
Justification: The learner will deepen their knowledge on the equilibrium of a
solid rotation about an axis and of static floaters.
Resource #23
Complete reference :
http://www.univ-lemans.fr/enseignements/physique/01/statique.htm
Summary : A brief summary of the equilibrium and dynamics of points in a
Galilean reference.
Justification : This module summarizes the different forces that can act on a
point or an object.
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Resource #24
Complete reference :
http://www.univ-lemans.fr/enseignements/physique/02/meca/couplage3.html
Summary : We have here a simulation of a coupling of 3 mechanic oscilla-
tors, neglecting friction. The independent pulsations of the oscillators are w12
= K/M1, w22 = K/M2,. w32 = K/M3.
Each mass is subjected to the restoring force of 2 springs attached to it.
The movement equations are :
To treat all cases in the program, this system of coupled differential equations
is solved numerically using the Runge-Kutta order of 4.
By assumption, the initial velocity of the two masses is always zero.
One can see that for any initial conditions the solution is usually a complex
aspect. It is a linear combination of the three proper modes.
It is of the form: Xi = Ai.cos (wpt) + Bi.cos (wqt) + Ci.cos (wrt) (i = 1, 2, 3)
The values of the constants Ai, Bi and Ci are a function of initial conditions.
Useful link #1
Justification :
We can see the envelope trajectory (parabola of safety) if we vary the direction
and intensity of the initial velocity. The learner can calculate the equation of
the parabola of safety.
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Useful link #2
Justification :
This animation shows the meeting point of two moving object objects. The
learner can calculate the z component of the meeting point of the projectile and
the other object, and the time at which they will meet.
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Useful link #3
Justification :
The animation shows the movement of the moon and a solar planet. The trajec-
tories are presented in two different references.
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Useful link #4
Justification :
One can observe the sinusoidal signal propagation along the spring and the
displacement of a localized point M of the spring.
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Useful link #5
Justification :
The animation here shows the conservation of mechanical energy. You can
choose the number of pendulums N released without initial velocity and com-
mon initial angle.
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Useful link # 6
Justification :
We have here the coupling of three springs of respective stiffness k, k0 and K.
You can vary the stiffness k0 in the second spring and we can have the proper
modes of periods T1 and T2.
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Useful link #7
Justification :
The student may vary the period of rotation of the carousel, the pathways of
rays Ra and Rb, and calculate the centrifugal force of inertia applied to A and
B.
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Useful link #8
Justification :
In this site we find another reference that is the centroid reference. We there-
fore study two different references (the fixed reference and the centroid refer-
ence).
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Useful link #9
Justification :
By changing the parameters b, x0 and T0, we visualize the range of equilib-
rium and location of extremum. The student can then write the equation of
motion.
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Justification :
The trajectory of the sun is not perfectly circular because it describes a circle
of radius R in the plane Oxy galactic center O, but it varies more along the axis
Oz, perpendicular on both sides of this plane.
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Justification:
Study of circular movement in a vertical plane.
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Justification :
The Earth T and another planet P demonstrate a circular motion around the
sun. It shows the relative motion of P relative to T.
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Justification :
By varying the velocity of the dog and its handler, it displays the path of the
dog and the student can find the equation of the trajectory based on these ve-
locities.
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Justification :
Before finding the distance traveled by each fly, the student tries to find the
equation of the trajectory of each fly.
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Learning activity 1
Activity title
• Vector quantities
• Addition and subtraction of vectors
• Vector operations
Activity summary
The main aim of this module is the dynamics of material points subjected to
various forces that can be represented by vectors. Thus, this activity is to famil-
iarize oneself with the common vector operators. As the movement of particles
can be movements of translation and / or rotation, we can not confine ourselves
to only addition and subtraction of vectors, but we must also investigate other
operations of vectors, such as the vector product.
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Key concepts
Appropriate readings
(IN APPENDIX 1)
1° RATIARISON, A. (2006). Grandeurs physiques – Mesures-Incertitudes-
opérations vectorielles.Madagascar. Université d’Antanarivo
2° ht tp://tanopah.jo.free.fr/seconde/Vct2.html
Addition and subtraction of vectors
3° http://formation.etud.u-psud.fr/pcsm/physique/outils_nancy/apprendre/
chapitre2/partie2/Title1res.htm
Vectors. Addition of vectors.
4° http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9om%C3%A9trie_vectorielle
Vector geometry.
Wikipedia article.
Appropriate resources
Useful links
http://www.infoline.ru/g23/5495/Physics/English/waves.htlm
http://www.infoline.ru/g23/5495/index.htlm
http://formation.edu-psud.fr/pcsm/physique/outils_nancy/apprendre/Chapi-
tre2/Title1res.htm
http://formation.edu-psud.fr/pcsm/physique/outils_nancy/apprendre/Chapi-
tre3/partie3 /Title1res.htm
http://msch2.microsoft.com/fr-fr/library/system.windows.forms.paddings.
op_addition.aspx
http://msch2.microsoft.com/fr-fr/library/system.windows.forms.paddings.
op_methods.aspx
http://mathexel.site.voila.fr/index.htlm
Evaluation of Activity 1
Exercise 1
What does following physical quantity signify ? :
M=5,25 ± 0,02 Kg
Exercise 2
Write the following expression correctly :
D= 15,83379 ± 0,173 m
Exercise 3
Consider m as a physical quantity defined by the following equality :
m=m1-m2-m3
Exercise 4
∆a
What does the relative uncertainty .represent.
a
Give the precision of the measure if we have: m= 25,4 ± 0,2 Kg
Exercise 5
How do we add two vectors :
- If they are parallel
- If they are not parallel
Exercise 6
What is the scalar product of a vector with any unit vector?
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Exercise 7
What does the modulus of the vector product of two vectors represent?
Exercise 8
When is the vector product equal to zero ?
Exercise 9
What does the mixed product of three vectors represent geometrically ?
Exercise 10
The mixed product of three vectors is invariant under permutation of these
(
three vectors. Write the mixed product in different forms V1 , V2 , V3 )
Exercise 11. Vector division.
a particular solution x0
Exercise 12
(
that have an angle of a=30° between then. Calculate V1 + V2 )2
.
( )
Find the modulus of the vector sum V1 + V2 . Trace the vector sum.
Exercise 13
A boat is crossing a river at a speed of 6 km / h. The velocity of the incom-
ing flow perpendicular to the boat is 3 km / h (these velocities are measured
from the reference ground, say, by an observer located on a shoreline). In what
direction the boat is headed?
Exercise 14
Prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram intersect in the middle.
Exercise 15
Prove that the diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular.
Exercise 16
Determine a unit vector perpendicular to the plane formed by the vectors
A = 2i − 6 j − 3k and B = 4i + 3 j − k
Exercise 17
Show that the sine law holds in a triangle.
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Exercise 18
Exercise 19
How is it that a person moving along the x axis with velocity U must tilt their
umbrella to protect most of the rain that falls parallel to the y-axis with veloc-
ity V.
Exercise 20
Consider 3 non-aligned points and a point O as an origin
We let OA = a , , OB = b,. OC = c
r r r r r r
Show that : a ∧ b + b ∧ c + c ∧ a is a perpendicular vector in the plane ABC.
Corrected exercises
Evaluation of activity 1
∆a
4°) The relative uncertainty represents the precision of the measurement.
a
If we have : m= 25,4 ± 0,2 Kg, the precision of the measurement of m is
∆m 0,2
= = 0,8%
m 25,4
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5) If the two vectors are parallel, we draw the second vector on the line of action
of the first vector.
If the two vectors are not parallel, we use the parallelogram rule.
6°) The scalar product of a vector with a given unit vector is an orthogonal pro-
jection of the first vector on the unit vector.
7°) The modulus of the vector product of two vectors is the area of the paral-
lelogram generated by the two vectors.
ur ur
u ur
u ur ur
u ur
u ur
u ur
u ur ur
u ur ur
u
( ) ( ) (
10°) V1 • V 2 ∧ V3 = V1 ,V 2 ,V3 = V 2 • V3 ∧ V1 = V3 • V1 ∧ V 2 ) ( )
11°)
Vector division
r r r r r
a) a ∧ x = b ➙ 0 = 0 ➙ indetermination : all vectors x of the vectorial
space is a solution to (1)
r r r r r
b) a ∧ x = 0 ➙ x = la , the vectors x parallel to the vector a are solutions to (1)
r r ur u r r r ur
u r ur
u r r
• ( ) ( )
a ∧ a ∧ x0 = a ∧ b ➙ a.x0 a − a 2 x0 = a ∧ b . . If x0 is perpendicular
r r
ur
u r ur u a∧b
to a , we can easily have x0 = 0 ➙ x0 = − 2
a
r r
r a∧b r
• x = − 2 + la
a
( )
a ∧b
−
a2
H
M
a
Exercise 12
(V1 + V2 )=V
2
1
2 2 2 2
+ V2 + 2V1 .V2 = V1 + V2 + 2 V1 .V2 cos α
2 2 3
V1 + V2 = V1 + V2 + 2 V1 . V2 cos 30o = 25 + 9 + 2.5.3.
2
=7.745
V1 +V2
V2
V1
Exercise 13
V 1 Vitesse de la
pirogue
V2: Vitesse du
courant
Rives
V2 3 1
tan β = = =
V1 6 2
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Exercise 14
For the equality to be true, the following system must remain true :
x + y = 1 and y – x =0 ➙x = ½ and y=1/2 .
P is thus the midpoint of BP and AC.
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Exercise 15
Call OPQR the rhombus. PR and OQ the two diagonals.
P
Q
O
R
2 2 2
OQ.RP = OR.2 cos(RO, RQ) + OR � OR + RQ cos(QR , QP) The an-
gles
are supplementary, as
they have opposite cosines.
Thus
are perpendicular.
Exercise 16
2 4 15
A ∧ B = − 6 ∧ 3 = − 10
− 3 −1 30
A∧B
u =
The unit vector parallel to à A ∧ B is A∧B
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15i − 10 j − 30 k 3 2 6
u= = i − j− k
(15 ) + ( − 10 ) + ( 30 ) 7 7 7
Exercise 17
a+b+c=0
r r r r r r r r r r r r r
( ) ( ) (
a ∧ a + b + c =b ∧ a + b + c =c ∧ a + b + c =0 )
r r r r r r r r r r
a ∧ ( b + c) = b ∧ ( a + c) = c ∧ ( a + b ) = 0
r r r r r r r r r r r r r
a ∧ b+ a ∧ c = b ∧ a + b∧ c = c ∧ a + c ∧ b = 0
And thus :
r r r r r r
a ∧ b = b∧ c = c ∧ a
r r r r r r
a ∧ b = b∧ c = c ∧ a
absinγ =bcsinα=casinβ
Exercise 18
ur ur 2 ur ur ⎛ ur ur ur r ⎞ 2 ⎛ ur ur ur r ⎞ 2
( )
2
A ∧ B + A.B = ⎜ A B sin( A,b)⎟ . + ⎜ A B cos( A,b)⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
ur ur ur ur ur 2 ur 2 ur r ur r
+ ( A.B ) { }
2 2
A∧ B = A B sin 2 ( A,b). + cos 2 ( A,b)
ur ur ur ur ur 2 ur
+ ( A.B )
2 2 2
A∧ B = A B
Exercise 19
V’
is the velocity of the raindrops with respect to (R’).
uur ur ur
V / = V −U
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Exercise 20
OA = a , , OB = b,. OC = c .
r r r r r r
a ∧ b + b ∧ c + c ∧ a is a perpendicular vector to the plane ABC.
Assume OM = r .
r r r r r r
(( )
The mixed product (r − a ). b − a ∧ (a − c) = 0 )
r r r r r r r r
( )
(r − a ). b ∧ c − b ∧ a − a ∧ c = 0
r r r r r r r r
(r − a ).( a ∧ b + b ∧ c + c ∧ a ) = 0
From this last equation, we deduce that :
r r r r r r r r
( )
a ∧ b + b ∧ c + c ∧ a is perpendicular to (r − a ) .
r r r r r r
( )
Thus a ∧ b + b ∧ c + c ∧ a is perpendicular to the plane ABC.,
Learning activities
The students must do all the exercises. They are organized in groups for col-
laborative work. Each group completes the proposed exercises and designates
a leader of the group who will report for each group. The professor gives a
deadline for each exercise, at which time each group will send an attached file
of their reports to the professor of the course.
Teacher’s guide
The professor will correct the group reports, and will place the corrections in a
workspace accessible to students. The corrections are accompanied by ad-
equate feedback. The scores for each group are assigned to group members and
will count for 20% of the final evaluation of the module.
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Learning activity 2
Activity title
Activity summary
Key concepts
• Ray vector: Vector indicating the position of the moving object at time t
• Peak: Maximum height reached by a projectile
• Range: Maximum distance reached by the projectile from the point of
shooting
• Details of a moving object: the ray vector components over time.
Cartesian coordinates [ x(t), y(t), z(t)]:
Cylindrical coordinates [ ρ (t), θ (t), z(t)]
Spherical coordinates [ ρ (t), θ (t), ϕ(t)]
Polar coordinates [ ρ (t), θ (t)])
• Trajectory: curve described by the moving object when the time t va-
ries.
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Appropriate readings
(IN APPENDIX 2)
1°) RATIARISON, A. (2006). Cinématique du point. Madagascar. Université
d’Antanarivo. Cours inédit
2° http://abcsite.free.fr/physique/meca/me_ch3.html
Kinematics of a point.
3°) http://www.chez.com/mecasite/Mecanique/cinematsol.htm
Kinematics of a point.
Appropriate resources
- http://www.infoline.ru/g23/5495/Physics/English/waves.htlm
- http://www.infoline.ru/g23/5495/index.htlm
Useful links
• http://perso.orange.fr/rmchs/physique_05/cours_physique/cours_
mecach5_cinematique.pdf
• Calculs vectoriels
• Composition de forces
• Dérivation vectorielle
• PEREZ, J. P. (1997), Professeur de Physique – Université Paul Sabatier
Toulouse – France. - Mécanique – Fondements et applications , Edition
MASSON, 120 bd St Germain 75 280 Paris Cedex 06
• http ://www.hazelwood.k12.mo.us/grichert/sciweb/applets.htlm
• M. CAZIN (1995), Cours de mécanique générale et industrielle– gautier
viullars – tome 1, NY 1003 -1995
• http://www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/physique/perso/corticol/bibliohtml/
chien_j.html
• http://www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/physique/perso/corticol/bibliohtml/
4mouche_j.html
• http://www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/physique/perso/corticol/bibliohtml/
lissajou_j.html
• http://www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/physique/perso/corticol/bibliohtml/
cycloi_j.html
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• http://www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/physique/perso/corticol/bibliohtml/
pndhgs_j.html
• http://electronics.free.fr/school/article.phys3?id_article=9#5
• http://www.chez.com/Mecanique/cinematipts.htm
• http://www.ucd.ma/fs/modules/meca1/um1./modules3/cin2.htm
• http://perso.orange.fr/rmchs/physique_05/cours_physique/cours_
mecach5_cinematique.pdf
• http://www.ucd.ma/fs/modules/meca1/um1./modules3/cin2.htm
Part Two: A series of 9 corrected exercises, dealing mostly with the calcula-
tion of parametric equations, velocity and acceleration of a moving object in a
coordinate system. In some cases, one must determine the equation of a trajec-
tory. The student is already familiar with integration methods he or she saw in
the first part of Unit 2.
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Evaluation
The air has a density of about 1.3 kg/m3 while the bodies that we are studying
the movement of have densities of about 1000 kg/m3 or more.
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If the chosen system was “Earth + projectile”, the weight is not an external
force.
The mass is simplified because it is the same mass that the projectile weight
and inertia to the movement express.
We obtain the following vector differential equation:
if
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, time of launch.
At the instant t = 0:
This law is also called the time parametric equation of the trajectory (the pa-
rameter being the time) because by giving t, we can calculate x and z and find
the corresponding set of points where the projectile passes.
1 gives :
which, inserted in 3, gives the cartesian equation of the trajectory:
The quotient is in meters: the first term of the second expression is homoge-
neous in length.
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Experiment at home :
and
In thus m.
Is a maximum for = 90°.
or
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Thus:
Maximum for
Then we insert in
Let C be the point where the projectile struck the ground. The scope is OC. C
is the intersection of the trajectory of the projectile and the line z = 0 is
thus
Maximum for .
with
And here,
(
a = ak 2 6ωt x − 48ωt y + 12z )
Determine the velocity vector V ( M ) and the position vector M 0 M . M0
is the initial position of the moving object M and we note V0 as the initial
velocity.
⎧ x = 4t 2
⎪⎪ t3
⎨ y = 4( t − )
⎪ 3
⎪⎩ z = 3t + t 3
⎧r = 1 + cos θ
⎪
⎨ θ = ωt
⎪ z = sin θ
⎩
⎧ x = 4 cos t
⎪
⎨ y = −4 sin t
⎪ z = 3t + 5
⎩
ur r ur r ur
V ∧a
= ur 3 et
and
(
V ,a ,S
= − ur r 2
)
V V ∧a
⎧ x = a ( 2e − ω t
−e − 2 ω t
)
⎪
⎨ y = 2a (e −e )
− ω t − 2 ω t
⎪z = 0
⎩
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8. A canon is fired at a boat from the top of a cliff. The height of the cliff is in
and the distance of the boat from the foot of a cliff is D.
a) What angle α must be drawn such that the initial velocity of the projectile
is as low as possible?
b) What will be the velocity v0?
c) What is the velocity of the projectile at the impact on the boat?
d) When does this impact occur?
Exercise 1.
dV
a) = a ➙ d V = adt ➙ V = ∫ adt ➙
dt
V = ak ( )
∫ 6 ω t x − 48 ω t y + 12 z dt ➙
( )
V = ak 2 3ω 2 t 2 x − 16ω 2 t 3 y + 12t z + V0
dM 0 M M0M =
b ) =V ➙ d M 0 M = Vdt ➙ ∫ Vdt ➙
dt
(
M 0 M = ak 2 ∫ 3ω 2 t 2 x − 16ω 2 t 3 y + 12t z + V0 dt )
(
M 0 M = ak 2 ω 2 t 3 x − 4ω 2 t 4 y + 6t 2 z + V0 t )
Exercise 2.
1°) Velocity vector of M
8t
d OM V = 4(1 − t 2 )
V= ➙
dt
3(1 + t 2 )
ds
V=
dt
⎛ ds ⎞ ⎛ dx ⎞ ⎛ dy ⎞ ⎛ dz ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ = 64t + 16(1 − t ) + 9(1 + t )
⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠
We have :
⎛ ds ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 25t + 50t + 25 = 25(1 + t )
⎝ dt ⎠
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⎛ ds ⎞ ⎛ dx ⎞ ⎛ dy ⎞ ⎛ dz ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ = 64t + 16(1 − t ) + 9(1 + t )
⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠
⎛ ds ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 25t + 50t + 25 = 25(1 + t )
⎝ dt ⎠
ds
V=
dt
(
= 5 1+ t2 )
dz
dz dt 3(1 + t 2 ) 3
Cos(Oz, V) = = = =
ds ds 5(1 + t 2 ) 5
dt
The cosine of this angle is constant so the angle between the tangent to the
trajectory and the axis Oz is constant.
Exercise 3.
a) The cyclindrical coordinates :( r, q, z).
The coordinates of the velocity vector in cylindrical coordinates are (equation
71 of the course):
•
dr
r= = −ω sinθ
dt
uuuuuuur •
dθ
VR ( M ) = r θ = r = (1 + cosθ)ω
dt
•
dz
z= = ω cosθ
dt
⎛ • • •2 ⎞
⎜⎝ r − r θ ⎟⎠ = −ω cosθ − (1 + cosθ)ω = −ω (1 + 2cosϑ )
2 2 2
uuuuuuur ⎛ •• • •
⎞
aR ( M ) = ⎜⎝ r θ + +2 r θ ⎟⎠ = −2ω sinθ
2
••
z = −ω 2 sinθ
Rc
uuuuuuur −ω 2 (1 + 2cosϑ )
aR ( M ) = −2ω 2 sinθ
−ω 2 sinθ
Rc
Exercise 4.
Determination of unit vectors of the Frenet reference.
In the referentiel O ( )
, i , j , k , the vector position is written as :
OM = t i + t 2 j + t 3 k
d OM
= i + 2t j + 3t k
2
dt
d 2 OM
= 2 j + 6t k
dt 2
(M, e ,e T N )
, eB is the Frenet trihedral
uuuur r r r r r r
ur
u 1 dOM i + 2t j + 3t 2 k i + 2 j + 3k
eT = = =
V dt 9t 4 + 4t 2 + 1 14
If we orient the trajectory in the direction of the movement
V = 12 + ( 2t) 2 + ( 3t 2 ) 2 = 9t 4 + 4t 2 +1
1 d OM i + 2t j + 3t 2 k i + 2 j + 3k
eT = = =
V dt 4 2
9t + 4t + 1 14
The binormal e B is directed as follows:
ur uuuuur uuuur
B = V(M) ∧ a(M) =| 1 ∧ | 0 =| 6
2 2 −6
3 6 2
r r r r r r
u 6i − 6 j + 2k 3i − 3 j + k
ur
eB = =
76 19
ur ur ur
N = B ∧ T =| 6 ∧ | 1 =| −22
−6 2 −16
2 3 18
r r r r r r
u −22i − 16 j +18k −11i − 8 j + 9k
ur
eN = =
1064 266
x − 1 y − 1 z − 1
= =
1 2 3
x − 1 y − 1 z − 1
= =
− 11 − 8 9
x − 1 y − 1 z − 1
= =
3 − 3 1
Exercise 5.
The vectors of the Frenet trihedral are :
d OM 1 de T
eT = , eN = , eB = eT ∧ e N
ds R ds
x = 4 cos t
OM = y = − 4 sin t
z = 3 t + 5
dOM dOM dt
eT = = x
ds dt ds
2 2 2 2
⎛ ds ⎞ = ⎛ dx ⎞ + ⎛ dy ⎞ + ⎛ dz ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠
= 16 sin 2 t + 16 cos 2 t + 9
2
⎛ ds ⎞ = 25 dt 1
⎜ ⎟ ⇒ =
ds 5
⎝ dt ⎠
− 4 sin t − 4 sin t
d OM 1
Calculation of = − 4 cos t ➙
dt , e = − 4 cos t
3 5
3
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With ur
u
⎛ 4⎞
2
deT
R= = ⎜ ⎟
ds ⎝ 25 ⎠
u 25 −4
ur ur
u
, eN = | cost ⇒ eN =| −cost
4 25
sint
4
Where sint 0
25
0
ur
u ur u ur u 1 1
eB = eT ∧ eN = | −4sint ∧ | −cost = | −3sint
5 5
−4cost sint −3cost
3 0 −4
Calculation of the torsion
de
= τe =
ds
− cos t
de de dt 1 de 3
= = = sin t
ds dt ds 5 dt 25
0
de 3
τ = =
ds 25
Exercise 6
d OM d OM ds
V= = = Ve T
dt ds dt
dV dV d e T ds dV 2
a = = eT + V = e T + V ρe N
dt dt ds dt dt
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1
ρ= is called the curve of the trajectory
R
⎛ dV ⎞
V ∧ a = Ve T ∧ ⎜ e T + V 2 ρe N ⎟ = V 3 ρe B
⎝ dt ⎠
V∧a
ρ =
By taking the modulus, we have : V
3
da d 2 V dV d e T ds dV d e ds
S= = 2 eT + . + 2V ρe N + ρV 2 N
dt dt dt ds dt dt ds dt
da d V dV e dV de
S = = e + V . + 2V ρe + ρV
dt dt dt ρ dt ds
da d 2 V
S=
dt
=
dt 2
eT + V
dV e N
.
dt ρ
+ 2V
dV
dt
ρe N + ρV 3
d
ds
eB ∧ eT ( )
da d V dV e dV de de
S= = e +V . + 2V ρe + ρV ∧ e + ρV e ∧
dt dt dt ρ dt ds ds
d 2V dV e N dV e
S= 2
eT + V . + 2V ρe N + ρV 3 τe N ∧ e T + ρV 3 e B ∧ N
dt dt ρ dt ρ
Where
τ=-
(V, a , S)
2
V∧a
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Exercise 7
a) Cartesian equation of the trajectory :
⎧ x = a ( 2e − ω t
−e − 2 ω t
)
⎪
⎨ y = 2a (e −e )
− ω t − 2 ω t
⎪z = 0
⎩
− ωt
By letting f = e , this system is equivalent to :
⎧ x
⎪ = ( 2f − f 2 )
⎧ x = a ( 2f − f ) 2
a
⎪ ⎪⎪ y x y
⎨ y = 2a ( f − f )
2
➙⎨ = (f − f 2 ) ⇒ − =f
⎪z = 0 ⎪ 2a a 2a
⎩ ⎪
⎩⎪
⎧ x
⎪ = (2f − f 2 )
⎧ x = a ( 2f − f ) 2
a
⎪ ⎪⎪ y x y
⎨ y = 2a ( f − f )
2
➙⎨ = 2(f − f 2 ) ⇒ − = f 2
⎪z = 0 ⎪ a a a
⎩ ⎪
⎪⎩
x y
− =f
a 2a
x y ⎛x y ⎞ ⎛x y⎞
2
− =f2 ➙⎜ − ⎟ = ⎜ − ⎟➙ (2x − y ) 2
= 4a ( x − y )
a a ⎝ a 2a ⎠ ⎝a a⎠
b) Vector velocity
•
x = −2aω(f − f 2 )
V= •
y = −2aω(f − 2f 2 )
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T 0 ∞
F
1
1/2
0
•
x 0 - 0
a
3a/ 4
y 2aω + 0 - 0
a/2
0 0
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M
x
I(t=0)
0 (à t=∞) 3a/4
••
r x = 2aω 2 ( f − 2 f 2 )
a = ••
y = 2aω 2 ( f − 4 f 2 )
The tangential acceleration a T
ur 2
(
V = 4a 2ω 2 f 2 2 − 6 f + 5 f 2 )
By orienting the trajectory in the direction of the movement
V = 2aω f (2 − 6 f + 5 f ) 2
dV d ⎡ −2 + 9 f − 10 f 2 ⎤
aT = = ⎡⎢ 2aω f 2 − 6 f + 5 f 2 ⎤⎥ = aω 2 f ⎢ ⎥
dt dt ⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 − 6 f + 5 f 2 ⎥⎦
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e) Path traveled by the moving object and the area swept by OM for t va-
rying from 0 à ∞.
1
The primitive is : (θ + sh θch θ ) , with θ as a function of f and f as a
function of t. 10 5
shθ = 5f − 3;
chθ = 1 + (5f − 3) 2
θ = Ln[5f − 3 + (5f − 3) 2 + 1 ]
( )
For t=0, f0=1, θ 0 = Ln 2 + 5 , shθ0=2, chθ 0 = 5
∩ a ⎡ 2+ 5 ⎤
The arc IO = ⎢Ln + 2 5 + 3 10 ⎥
5 5 ⎣⎢ 10 − 3 ⎥⎦
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Exercise 8
a) Expression of α
P designates the position of the boat, a the launch angle
We are looking for the equation of the projectile’s trajectory.
Following the Oy axis, the movement is uniform with the equation :
y = V0 cosα.t
Following the Oz axis, the movement is uniformly varied with a constant acce-
1 2
leration –g, of equation : z = − gt + V0 sinα.t
2
The trajectory equation is :
2
1 y
z=− g 2 + V0 tanα.y
2 V0 cos 2 α
The boat that is at a distance D from the cliff is hit by the projectile if and only
if
y=D and z= -h
1 D2
−h = − g 2 + tanα D (1)
2 V0 cos 2 α
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O y
D
P
−gD 2
f =
2V02
Which gives :
f (α )
−h = + D tanα
cos 2 α
1` df (α ) D 2 f sinα
0= + +
cos α dα
2
cos α
2
cos 2 α
df (α )
And write that = 0 , which gives 0 = D + 2 f tanα or also
dα
V02 = gD tanα (2)
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1 D2
−h = − g + tanα D
2 gD tanα cos 2 α
D 1 ⎛ D⎞
After simplification, we find : tan 2α = ➙ α = Arc tan ⎜ ⎟
h 2 ⎝ h⎠
Or
D 2 tanα 2 tanα h
tan 2α = = ⇒ 1 − tan 2 α = ⇒ 1 − tan 2 α − 2 tanα = 0
h 1 − tan α
2
D D
h
We now have a second degree equation in X=tana which has a positive solu-
tion :
X = h2 + D 2 − h = tanα
b) Calculation of V0.
D
t=
V0 cosα
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D2 2D 2 h2 + D 2
t2 = = =
V02 cos 2 α gsin 2α g
Exercise 9
g y2
z=− + y tan(γ − α )
2 V02 cos 2 (γ − α )
W are looking for coodinates of P under the form : yp= rcosa et zp= rsina
Substitute P in the trajectory equation and we obtain :
sinγ cos(γ − α )
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The maxmum value of this expression corresponds to that of g. that has a zero
derivative with respect to g.
Thus :
π π α
2γ − α = ➙γ = +
2 4 2
V02
In these conditions rm ax imum =
g(1 − sinα )
Learning activities
The students must do all the exercises. They are organized in groups for col-
laborative work. Each group completes the proposed exercises and designates
a leader of the group who will report for each group. The professor gives a
deadline for each exercise, at which time each group will send an attached file
of their reports to the professor of the course.
Teacher’s guide
The professor will correct the group reports, and will place the corrections in a
workspace accessible to students. The corrections are accompanied by ad-
equate feedback. The scores for each group are assigned to group members and
will count for 20% of the final evaluation of the module.
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Learning activity 3
Activity title: Equilibrium of solids
Activity summary
Statics is the study of conditions for which the bodies are immovable objects,
relative to a reference R, Galilean or not, related to the observer. These condi-
tions relate particularly to the distribution of forces on the body at rest.
For this study, we introduced the notion of torsor which is reduced to the gen-
eral resultant and resultant moment of all forces applied to a solid. The equilib-
rium of a solid subjected to one or more forces results in a zero torsor (general
zero resultant and zero moment).
Key concepts
• General Resultant = the vector sum of a system of vectors (forces)
• Time = the resulting vector sum of moments of a system of vectors
(forces)
• Torsor = system of free vectors (forces) which reduces to the general
resultant and resultant moment
• Reaction: force opposed to an action
• Center of gravity = Point which where the entire mass of a system of
material points appears to be concentrated.
Appropriate readings
(IN APPENDIX 3)
1°) RATIARISON, A. (2006). Equilibre des solides sur un plan. Madagascar.
Université d’Antanarivo. Cours inédit
2°) http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statique_du_solide
Solid statics.
3°) http://www.ac-poitiers.fr/cmrp/cpge/docs/Coursdemodelisationetdestatique.
doc
Solid statics.
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Appropriate resources
The Free High School Sciences: A Textbook for High School Students Studing
physics – FHSSt Authors- December 9, 2005
ANSERMET, J.-P. ( 2004-2005), La mécanique rationnelle – Formation de
base des Sciences et des ingénieurs – Institut de Physique des nanostruc-
tures- Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne de Lausanne– PHB
– Ecublens, 1015 Lausanne
TIPLER, P. A. (1995). Physics for Scientists and Engineers –– Worth Publish-
ers. New York, NY 1003
PEREZ, J.P. (1997). Mécanique : Fondements et applications. MASSON
http://www.google.ca/search?client=firefox_a&rls=org.mozilla%3Aen-
US%Aofficial-&hl=en&q=c3%A9equilibre+d%27un+solide+sur+plan&meta
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Useful links
http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/statique-du-solide
http://savannah.nongnu.org/projects/fhsst
http://www.logitheque.com/fiche.asp?I=18755
http://www.chimix.com/an5/prem5/hotp5/force1htlm
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• The first part includes an additional course on the forces acting on a solid.
Forces can, depending on their intensity:
- Maintain a strong balance
- Develop a strong translational motion,
- Develop a solid rotation around a fixed axis.
- Deform an object.
To supplement the knowledge of students on these facts, it seems useful and
necessary to make a point of being on these points. This add-on courses:
- The weight of a body,
- The reaction of a support,
- The forces of solid-solid friction,
- The equilibrium of a solid on an inclined plane with rough contact sur-
faces,
- The study of the deformation of a spring under different forces.
Evaluation
We confuse the weight of the object and the gravitational attraction exerted by
earth on this object.
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We write : =
Remark : In certain problems studied in further courses, we cannot neglect
and . Actually :
Force is responsible for the tides.
Force explains that the direction of the plumb line does not pass ex
actly through the center of the Earth.
The weight of an object is characterised by :
- Its point of application: the center of gravity of the object coincides with
the center of inertia.
- The direction of the plumb line, almost confused with the vertical.
- Its orientation: downward.
- its Intensity P = mg (1) where m is the mass of the object (in kg) and
g, the intensity of the gravity vector (in N / kg).
The value of g varies slightly with latitude and heavily with altitude. In France,
at sea level, g = 9,81 N/kg.
Figure 1
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Figure 2
According to the principle of inertia (for a terrestrial observer, every body
perseveres in its state of rest or uniform rectilinear motion, if the forces ex-
erted compensate for the observer’s forces) the weight vertical, directed
downward, is again compensated by a force , vertical, directed upward such
that:
(3)
This contact force exerted by the inclined plane on the solid S peut être can
be broken down into two components :
, the normal action of the inclined plane on the solid, perpendicular to the
plane, that prevents the solid from penetrating the support.
, tangential action of the inclined plane on the solid, on the tangent paral-
lel to the line of greatest slope on the plane, which opposes movement of the
solid. This force models the frictional forces when we are dealing with a
rough surface.
We can write
= + (4)
- Use relation (4) in relation (3) which describes the equili-
brium of the solid S with a terrestrial reference. We obtain :
- + + = from equation (4)
Remark : according to the principle of inertia, the relation + + =
in equation (4), which is equivalent to the relation in equation (3),
is still satisfied if the solid slides along the portion of the inclined plane with
the greatest slope.
Absence of friction: Without friction, the forces on the solid reduce to .
Under the action of and equilibrium of the solid is impossible (the sum
+ is different that the zero vector ). The solid, placed without velo-
city on the inclined plane, assumes a movement of rectilinear motion with with
an increasing velocity following the line of greatest slope on the plane.
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Figure 3
a- Draw the force diagram. Represent the two forces acting on the solid and
the spring.
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b- Construct the graph representing the common value T of the two forces
acting on the spring according to the spring extension.
c- Show that we can write T = k (L - Lo). Determine the value of k, called
the coefficient of stiffness of the spring.
Solution
FORCE DIAGRAM :
Figure 4
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Figure 5
b- Construct the graph representing the common value T of the two forces act-
ing on the spring according to the spring extension.
In the table given, we add two lines giving the value of the force T and the
value of the extension x. It uses the international system of units.
M in Kg 0 0,050 0,100 0,150 0,200
L in cm 0,150 0,175 0,200 0,225 0,250
T=mg=10.m in N 0 0,500 1,000 1,500 2,000
X=L-L0 =L-0,150 in m 0 0,025 0,050 0,075 0,100
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Figure 6
c-Show that we can write T = k (L - Lo)
The graph above shows that the points are on a line through the origin
The force T is a linear function of the elongation x = L - Lo.
We can write T = K (L - Lo).
The tension T of the spring is proportional to its elongation.
The coefficient K is called the coefficient of stiffness of the spring. Its value is
:
K = T / (L - Lo) , K = 2,00 / 0,100 thus : K = 20 N / m
Remarks :
Under vector form, we can write :
=K (figure 5).
The relation associated with the equilibirum of a solid S in a terrestrial refe-
rence system is :
+ = (figure 4)
m +K = or : m -K =
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Exercise 1.
Ra Rb
L3 = 3 m
L = 10 m
L1 = 1 m L2=1 m
F
D A C B E
P
W
Exercise 2
A ladder of length L = 5m and weight of intensity P = 60 N rests on a rough
horizontal floor AB and a vertical wall BC. Assume that the wall exerts no
frictional force on the ladder. The foot of the ladder on level ground is at z = 3
m from the foot of the wall.
F1
K
C
m
5 y
F2
P
Fn
/
Horizontal floor
A
B
FS
x
z=3m
1° What are the forces in place that allow equilibrium of the ladder ?
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Exercise 3
A ladder AB of mass m and length l, is leaning against a wall of height
h (see figure), the contacts A and B being void of friction, maintains
the scale tilted at an angle α relative to the vertical through a horizontal
wire OA.
Calculate the reaction supports in A and D and the wire tension.
B
g
C
h
O A
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Exercise 4
We want to hang a picture, height h on a smooth wall, so that the nail attachment
F is on the wall at the same level as the highest point on the wall (see figure).
1. Show that the point of attachment to the rear of the table should be placed
at a fixed distance from the lowest point of the table.
2. Assess, based according to the wire length and h, the angle of the table
with the vertical. Deduce that l must be between two values that we express
F T
g
C
A
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Exercise 5
We wish to make efforts to link the console shown in the figure. The bar AB of
length l is horizontal, and the bar of length
4l / 3 makes an angle of 30o with the vertical.
The horizontal bar supports a uniformly distributed load value P.
We neglect the weight of the bars.
Calculate the efforts in A, D and E.
A D B
30°
P g
E
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Exercise 6
A moving object ABC, shaped like an isosceles triangle (AB = AC = h)
is installed on a pipe of diameter 2r as shown in the figure. The factor of
static friction between the console and the pipe is mS.
Neglect the weight of the console in front of load P placed on AC.
Calculate the distance to the x axis of the pipe to which the burden can
be supported without sliding.
x
A’ A C
h
h
g
P
B’ B
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Exercise 7
A ladder consists of two simple scales, AO and BO of the same length, same
weight Mg, articulated without friction at the common vertex O.
The angle is 2a at the top of the two ladders and m, the friction factor with the
ground. A man of weight mg, climbs the ladder AO to point H at a distance, x,
from the top O.
Show that if the angle a increases, it is the ladder BO that will slide first.
Discuss the influence of x in the special case where m = M.
Exercise 8.
4a
H E C
30°
2b
c
F A B x
2a
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Three rods AD, DB and CH of negligible mass lie in the same vertical planeas
shown.
Exercise 9
Determine the center of mass (center of gravity) of a quarter of a homogeneous
disk.
Exercise10
Determine the center of mass (center of gravity) of half a homogeneous disk of
radius R and mass M.
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Exercise11.
Exercise 1
Ra + Rb + W + P = 0 ➙Ra +Rb-W-P=0➙Ra+Rb=W+P
➙The resultant moment in A is zero :
-W.AC - P.AC + Rb.AB=0
W.AC + P.AC
Rb = = and Ra=W+P-Rb=
AB
Exercise 2
The forces acting on the plate are: its weight P , the horizontal reaction of
the wall F1 and the floor reaction F2 . These three forces must be concurrent
and let K be the point of intersection of the supports of these three forces. The
components of the force F2 along the vertical and the horizontal are respec-
tively Fn and Fs .
ur
u ur u ur r ⎧ Fs − F1 = 0 ⇒ Fs = F1 following the horizontal
F1 + F2 + P = 0 ⇒ ⎨
⎩ Fn − P = 0 ⇒ Fn = P = 60 N following the vertical
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Px 60 x1,5
F1.BC – P. x =0 ➙ F1 = = = 22,5 N
BC 4
If m is the coefficient of friction of the floor, the floor does not slide if :
F s 22,5
Fs ≤ µFn ==> m = = = 0,395
Fn 60
F1
K
C
m
5 y
F2
P
Fn
/
Horizontal floor
A
B
FS
x
z=3m
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Exercise 3
mg + T + R A + R D = 0 and
uuur ur uuur uur r
AC ∧ mg + AD ∧ R D = 0
By projecting following the axes, we have :
-T+RDcosα=0
-mg+ RA + RD .sinα=0
mg(l/2)sinα=0
mg(l/2)sinα-(RDh)/cosα=0
mgl
Thus: R D = sin(2α ),T = R D cosα,etR A = mg − R D sinα
4h
Exercise 4
1. For the torsor associated to the three forces mg , the reaction R in O and
thread tension T to be zero, they must to be coplanar and concurrent. It follows
that the points F, A and H are aligned. The triangle AFO and AHC are homo-
thetic. Therefore, if Ao = a, we have:
h
− a CH 1 h
2 = = d’où a =
a OF 2 3
3l 2 1
2. Since l 2 = h2 cos 2 θ + a 2 − 2ahcos 2 θ ➙ cos 2 θ = − et
h2 3
h 2h
0 ≤ cos 2 θ ≤ 1 , we find that : ≤l ≤
3 3
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Exercise 5
The balance of the rod AB is achieved if the resultant force is zero and also the
resultant moment of the force at A is zero.
Let (XA, YA) be the components of the reaction A
(XD, YD) those of reaction D
(XE, YE) those of reaction E
l 2l
P − YD =0
2 3
Similarly, the equilibrium of DE results in writing that the sum and moment of
the forces are zero in D:
XE-XD = 0 ; YE - YD = 0 and
2l
(−YE + X E 3) =0
3
Thus :
3 3 P
YD = YE = P ; X D = X E = − X A = P ; YA =
4 4 4
Exercise 6
Under the action of the load, the contacts appear in B and point A ‘, symmetri-
cal with respect to the axis of the pipe.
Translate the equilibrium conditions by canceling the torsor of external actions
in A ‘.
Let (XA ‘YA’) be the components of the reaction in A ‘,
(XB, YB) those of the reaction in D
We have : XA’+XB = 0 ; YA’+ YB – P = 0 and
(x+r)P-hXB – 2rYB =0
Since A ‘is based on the pipe, XA’ <0, XB> 0, IS ‘> 0, YB> 0 because these
components are opposed to the emerging shift downward.
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Exercise 7
Translate the equilibrium of the system by canceling the torsor of the forces
exerted on O and the torsor of the forces exerted on the stem of O. Thus:
uuur
And for OB :
ur ur ur r uuur ur uuur ur r
R B + R a → b + M g = 0 et OG 2 Λ M g + OB Λ M g = 0
and
ur ur ur r uuur ur uuur ur r
R B + R a → b + M g = 0 et OG 2 Λ M g + OB Λ M g = 0
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r r
By projecting in the base (e x , e y ) , we obtain :
X A + X B = 0, YA + YB − (2 M + m)g = 0 and :
It results that :
Since
X A + X B = 0 . We deduce that :
g gx g x
YB = (2 M + m) −m = Mg + m (1 − ) et YA = (2 M + m)g − YA
2 2 l 2 l
uuur
Cancel the moments of the actions that exert themselves in O on OB :
l sin(α / 2) 0 l sinα XB 0
−l cos(α / 2) Λ − Mg + −l cosα Λ YB = 0
0 0 0 0 0
Mg Mg tanα ⎡ m⎛ x ⎞ ⎤ Mg tanα
X A = − X B = tanα(− + YB ) = ⎢1 + 1− ⎥= (1 + u)
2 2 ⎣ M ⎜⎝ l ⎟⎠ ⎦ 2
and
mg x u
YB = Mg + (1 − ) = Mg(1 + )
2 l 2
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The discussion is facilitated by using a Cartesian plane where the abscissa and
the ordinate of the forces are 1 (Fig. S23.5). In the case where m = M , we
have, in reduced coordinates :
XA tanα
xA = = −xB = (1 + u)
Mg 2
Y u
yB = B = (1 + )
Mg 2
Y u
y A = A = 3 − yB = 2 −
Mg 2
: No equilibrium possible
: No sliding
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Exercise 8
Here we have a problem with 5 joints: the joints are at points A, B, C, D and E.
In the system of coordinates on the diagram the various components of forces
applied to the system are:
0 X1 X2 X3 X4 X5
F1 , R1 , R2 , R3 , R4 , R5
F1 Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5
R 1 the reaction in A
R 2 the reaction in B
R 3 the reaction in C
R 4 the reaction in D
R 5 the reaction in E
0 X5 X3 0
ur
u ur u ur u r ⎧⎪ X 5 + X 3 = 0 (1)
➙ F1 + R5 + R3 = 0 ⇒ − F1 + Y5 + Y3 = 0 ⇒ ⎨
− F + Y + Y3 = 0 (2)
0 0 0 0 ⎪⎩ 1 5
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F1.HE+Y3.EC=0
F1.c +Y3.a =0 (3)
F1c
(3) ➙ Y3 = − (4)
a
3
R3
R 3 cos 30 0
2
R3
R 3 = R 3 sin 30 0 =
2
0 0
3 3 c 3
X 3 = R3 = − X 5 or X 3 = R3 = − F1
2 2 a
3
x = −R
5 3
2
(5)
−2F1 c
R3 =
(4)➙ a , in modulus R 3 = 2F1 c
a
F1c 3 Fc 3
X5 = − ,in modulus X 5 = 1 (6)
a a
⎛ F c⎞ ⎛ c⎞
Y5 = F1 − Y3 = F1 − ⎜ − 1 ⎟ = F 1⎜ 1 + ⎟ (7)
⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ a⎠
Immobility of the stem AD
X4 X5 X1 0
Y4 + Y5 + Y1 = 0
0 0 0 0
moment
⎧ X 4 = X1 (8)
⎪
⇒ ⎨ X 4 + X 5 + X1 = 0 (9)
⎪Y + Y + Y = 0 (10)
⎩ 4 5 1
X4 X3 −X20
Y4 + Y3 + −Y2 = 0
0 0 0 0
moment with respect to point B
Y4 + Y3 − Y2 = 0
cF1 cF1 cF
− − Y2 = 0 ⇒ Y2 = − 1
2a a 2a
3c
Y4 + R3 − F =0
2a 1
2c 3c c c
⇒ Y4 + F1 − F =0 ⇒ Y4 − F =0 ou bien Y4 = F
2a 2a 1 2a 1 2a 1
Then
Y4 + Y3 − Y2 = 0
cF1 cF1 cF
− − Y2 = 0 ⇒ Y2 = − 1
2a a 2a
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X4 + X3 − X2 = 0
and c 3F1 cF1 3 c 3F1
− + − X2 = 0 ⇒ X2 = −
2a a 2a
From (10)
Y1 = − Y4 − Y5 = 0
cF1 cF
Y1 = − − F1 − 1
2a a
⎛ 3c ⎞
Y1 = − F1 ⎜ 1 + ⎟
⎝ 2a ⎠
Exercise 9
uuur uuuur
The center of gravity is defined by M OG = ∫ OM dm
(S )
Consider a base sector rdq , of radius r. The angle q is counted beginning at the
axis Ox.
Center of gravity
π
64748
lecentr e de gr avite
du sec teur
2
1 ⎛2 ⎞ ⎛ 1 2 ⎞ 4r
xG = ∫σ ⎜⎝ 3 r cosθ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 r dθ ⎟⎠ = 3π
M 0
Surface 1424 3
sur facedu sec teur
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Center of gravity
π
64748
lecentr e de gr avite
du sec teur
2
1 ⎛2 ⎞ ⎛ 1 2 ⎞ 4r
yG = ∫σ ⎜⎝ 3 r sinθ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 r dθ ⎟⎠ = 3π
M 0
Surface 1424 3
sur facedu sec teur
Exercise 10
dy
dm = σ dS = 2σ dyr
r = R 2 − y2
MyG = ∫ 2σ ydy R 2 − y2
0
4R
0
yG = ∫ −2σu2 du =
R
3π
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Exercise 11
ρπ R 4
R R R
0 0 0
4
3R
zG =
8
Learning activities
Teacher’s guide
The professor will correct the group reports, and will place the corrections in a
workspace accessible to students. The corrections are accompanied by ad-
equate feedback. The scores for each group are assigned to group members and
will count for 20% of the final evaluation of the module.
African Virtual University 129
Learning activity 4
Activity title
• Composition of movements-
• Dynamics of a material point–
• Work, energy power –
• Oscillators
Activity summary
Key concepts
Appropriate readings
(Toutes en Annexe 4)
1°) RATIARISON, A. (2006). Référentiels, Dynamique du point matériel,
Travail-Puissance-Energie.-fFaculté des Sciences -Oscillateurs. Université
d’Antanarivo. Cours inédit.
2°) Papanicola Robert, http://www.sciences-indus-cpge.apinc.org/IMG/
pdf/ CIN2_DERIVATION_VECTORIELLE.pdf
Vectorial derivation
3°) http://abcsite.free.fr/physique/meca/me_ch3.html
Dynamics of a material point
Work, energy, power
Oscillators
4°) RATIARISON, A. (2006). Grandeurs physiques, Opérations vectoriellles.
Madagascar. Université d’Antanarivo. Cours inédit.
Appropriate resources
Useful links
• Vectorial calculations
• Kinematics
• Vectorial derivation
• Integration of functions of several variables
• Vectorial integration
• http://www.infoline.ru/g23/5495/Physics/English/waves.htlm
• http://www.infoline.ru/g23/5495/index.htlm
• http://www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/physique/perso/corticol/bibliohtml/epiclc.
html
• http://www.chez.com/Mecanique/dynamiqu.htm
• http://www.chez.com/Mecanique/energeti.htm
• http://www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/physique/perso/gtulloue/aquadiff.
html
• http://www.n-vandewiele.com/TDMeca2.pdf
• http://www.ens-lyon.fr/Infosciences/Climats/Dynam-atmo/Cours-Corio-
lis
• http://www.ucd.ma/fs/modules/meca1/um1./modules3/cin2.htm
• http://perso.orange.fr/rmchs/physique_05/cours_physique/cours_
mecach5_cinematique.pdf
• http://www.keepschool.com/cours-fiche-les_systèmes_oscillants
• http://www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/ physique/perso/cortial/bibliohtm/prlong.
htm
• http://www.univ-lemans.fr/enseignements/physique/02/meca/couplage3.html
• http://www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/ physique/perso/cortial/bibliohtm/froflu.
htm
Part II: Four exercises, related to the laws of composition of velocity and accel-
eration, application of the fundamental principle of dynamics in a fixed reference
or a reference relative to that of the theorem of kinetic energy and damped and
undamped mechanical oscillators.
These exercises are required. They will be solved individually by each student
who will produce their own report to be sent by email to the professor.
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Evaluation
Course complement
Table of Contents
Contact the author
Phenomena of terrestrial dynamics
Illustrations and animations of Geneviève Tulloue
Coriolis Effect
Plan
Pendulum on a turning surface
1. The field of terrestrial
Foucault pendulum
gravity
Depressions
2. Deviation to the East
Tides (influence of the sun)
3. Foucault pendulum
Roche’s limit
The seasons
CABRI
In a reference linked to earth’s surface, the fundamental equation of dynamics
can be written:
ur
Ω is the velocity of rotation of the Earth
uuuuuuur uuuuuur
m⎡G A ( M ) − G A (C ) ⎤ is the universal attraction of planetary bodies other
⎣ ⎦
than the Earth
The weight of a body and the gravity field are defined by the relation :
I
front of
At the instant , we drop the object without initial velocity from a height
above the ground .
we find and .
This phenomenon is known under the name of deviation to the East.
; ;
( )
;
;
The cord of the simple pendulum is inextensible and the mass m is subject to
also
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In the last equation, the term is negligible (it is not written when
we neglect the Coriolis force), the term also (pendulum always slightly
away from vertical). This allows us to write .
To solve this system can be decoupled by derivation, or better, using the com-
This solution shows a turning movement in the plane Oxy to the pulsation
4. The tides
The rotation of the Earth itself explains the existence of two high tides and two
low tides each day.
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Series of exercises
Exercise 1.
A ring of mass m, dimensions negligible, slips and moves on a circular helix
axis Oz and whose parametric equations are: x = r cos q, y = r sin q, z = h q.
The applied forces are the weight, a frictional force of constant intensity f, col-
linear with the velocity but opposite in direction, and the reaction of the track,
normal to the movement at every moment.
2. Calculate the work of the friction force when moving between points B (q p
= 4) and A (q = 0).
3. Expressed in terms of given data the weight and reaction of the track between
B and A.
4. Deduce the velocity of the ring at point A given that its initial velocity was
zero at B. Discuss.
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Exercise II
1. Express and calculate the velocity of (S) B.
2. Express and calculate the value of F.
3. Express and calculate the velocity of (S) in C. (H = 1.5 m). Show that the
velocity C is similar going and returning.
4. Determine the action R of the support at point C.
5. At point D can the solid be balanced?
6. Compare the length of journeys AB and BA.
III We exert on the solid (S) a weak force F ‘; it reaches D, then stops, return-
ing to a height h’ = 0.5 m. Justify this behavior of the solid.
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Exercise 3
Exercise 4
2. Establish the differential equation satisfied by x (t). Specify the type of solu-
tions depending on the value of the coefficient k.
- Why would using a Foucault current braking device be better than the
braking force of a pallet in a liquid?
- What about the cases where l <0?
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Exercise 5
Weighted pendulum :
It consists of a solid of mass m and center of gravity G, a moving object
without friction around a horizontal axis D perpendicular to the plane of the
figure. The moment of inertia of the solid relative to this axis is J.
Exercise 6
Exercise 7
Exercise 8
Exercise 9
Exercise 10
Exercise 11
Consider two springs the same length L and different stiffness k1 and k2.
1) The springs are placed vertically in parallel. The upper end is fixed and
the other carries a weight of mass m. Find the expression of the pulsation
of the oscillation formed. Conclude.
2) Answer the same question when both springs are placed in series. Con-
clude.
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Exercise 12
a) We now fix the studied spring as shown in Figure 2. The spring is horizon-
tal, one end is fixed. At its other end is a solid (S) mass m = 200 g. This
solid can move without friction along a horizontal axis Ox. At equilib-
rium, the center G of the solid coincides with the origin 0 of the reference.
- Establish the differential equation that governs the movement of G.
c) Identify and express the mechanical energy of the undamped oscillator. Calculate
its value at t = 0. (We take the potential energy of the initial spring when x = 0).
By accepting and using the conservation of this mechanical energy, find the
maximum value of the velocity of the solid.
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Exercise 13
The numerical values necessary for the solution are given at the end of the
exercise.
To model the spring suspension system of car, one student suggests using a
spring of spring constant k (value specified by the supplier).
• A-1 Discuss the shape of the curve. What type of oscillations is it?
• A-2 Determine graphically the T0 period of oscillations of mass m hanging
from the spring.
f (Hz) 1,5 2,0 2,5 2,8 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,6 4,0 4,5
xmax (cm) 0,4 0,6 1,0 1,5 2,1 2,3 2,0 1,5 1,0 0,7
• B-1 What name do you give the engine fitted to the eccentric and the
system (spring + mass)?
• B-2 Build a plot of xmax as a function of the frequency f. What phenomenon
do we observe at f = 3,2 Hz ?
Compare the frequency fR of oscillations at a resonance corresponding
to the frequency f0 of free oscillations of the undamped system (spring +
mass).
• B-3 (s) What change (s) would we observe if we used a more viscous solution S.
Given :
k = 40 N.m -1
m = 100 g
π= 3,14
Exercise 14
a) We now fix the studied spring as shown in Figure 2. The spring is hori-
zontal, one end is fixed. At its other end a solid (S) mass m = 200 g. This
solid can move without friction along a horizontal axis Ox. At equilib-
rium, the center G of the solid coincides with the origin 0 of the reference.
- Establish the differential equation that governs the movement of G.
b) We compress the spring to the left. Point G occupies the position GO such
that OGo = - 0.15 m.
At time t = 0, we drop the solid without initial velocity. Determine the am-
plitude XM and phase F of movement and the expression of the velocity v
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Exercise 15
A spring of stiffness K is horizontal, one end is fixed and at its other end a
solid mass m. This solid can move along a horizontal axis Ox. O is the position
of center of inertia of the body in equilibrium (see Figure).
There is friction present. They are reduced to a force = - h, where it denotes the
instantaneous velocity of the solid. The coefficient h is positive.
• 1 - Establish the characteristic differential equation of motion of the so-
lid.
• 2 - What is the nature of this movement? What is the nature of x (t) de-
pending on the value of damping coefficient A = h / m.?
• 3 - The energy of the oscillator.
a) Give the expression of the mechanical energy of the solid-spring sys-
tem.
b) Establish the relationship between the derivative of the mechanical
energy versus time and power of the friction force.
c) Comment on this relationship in terms of energy transfers.
• 4 - Using an interface connected to a computer, there was a voltage por-
tional to x u (t).
Exercise 16
( )
R O, e x , e y , e z . We call R’ the reference of the center O and the base
ur ur ur
( )
er ,eθ ,ez with OM = r e r + ze z
ez
ey
r e
H
H er
ex
(a) We take R ‘as a relative reference and a projection reference of the resultant
(b) To continue the problem, we suppose z=0 ; the point M is a moving object
ur ur
on the plane xoy. In addition, its weight P = −mgez , is subjected to 2 forces
ur
u • ur ur ur
u ur ur u
F1 = mr ⎛ 2θ er + eθ ⎞ and F2 = mlez ∧ VR (M ) , l is a scalar function of
t. ⎝ ⎠
a) From the fundamental relation of dynamics, give the scalar equations of
motion of M.
b) Write the theorem of kinetic energy and show that there exists a first
integral of energy.
(c) We assume l=0 the point M is a frictionless moving object on a circle of
center O with a radius that reacts with a bonding force L . We suppose
at the instant t=0, the point M is an immovable object with q=0. With the
help of the first energy integral, express L as a function of only q.
Find the differential expression of movement M from the theorem of angular
momentum at a point.
Exercise 17
( )
reference frame R O, e x , e y , e z by the spherical coordinates (r, q, f). We call
ur ur ur
( )
R’ the center reference O and of basis er ,eθ ,eφ , with OM = r e r .
i) We take R ‘as a relative reference and projection reference on the resulting
Assume that M is dropped without initial velocity at point B. During its move-
ur ur
u
ment, it is subject to its own weight P = −mgez , , to the reaction L of the
support, to the force F = k AM , k a positive constant.
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a) Explain the basic law of dynamics and derive the differential equation of
motion and expression of L.
b) Write the theorem of kinetic energy and derive a first integral of motion,
then the expression L as a function of q ; this will give the differential
equation of movement.
c) Given in part C, the expression of the linear velocity v of M, and that of
the reaction L.
d) Show that there exists a value of q for which L = 0. Numerical application
mg
k= .
a
Exercise 18
(
We consider a fixed reference R 0 O, x 0 , y 0 , z 0 ) and a relative reference
ur
u r ur
u ur
( ) ( ) ( )
R 1 O, x , y, z 0 , such that x0 , x = y0 , y = ψ (t) . Consider a point M defined
( )
in the plane (Oyz0) by its polar coordinates ρ,θ ) on which we associate part of
the unit vector v of OM , and the unit vector w , deduced from v by an angular
π
rotation of in the plane (Oyz0).
2
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(
The vectors x, v and w form the reference R O, x , v, w , of origin O. )
r and q are functions of the time t.
In all of the problems, the results are expressed in a reference frame
(
R O, x , v, w . )
(a) We designate v R 0 (M ) the velocity of M in its movement with respect to
( )
R 0 O, x 0 , y 0 , z 0 .
Determine v R (M ) , v R 1 (M ) and v R 0 (M )
uuuuuuuuuuuur
(b) We designate vR 0 ( M ∈ R1 ) the trailing velocity of M in its movement
( ) (
with respect to R 0 O, x 0 , y 0 , z 0 , R 1 O, x , y, z 0 ) being the relative
reference.
uuuuuuuuuuuur uuuuuuuuuuuur uuuuuuuuuuuur
Prove the relation : vR 0 ( M ∈ R1 ) = vR 1 ( M ∈ R ) + vR 0 ( M ∈ R1 )
uuuuuuur uuuuuuur uuuuuur
(c) D e t e r m i n e t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n s : a R ( M ) , a R 1 ( M ) , ac ( M ) ,
uuuuuuuuuuuuur
a R 0 ( M ∈ R1 )
(d) (i) For what conditions is the relative motion of M the central acceleration
of center O?
(ii) For what conditions other than the previous, is the abso-
lute motion of M is also the central acceleration of center O?
(e) Assume three true propositions:
- r= a = Cte
- The relative motion of M is not central acceleration of center O
- The absolute motion of M is central acceleration of center O.
• •
Exercise 1
In the local reference (u, t, k) the components of the frictional force are : (0 ; f
cos a ; f sin a )
Components of velocity, derived from the vector position with respect to time :
(-r sinq q ' ; r cosq q ' ; hq ' )
Or in the local reference (u, t, k) :
(0, rq ' ; hq ' )
tan a = hq ' / (rq ') = h / r.
Work of weight of B in A :
Elementary work during elementary displacement hdq :
dW = mghdθ
To obtain the work on the displacement of B to A, integrate between 4π and 0
W = 4π mgh .
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velocity in A :
Write the kinetic energy theorem between B and A : (in B the velocity is zero)
½mv²A = 4π mgh -4π f [r cosα + h sinα].
v²A =8π [gh - f /m[r cosα + h sinα]].
This is possible when friction is not important :
mgh>4π f [r cosα + h sinα].
Exercise 2
in B)
The change in kinetic energy is equal to the sum of the work of forces applied
to the solid: ½mv² -0= F AB
F= mv²/(2AB) = 5*7,7² / 8 = 36,7 N.
velocity from (S) to C :
From B to C : R, perpendicular to the velocity does not work. The working
weight is resistant (up) and is: WP= - mgh
The kinetic energy in C is ½ mv ² C; kinetic energy at B is ½ mv ² (v: velocity
in B)
The change in kinetic energy is equal to the sum of the work of forces applied
to the solid : ½mv²C -½mv² = -mgh
v²C = v² -2gh = 58,8 -2*9,8*1,5 =29,4 ; vC = 5,4 m/s.
The expression of this velocity vC indicates that it only depends on the velocity
at B and the altitude h, whatever the direction of travel.
or we can apply the theorem of kinetic energy between the two passages of
solid M located on the arc BD going and returning:
R does not work and the work of the weight is zero (at the same point the
altitude difference is zero). So the kinetic energy, the value of the velocity does
not change the outward and return journeys.
Exercise 3
Plan of phases:
x’(t) = -Aω0sin((ω0 t) soit x’² =A²ω²0sin²(ω0 t)--> sin²(ω0 t) = x’² /(A²ω²0)
x² = A² cos²(ω0 t)-->cos²(ω0 t) =x² / A²
or cos²(ω0 t) +sin²(ω0 t) =1
path whose equation is given above is, in terms of phases, an ellipse of semi-
major axis A and semi minor axis Aω0.
Energy :
The tension derives from a potential energy, there exists a function such that
Ep:
the origin of the elastic potential energy is chosen at the equilibrium position
(G in O).
In the absence of friction there is conservation of mechanical energy.
E =½mv² +½kx²
Derived with respect to time ( the derivative of u² being 2 uu’)
½ m 2 v v’ + ½ k 2 x x’ = 0
with v’ = x” at x’ = v simplifying with v, we find : m x” + k x=0
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Exercise 4
The physical system has a single degree of freedom. Write the conservation of
mechanical energy and then derive: we obtain a differential equation of second
order of the form x ‘= f (x, x’).
This equation admits a unique solution for given initial conditions.
Develop Ep (x) near the equilibrium position x0:
Ep(x) = Ep(x0) + (x-x0) (dEp / dx) x0 + ½(x-x0)² (d²Ep / dx²) x0 + ...
F = - dEp / dx
x0 is an equilibrium position if F(x0) =0 and (dEp / dx) x0 = 0
derive Ep(x) to study the stability of equilibrium :
F= - dEp/dx =-dEp / dx) x0- (x-x0) (d²Ep / dx²) x0= - (x-x0) (d²Ep / dx²) x0
if the second derivative is positive, then F is of opposite sign to x-x0; the mate-
rial point is subjected to a force that brings it to its equilibrium position x0. The
equilibrium is called “stable”.
However, if the second derivative is negative, it tends to point away from the
position of equilibrium and the equilibrium is called “unstable”.
Potential energy :
Ep(x)= ½ kDl²= ½k[ (l²+x²)½-l0]²
The derivative with respect to x :
dEp/dx= kx[1- l0(l²+x²)-½ ]
si l >l0, the only equilibrium position is x=0
si l <l0, there are three equilibrium positions : x=0; x = (l0²-l²)½; x = -(l0²-l²)½
the shape of Ep is represented below:
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Stability of equilibrium :
for x=0 : d²Ep/dx = k(1- l0/l) so if l>l0 the equilibrium is stable. If l<l0 the equi-
librium is unstable.
for x = (l0²-l²)½ ou x = -(l0²-l²)½ , d²Ep/dx =k((1- l²0/l²) positive; the equilibrium
positions are stable.
Near the stable equilibrium positions, we have a harmonic oscillator.
The solutions of this differential equation depend on the sign of the discrimi-
nant of the associated characteristic equation: ∆ = l ²-4km
∆ <0 low friction, pseudo-periodic regime
∆ = 0, the critical regime
∆> 0, aperiodic regime
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the viscous friction force is not strictly proportional to the velocity. The brak-
ing force by Foucault current is proportional to the velocity.
l <0: The oscillator receives energy. The amplitude of oscillations increases.
Exercise 5
Exercise 6
Dissociation energy
work done by an outside operator for separating the two atoms constituting the
molecule
dWop = -Fm dr
The nuclear interaction forces are conservative and are derived from a poten-
tial energy.
Fn (r) = -dE / dr
distances between the molecules are about 10-10m; distances in the nucleus are
approximately 10-15m. In the short and medium range, nuclear forces are attrac-
tive, intense when the nucleons are close.
The molecular forces are attractive or repulsive.
Exercise 7
Exercise 8
power :
z-x = t-2 -3t = -2-2t ;
2z²-x = 2(t-2)²-3t = 2t²-11t + 8
Force vector (25t²/3 ; -2-2t ; 2t²-11t + 8 )
Velocity vector : derived from the position vector with respect to time
( 3 ; 4t ; 1)
Power: scalar product of force vector and velocity vector
P= 12,5 *2t² + (-2-2t)*4t + 2t²-11t + 8
P= 19t² -19t +8
power passes through an extreme value (minimum or maximum) when its
derivative with respect to time is zero
and 38t-19 =0 where t= 0,5 s
à t < 0,5 s, the derivative is negative, thus the power diminishes, and passes by
a minimum at t=0,5 s and diminishes for t>0,5 s.
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if the transfer takes place along a line segment AB, the work is equal to:
Exercise 9
Spring stiffness :
Weight of the vehicle : 600*10 = 6000 N
Height : h=0,3 m
Period :
the upper end of the spring is subject to vehicle weight and spring tension.
the fundamental relationship of dynamics can be written: mz”= mg -k(l-l0)
the origin is chosen at the equilibrium position : l = lequi+ z
k(l-l0 )= k(lequi-l0 + z ) = mg + kz
Exercise 10
(i) Compared to the Galilean reference system linked to the stem, the fundamental
relationship of dynamics can be written :
(i) Compared to the Galilean reference system linked to the stem, the fundamental
relationship of dynamics can be written :
ur ur ur ur
mΓ = T + mg + R (I)
uuuur r ur r
OM = r er ⇒ Γ = r&&er
ur r r
T = −kxer = −k(r − l o )er
rr
mg.er = mgcosθ o
ur r
R .er = 0 ( frictionless)
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m&&
r = −k(r − l o ) + mgcosθ o (1)
⇒ R&& = r&&
We have :
k 2π
ω o2 = ⇒ To = = 0,44 s (5)
m ωo
b) friction is due to air resistance, therefore, the viscous friction force that op-
poses movement of the pendulum is proportional to the velocity:
ur
f = −α R& (6)
Alors :
α k
mR&& = −kR − α R& ⇒ R&& + R& + x = 0
m m
α 1 k
Where = et ω o2 =
m τe m
R&
⇒ R&& + + ω o2 R = 0 (7)
τe
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1
s<0⇒ 2
− 4ω o2 < 0 ⇒ 1 < 4ω o2τ e2 ⇒ 2ω oτ e > 1 (8)
τe
So :
1 ∆ 1 1
s=− ± j où ∆ = ω a = ∆ = 4ω o2 − = ω o2 (4 − 2 2 )
2τ e 2 2
τe ω oτ e
∆ 1 12
ωa = = ω o (1 − )
2 4ω o2τ e
1
⇒∆=− ± jω a
2τ e
1 1
(− + jω a ) t (− − jω a ) t
⇒ R = C 1e 2
+ C2e 2
1
− t
2τ e jω a t − jω a t
R=e (C 1e + C2e )
t 1
⇒ R = R m exp(− )cos(ω a t + φ), ω a = ω o (1 − )
2τ e 4ω o2τ e
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Figure – 1 : the shape of the curve in the case of an oscillatory damped pseudo
2π 1 − 12
- pulse and period Ta = = To (1 − )
ωa 4ω o2τ e2
t 1
R& = R m exp(− )[−ω a sin(ω a t + φ) − cos(ω a t + φ)]
However
2τ e 2τ e
π vo
φ= et Rm = −
Thus
2 ω a ⇒ R = vo exp(− t )sinω t
2τ e
a
ωa
Logarithmic decrement δ
t
At Α(t) = R m exp(− ) the pseudo – sinusoid is at a maximum at times t C
2τ e
cos(ω a t + φ) = ±1 = cos(kπ )
kπ − φ kTa φTa
⇒ tC = = −
ωa 2 2π
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(kTa / 2) − (φTa / 2π )
Α(tC ) = Α(k) = R m exp[−
2τ e
φTa kT
⇒ Α(k) = R m exp( )exp( a )
4πτ e 4τ e
Ta
⇒δ =
2τ e
x(t) 1 1 ⎛ R ⎞ 1
= exp(nδ ) ⇒ δ = [Logx(t) − Log[x(t + nT a )] i.e : Log ⎜ o ⎟ = Log3
x(t + nT a ) n n ⎝ R S o ⎠ 50
⎧ 2π
⎪T a ≈ T o = = 0, 44 s
⎨ ωo
T T ⎪δ = 0, 022
Et δ = a ⇒ τ e = a ⎩
2τ e 2δ
So τ e = 10 s : duration of relaxation.
As energy is the duration after which the amplitude is represented by
1
exp( ) ≈ 1,5 . Since the amplitude is zero after several values of τ e , we need
2
for τ e to characterise the life of damped oscillations. This is why we call it the
duration of relaxation of energy.
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Quality factor :
τe 10
Here, Q = ω oτ e = = = 22,7
To 0,44
1 2 1
We have E C = m&r ; E P P = mgz = mgr cosθ o ; E P E = k(r − l o )2
2 2
ur r
Ω = −Ωez
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2
1 uuur
⇒ E P = − mΩ2 (HA)2 + C te et C te = 0 ⇒ H = A
C
2
1 uuur 1
⇒ E P = − mΩ2 (HA)2 = − mΩ2 r 2 sin 2 θ o
C
2 2
⇒ E R ( A) = C te = E C ( A) + E P P + E P e + E P C
R
1 1 1
⇒ m&r 2 + mgr cosθ o + k2(r − l o )2 − mΩ2 r 2 sin 2 θ o = E R ( A) = C te
2 2 2
By describing with respect to t , we have :
1 1 1
m&r&&
r + mg&r cosθ o + k(r − l o ).&r − mΩ2 r r& sin 2 θ o = 0
2 2 2
⇒ m&&r + mgcosθ o + k(r − l o ) − mΩ (sinθ o ).r = 0
2
k k
⇒ r&& + ( − Ω2 sin 2 )r = l o − gcosθ o
m m
k
⇒ r&& + (ω o2 − Ω2 sin 2 )r = l o − gcosθ o
m
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c) Equilibrium position :
gcosθ o
lo −
ω o l o − gcosθ o
2
ω o2
Ω = C ⇒ Ω e=
te
=
ω o 2 − Ω2 sin 2 θ o ⎛ Ω⎞
2
1 − ⎜ ⎟ sin 2 θ o
⎝ ωo ⎠
2π To
ω 0ʹ = ω o2 − Ω2 sin 2 θ o = 0,19s ⇒ Toʹ = = ≈ 1s
ω oʹ 0,436
Exercise 11
1°) RFD
ur ur ur ur
mΓ = T 1 + T 2 + mg
⇒ m&&
x = −k1 (x − l1 ) − k2 (x − l 2 ) + mg
k1 + k2 k
Pulsation ω o2 = = ; où k = k1 + k2
m m
2°)
ur ur ur ur
⎧T 1 + T 2 + mg = mΓ
⎪⎪ ur ur ur r
⎨T o1 + T o 2 + mg = 0
⎪ ur ur r
T 1 +T 2 = 0
⎩⎪
ur r r r r
& z = r&er + c ez ⇒ v2 = r& 2 + c
2
V R ( M ) = r&er + rθe
r r2
dv2 2 d dt
( r& ) = ( r& 2 )
dr dt dr
d 2 1
( r& ) = 2r&&
&r . = 2&& r
dr r&
1 d 2 c2
r − 3)
(v ) = (&&
2 dr r
Rotating reference :
uuuur r
OM = xe x
r ur r
⎧⎪ R = (O, x o , y , z o )
o o
⎨ r ur r
⎪⎩ R = (O, x, y, z o )
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⎪⎧ m&&
x = −k2 (x − xI − l ) + mg
⎨
⎪⎩0 = k2 (x − xI − l ) − k1 (xI − l )
0 = k2 x − k2 l − k2 xI − k1 xI + k1l
k2 x + k1l − k2 l
⇒ xI =
k1 + k2
k2 x + k1l − k2 l
m&&
x = −k2 (x − l − ) + mg
k1 + k2
m&&
x = −k2 (x − l ) + k2 xI + mg
k2
m&&
x = −k2 (x − l ) + mg + (k x + k1l − k2 l )
k1 + k2 2
(k22 − k1 k2 − k1 2 )x (k2 k1 + k22 + k1 k2 − k2 )l
m&&
x= + + mg
k1 + k2 k1 + k2
k1 k2 2k k
m&&
x=− x + 1 2 l + mg
k1 + k2 k1 + k2
k1 k2 2k1 k2
0=− xe + l + mg
k1 + k2 k1 + k2
k1 k2
⇒ m&&
x+ (x − xe ) = 0
k1 + k2
X = x − xe ⇒ mX&& + kX = 0
k1 k2 1 1 1
où k = ⇔ = +
k1 + k2 k k1 k2
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Exercise 12
Figure 1
k = 20 N / m (2)
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Figure 2
Galilean reference : the solid Earth.
Studied system : the solid attached to the free end of the spring.
Applied forces : the soli dis subjected to three forces :
The weight (the action of the Earth on the solid).
The force exerted by the spring on the solid as =k =-k (3) .
the force exerted by the support on the solid (it is perpendicular to the surfa-
ces in contact since friction is neglected)
- Let us apply Newton’s second law (theorem of the center of inertia):
In a Galilean reference frame, the sum of external forces applied to a solid
is the product of the mass of the solid by the acceleration of its center of
inertia :
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Here, we write :
+ + =m (4) with =-k and, by consequence, Fx = - k x
Where, by projecting on the unit vector :
0+0-kx=m
m +kx=0
(5)
(7)
(8)
- Forming :
(9)
(11)
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the condition:
(11)
T0 = 0,628 s (12)
(9)
Thus, at t = 0 s :
- 0,15 = X M cos (ϕ)
0 = - (2 π / To) X M sin (ϕ)
And :
X M = - 0,15 / cos (ϕ)
0 = - sin (ϕ)
There appears to be 2 solutions :
ϕ1 = 0 (modulo 2 π)with X1M = - 0,15 m
ϕ2 = π (modulo 2 π)with X2 M = 0,15 m
However, these solutions are in fact equal, since cos cos (a + π) = - cos (a) :
x1 = - 0,15 cos (10 t) = 0,15 cos (10 t + π) = x2
we retain :
The position x of the center of inertia G of the solid is, at each instant, given by
:
x = 0,15 cos (10 t + π) (13)
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by deriving x with respect to time, we obtain the velocity of the solid in rectili-
near translation :
v = - 1,5 sin (10 t + π) (14)
the velocity thus varies between - 1,5 m/s and + 1,5 m/s which is the maximum
value.
Remark : by deriving with respect to time, we obtain the acceleration of the
solid.
a = - 15 cos (10 t + π)
Em = EP + EC = k x2 + m v2
Em = k Xm2 (13)
This energy remains constant as time elapses (note that we have neglected any
friction).
With k = 20 N/m et Xm = - 0,15 m, we obtain :
Em = 0,225 J (14)
- We have seen that in the absence of friction, the mechanical energy of the
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energy of spring k x2 is zero, thus the kinetic energy of the system is a maxi-
mum. Thus :
Exercise 13
T0 = 0,314 s
The calculation confirms the value obtained experimentally. We retain :
T0 = 0,32 s
f (Hz) 1,5 2,0 2,5 2,8 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,6 4,0 4,5
xmax (cm) 0,4 0,6 1,0 1,5 2,1 2,3 2,0 1,5 1,0 0,7
For a frequency of excitation fR = 3.2 Hz we observe that the amplitude of os-
cillations of the resonator is maximized. This is the phenomenon of amplitude
resonance. It occurs for a frequency of excitatory fR = 3.2 Hz near the frequen-
cy f0 = 1 / T0 = 3.18 Hz of the resonator.
B-3 If we used a solution S ‘over the viscous friction force increase, the reso-
nance becomes blurred.
There would be more resonance if the damping became very important.
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C-1 For a velocity VR, the vehicle undergoes large amplitude oscillations that
dangerously diminish its handling. Let us explain this phenomenon.
The suspension of a moving object is comparable to a mechanical system os-
cillating at a frequency f0. It acts as a resonator, however, it is damped.
With each bump (exciter), the system receives a nearly vertical stimulus. If
these pulses are periodic and if the frequency f is close to f0, thus the oscilla-
tions of the car, though muted, can achieve a large amplitude. The “handling”
of the car may be compromised.
C-2 Express the velocity VR as a function of f0 and L.
This phenomenon occurs if the time between two passes over a hump, and
L / VR is equal to the natural period T0 = 1 / f 0 of the oscillating mechanical
system:
L / VR = 1/ f0
VR = L . f0
With f0 = 5,0 Hz et L = 80 cm = 0,80 m, we calculate :
VR = L . f0 = 0,80 5,0 = 4,0 m / s = 14400 m / h
VR = 14,4 km / h
Exercise 14
a) Check that the coefficient of stiffness of the spring is equal to k = 20,0 N.m
-1
.
Figure 1
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k = 20 N / m (2)
Figure 2
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Here, we write :
+ + =m (4) with =-k and, by consequence, Fx = - k x
Where, by projecting on the unit vector :
0+0-kx=m
m +kx=0
(5)
(7)
(8)
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- Forming :
(9)
- this expression (9) will be zero, according to = 0 (10), with the condi-
tion :
(11)
(11)
T0 = 0,628 s (12)
(9)
Thus, at t = 0 s :
- 0,15 = X M cos (ϕ)
0 = - (2 π / To) X M sin (ϕ)
And :
X M = - 0,15 / cos (ϕ)
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0 = - sin (ϕ)
Em = EP + EC = k x2 + m v2
Em = k Xm2 (13)
This energy remains constant as time elapses (note that we have neglected any
friction).
With k = 20 N/m et Xm = - 0,15 m, we obtain :
Em = 0,225 J (14)
- We have seen that in the absence of friction, the mechanical energy of the
spring-solid system remained constant. In passing through x = 0 the potential
energy of spring k x2 is zero, thus the kinetic energy of the system is a maxi-
mum. Thus :
Exercise 15
+A + (K / m) x = 0 (6) with :
Remark There is a damping called «critical» that ensures a return to the posi-
tion of equilibrium faster than aperiodic or pseudo-periodic.
Em = k x2 + m v2 = ( k x2 + m ) (8)
4- Graphical representation.
Exercise 16
c
uur uur ur u uuuuuur ur
u ur
u
R (O , e x , e y, e z ) et OM = r .e r + z .e z
ur
u ur u ur u uuuuuuur • ur
u
R ' (O , e r , e θ, e z ) Ω R '/ R = θ e z
uuur uuuur uuur
a) VR ( M )= VR' ( M ) + VR ( M ∈R ' )
d r r • r r
= ( r.e + z.e z ) + θ R '/ R
∧ ( r.e + z.e z )
dt/ R r r
uuur • ur
u • ur u • ur
u
VR (M) = r e r + z e z + r θ eθ
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ur ur ur ur
b) Γ a (M) = Γ R ' (M) + Γ e(M) + Γ c(M)
ur d • r + • r ) + •• r r r • r • r • r
Γ R (M) =
dt/ R
( ∧(
r .e r z .e z θ R '/ R.e z r.e r z.e z
+ )+ ∧( +
2.θ .e z r .e r z .e z
)
• ur
u r r r
+ .e ∧ [ e ∧ ( r.e + z.e )]
2°) (θ)2 z z r z
uur
ey eθ r
F1 uur
er
r
r F2
θ uur
ex
r
mg
⎡ 2mrθ ⎤
uur ⎢ ⎥
F1 = ⎢ mr ⎥
⎢ 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
uur r ur
à F 2 = ml e z ∧ V R (M)
ur r r r
P = − mg e y = − mg ( sin θe r + cosθeθ )
ur ur ur ur
a) P +F + F2 = m Γ R (M)
1
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• •• • •
− mg sin θ + 2mrθ − mlr θ = m[ r − r (θ)2 ] (1)
• •• ••
− mg cosθ + mr + ml r = m[ 2 r θ + r θ ] (2)
⎧ • •• • •
2
⎪⎪− g sin θ + 2rθ − lr θ = r − r (θ) (3)
⇒⎨
⎪ • •• ••
⎪⎩− g cosθ + r + l r = 2 r θ + r θ (4)
ur ur
u ur
u
b) dEc (M) = dW(P ) + dW(F1 ) + dW(F2 )
1 2
ur uuuur ur
u uuur ur
u uuur
d[ m V R (M)]= d(P.OM ) + F1.V R (M).dt + F2 .V R (M).dt
2 14 4244 3
0
ur
u uuur r r •r •r
F1.V R (M) = (2mrθe r + mreθ )(r e r + r θ eθ )
• •
= 2m r rθ + mr 2 θ = d(mr 2θ)
ur uuuur
P.OM = − mgr sin θ
• •
1
d [ m( r 2 + r 2 θ2 ) ]= d ( mr 2θ − mgr sin θ)
2
• •
⇒ r + r θ = 2r 2θ − 2gr sin θ + cte
2 2 2
(5) (cte = cons tan te)
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3)
ur uru ur uuur ur ur
u
P + F1 + L = m Γ R (M) où L = Le r
⎧ •
L
⎪⎪ 2aθ − g sin θ + = − a θ2 (6)
⇒⎨ m
⎪ ••
⎪⎩ a − g cosθ = a θ (7)
••
(7) ⇒ a θ + g cosθ = a (8)
4)
••
⇒ a θ + g cosθ = a (8)
Exercise 17
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uur uur ur u
R O e x e y e z)
( , , ,
ur
u uru uru
R ' O e r e θ e φ)
( , , ,
uur
uur uur ur u (φ,ez ) ur
u uru ur
u
( , ,
R O ex e y ez , ) ⎯ ⎯⎯ → R 1 O eρ eφ e z)
( , , ,
uuuuuuuur • ur
u • ur
u ur
u
Ω R1 / R = φ e z = φ(cosθe r − sin θe θ )
uur
ur
u ur u ur u (θ,eφ ) ur
u ur u ur u
R 1(O , e ρ, e φ, e z ) ⎯⎯⎯→ R '(O , e r , e θ, e φ)
uuuuuuuur • ur
u
Ω R '/ R1 = θeφ
uuuuuuur uuuuuuuur uuuuuuur • ur
u • ur
u
Ω R '/ R = Ω R '/ R1 + Ω R1/ R = θ e φ + φ e z
uuuuuuur • ur
u • ur
u ur
u
Ω R '/ R = θ e φ + φ(cosθe r − sin θe θ )
a) vector velocity
uuur uuur uuur
VR (M) = VR ' (M) + VR (M ∈R ')
d ur
u uuuuuur uuuur
= (re ) + Ω R '/ R ∧ OM
dt / R ' r
•r • r r • r r
= r e r + r θ(eφ ∧ e r ) − r φ sin θ(eθ ∧ e r )
uuur •r •r • r
VR (M) = r e r + r θ eθ + r φ sin θeφ
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b) acceleration vector
uuur uuur uur uur
Γ R (M) = Γ R ' (M) + Γ c (M) + Γ e (M)
uuur d uuur •• ur
u
Γ R ' (M) = VR ' (M) = r e r
dt / R '
uur uuuuuur uuur
Γ c (M) = 2Ω R '/ R ∧ VR ' (M)
• • r r • r r • r r
= 2 r[θ(eφ ∧ e r ) + φ cosθ(e r ∧ e r ) − φ sin θ(eθ ∧ e r )
••r •• r
= 2 r θ eθ + 2 r φ sin θeφ
uur d uuuuuur uuuur uuuuuur uuuuuur uuuur
Γe(M) = (Ω R '/ R ) ∧ OM + Ω R '/ R ∧ (Ω R '/ R ∧ OM )
dt / R
•• ur
u ur
u •• •• ur
u ur u uuuuuur uuuuuur uuuur
= θ eφ ∧ re r +[− φ sin θ − φ θ cosθ] (eθ ∧ e r ) + Ω R '/ R ∧ (Ω R '/ R ∧ OM )
• •
•
2 2 2
φ cosθ 0 −r φ sin θ − r θ
uuuuuur uuuuuur uuuur • • •
2
avec Ω R '/ R ∧ (Ω R '/ R ∧ OM ) = − φ sin θ ∧ rθ = −r φ sin θcosθ
• • ••
θ r φ sin θ r θ φ cosθ
uur • • ur
u •• • ur
u •• •• ur
u
Γe(M) = − r(φ sin θ + θ )e r + r( θ − φ2 sin θcosθ)eθ + r[φ sin θ + 2φ θ cosθ]eφ
2 2 2
⎛ •• • • ⎞
⎜ r − r(φ2 sin 2 θ + θ2 ) ⎟
⎜ • ⎟
uuur ⎜ •• ••
⎟
⇒ Γ R (M) = ⎜ r( θ − φ2 sin θcosθ) + 2 r θ ⎟
⎜ •• •• •• ⎟
⎜ r[φ sin θ + 2φ θ cosθ] + 2 r φ sin θ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
By direct calculation
Velocity vector
uuur •r •r • r
VR (M) = r e r + r θ eθ + r φ sin θeφ
Acceleration vector
⎛ •• • • ⎞
⎜ r − r(φ2 sin 2 θ + θ2 ) ⎟
⎜ • ⎟
uuur ⎜ •• ••
⎟
⇒ Γ R (M) = ⎜ r( θ − φ2 sin θcosθ) + 2 r θ ⎟
⎜ •• •• •• ⎟
⎜ r[φ sin θ + 2φ θ cosθ] + 2 r φ sin θ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
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2)
ur ur
u uuuur ur u
L = Le r OM = ae r
ur r uru r r
P = mg = − mge z = − mg ( cosθe r − sin θeθ )
ur uuuur uuur uuuur r r
F = − kAM = − k(AO + OM ) = − k ( ae z + ae r )
ur r r
F = − k a[(1 + cosθ)e r − sin θeθ ]
a) ur ur ur uuur
L + P + F = mΓ R (M)
⎧ •
⎪ L − mg cosθ − k a(1 + cosθ) = − ma θ2 (1)
⇒⎨
••
⎪
⎩ mg sin θ + ka sin θ = ma θ (2)
••
⎛g k⎞
(2) ⇒ θ = ⎜ + ⎟ sin θ (3)
⎝ a m⎠
•
2
(1) ⇒ L = (ka + mg)cosθ + k a − ma θ (4)
1 2 a2 • 2
Ec (M) = m V R (m) = m (θ)
r 2 ur uuuur 2
W(mg ) = mg .OM = − mga cosθ
ur ur uuur
dW(L) = L.dM = 0
ur ur uuur
dW( F) = F.VR (M).dt
r r •r • r
= − k a[(1 + cosθ)e r − sin θeθ ].[a θ eθ + a φ sin θeφ ].dt
•
= ka 2 sin θθ dt = ka 2 sin θdθ = d(−ka 2 cosθ)
a2 • 2
d[m (θ) ] = d[−(ka 2 + mga )cosθ]
2
a2 • 2
⇒ m (θ) = − (ka 2 + mga )cosθ + cte
2
•
à t = 0⇒ θ = 0 et θ = 0 ⇒ cte = ka 2 + mga
a2 • 2
⇒m (θ) = (ka 2 + mga )(1 − cosθ )
2
Where the first energy integral is :
•
ma 2 (θ)2 = 2 (ka 2 + mga )(1 − cosθ ) (5)
c) at point C, we have
π uuur •
θ= et v= V R (M) = a θ
2
•
2
v c = a θc et (5)⇒ [(ka 2 + mga)(1 − cosθ)]
ma
2
⇒ vc = ka 2 + mga
m
and
d)
ka
L = 0 alors (6)⇒3cosθ − 2 = −
ka + mg
1 ka
cosθ = (2 − )
3 ka + mg
African Virtual University 210
1 ka
L = 0 existe ⇔ − 1≤ (2 − ) ≤1
3 ka + mg
2ka − ka + 2mg
− 3≤ ( ) ≤3
ka + mg
ka + 2mg
− 3≤ ( ) ≤3
ka + mg
ka + 2mg
≤3
ka + mg
π π
⇒θ = ± ⇒ θ=
3 3
African Virtual University 211
Exercise 18
uur uur ur u
R 0 ( O, uxuor , uyuor ,zur
u ) ⎫⎪ uuuuuuuur • ur u
R 0 ( O, xro , ryour u,z oo ) ⎫⎬⎪ uuuuuuuur = ψ
Ω ur
• zu
R1 ( O, xr , yr ,zur u ) ⎬⎪ ΩR 1 / R0 = ψ z o
R /R o
R1 ( O, x , y,z oo ) ⎭⎪⎭ 1 0
r r ur uuuuuur • r
R ( O, xr , vr ,w
R ( O, x , v ,w )
ur ) }} uuuuuur = θ• xr
Ω
ΩR / R1
R / R1 = θ x
R est un repère de projection
R Rr isun
uuuu
est a projection
rrepère de projection
uOM
uuur = ρvr
OM = ρv
1°)
uuur d uuuur d r •r
a) VR (M) = OM = ρv = ρ v
dt / R dt / R
r •r
• r
= ρ v + θ x ∧ ρv
•r • ur
= ρ v + ρθ w
2°)
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c)
uuuur d uuuur d uuuur uuuuuur uuuur
VR (M) = OM = OM + Ω R / Ro ∧ OM
o dt / R dt / R
o
r •r • r
• r
= ρ v + (θ x ∧ ψ z ) ∧ ρv
•r • ur • r
= ρ v + ρθ w + ρψ sin θ(−x )
• r •r • ur
= − ρψ sin θ x + ρ v + ρθ w
3°)
uuur d uuur •• r
a) Γ R (M) = VR (M) = ρ v
dt / R
d •r • ur •r •r • ur
= ( ρ v + ρθ w ) + θ x ∧ ( ρ v + ρθ w )
dt / R
uuuur •• r •• •• ur • • ur • r
Γ R (M) = ρ v + (ρ θ + ρ θ ) w + θ ρ w − ρθ2 v
1
uuuur •• • r •• •• ur
2
Γ R (M) = ( ρ − ρθ ) v + (2ρ θ + ρ θ ) w
1
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c)
uur uuuuuuur uuuur • ur
u • r • • ur
Γ c (M) = 2Ω R1/ Ro ∧ VR (M) = 2 ψ z o ∧ (ρ v + ρ θ w )
1
• • r • • r
= −2 ψ ρ cosθx + 2 ψ ρθ sin θx
uur • r • •
Γ c (M) = 2 ψ x (ρθ sin θ − ρ cosθ )
uuuur •• r • r ur
Γ R (M ∈R1 ) = − ψ ρcosθx − ρ ψ 2 cosθ(cosθv − sin w )
o
uuuur •• r • r • ur
Γ R (M ∈R1 ) = − ψ ρcosθx − ρ ψ cos θv + ρ ψ 2 cosθsin θw
2 2
o
4°)
a)
uuuur uuuur r •• ••
d •
Γ R (M) ∧ OM = 0 ⇒ ρ θ + 2ρ θ = 0 = ( ρ2 θ)
1 dt
•
⇒ ρ2 θ = cte (1)
uuuur uuuur r
b) Γ R (M) ∧ OM = 0 (2)
o
uuuur uuuur uur uur
Γ R (M) = Γ R (M) + Γ c (M) + Γ e (M)
o 1
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•• • • •
−ρψ cosθ + 2 ψ (ρθ sin θ − ρ cosθ )
• •• •
2 2 2
= −ρψ cos θ + ρ − ρθ
• •• ••
2
−ρψ cosθsin θ + ρ θ + 2ρ θ
⎧ •• • • • •
⎪ρ( − ψ cosθ + 2 ψ θ sin θ) − 2ρ ψ cosθ = 0 (3)
(2) ⇒ ⎨ • •• ••
5°)
⎪ 2
⎩ ρ(ψ cosθsin θ + θ ) + 2ρ θ = 0 (4)
• ••
ρ=a ⇒ρ= ρ =0
•• • •
(3) ⇒ − ψ cosθ + 2 ψ θ sin θ = 0 (5)
• ••
2
(4) ⇒ ψ cosθsin θ + θ = 0 (6)
d • •
(5) ≡ (ψ cos2 θ) = 0 ⇒ ψ cos2 θ = c1 (7)
dt
• 2
⇒ ψ = 2 c1 (8)
cos4 θ
•• 2 •• 2
⇒
c sin θ = 0
θ+ 1
c sin θ dθ = 0
⇔ θ dθ + 1
cos3 θ cos3 θ
• •• • • • • 2
et θ θ dt = θ d θ ⇒θ d θ −
c1d(cosθ) = 0
cos3 θ
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• 2 −2 • 2
1
d( θ2 −
c1 cos θ 1
) = d(θ2 +
c1 ) = 0
2 −2 2 cos2 θ
• 2
⇒θ + 2 c1 = c2
cos2 θ
• 2
⇒ θ 2
= c2 −
c1 (9)
cos2 θ
Learning activities
The students must do all the exercises. They are organized in groups for col-
laborative work. Each group completes the proposed exercises and designates
a leader of the group who will report for each group. The professor gives a
deadline for each exercise, at which time each group will send an attached file
of their reports to the professor of the course.
Teacher’s guide
The professor will correct the group reports, and will place the corrections in a
workspace accessible to students. The corrections are accompanied by ad-
equate feedback. The scores for each group are assigned to group members and
will count for 20% of the final evaluation of the module
African Virtual University 216
Time of learning
4 hours
Appropriate reading
The text on the assessment of learning gives readers information on the issue
of assessment, evaluation forms and their role in correcting the issues objec-
tively including the short questions, different types of feedback, etc. .
Activity summary
This activity serves to identify forms of assessment from the time of evalua-
tion, and to clarify the roles of assessment and evaluation times.
Evaluation
Learning activities
The students must do all the exercises. They are organized in groups for col-
laborative work. Each group completes the proposed exercises and designates
a leader of the group who will report for each group. The professor gives a
deadline for each exercise, at which time each group will send an attached file
of their reports to the professor of the course.
Key answers
Self-evaluation
Teacher’s Guide
This evaluation is optional. It is not mandatory. Only those ones who want will
complete it. The professor will correct their productions, but the grades will
not be taken into account in the final assessment.
African Virtual University 218
Unit 1
Unit 1 includes:
- Four required readings,
- Twenty questions and exrcices.
This will facilitate the reception of knowledge for the student.
We started learning the international system of units (SI), based on seven basic
units. Then we continued by physical measurements, measurement errors and
uncertainties. For conclusion, we discussed the particular vector operations of
addition and subtraction of vectors.
Unit 2
Unit 2 includes:
- Three required readings,
- Completion of a course that examines the movements of free fall
- And a series of nine exercises.
In most cases, we seek the kinematic characteristics of a moving object: tra-
jectory, velocity, acceleration, time equations .... For complete knowledge of
students, we worked on different systems coordinates (spherical coordinates,
cylindrical ...).
Unit 3
Unit 3 includes
- Three required readings,
- Completion of a course dealing with the reaction supports, the forces of
solid-solid friction and the study of the deformation of a spring.
- A series of eight exercises based on the application of zero torsor
African Virtual University 219
Unit 4 :
Unit 4 includes:
- Three required readings related to the derivation of vector dynamics,
points in a Galilean and non-Galilean reference, work and oscillators.
- Additional courses formed by small exercises treating physical phenomena
seen in everyday life
- Eighteen exercises and problems solved.
African Virtual University 220
V = Vx + Vy + Vz
V = Vx2 + Vy2+Vz2
5. The moment of a vector with respect to an axis is a vector when the mo-
ment of a vector with respect to a point is a scalar.
a. True
b. False
4. Electromagnetic forces
5. Weight of a body
11. When a solid is in equilibrium, the resultant forces applied to the solid
is zero. This condition is:
a. necessary
b. sufficient
19. A body left at the top of the vertical mast of a boat that is animated by a
rectilinear uniform motion compared to a terrestrial reference, falls at
the foot of the mast. Why?
20. So that kinetic energy is always non-negative, why can the mechanical
energy of a system be negative?
21. A stationary magnetic field does not increase the norm of the velocity of
a charged particle. Why is it so widely used in particle accelerators ?
22. Why is the mechanical energy of a system not conserved in all cases ?
23. When the balance of forces acting on a vehicle or a person walking along
a horizontal path, one is led to conclude that it is the force of friction
which allows the movement. Is this paradoxical? Why?
African Virtual University 224
Answers Keys
1.
a. Think carefully before answering
b. Have you thought about the units of velocity vector before your choi-
ce?
c. The unit velocity in the International System (SI) is not the (m / s) 2
d. Good answer. It must indeed be the square root of the sum of the squares
of the coordinates.
2.
a. Very good. Indeed the velocity is constant, the motion is rectilinear uni-
form.
b. Did you calculate the velocity of the moving object before choosing?
c. Reread the question and see if the velocity depends on time.
d. For sinusoidal motion, the horizontal axis is a sinusoidal function of time
(x = Asin (wt + Φ)), which is not the case here.
4.
a. Carefully reread the question
b. Good answer, you do well to distinguish the two moments
6.
a. Attention, there should be more than a force for equilibrium of a solid on
a plane.
b. Only one force cannot maintain a solid in equilibrium on a plane.
c. Very good. You see it is the principle of action and reaction.
d. A body can be in equilibrium on a plane under the action of two forces
having the same direction and same orientation.
e. Every body in equilibrium on a plane is submitted to at least two forces
African Virtual University 225
7
a. Attention. a stable equilibrium does not depend solely on body weight
b. Think again, a stable equilibrium can not depend solely on force.
c. Very good, actually more the center of gravity of a body is, the more the
equilibrium is stable.
d. Reread the question and you can tell that between two people of the same
weight and size , which is most stable if they are standing.
9
a. Have you really learned your lesson before replying?
b. Bravo. You have learned your lesson. The work of a conservative force
is actually independent of the path.
11
a. Very good, it is necessary, however it does not suffice by itself
b. Incorrect, it does not suffice by itself
12. True. Good answer, you know the applications of groups of forces
13.
a. Bravo. If the slope is rough, there is a coefficient of friction generated by
a frictional force that keeps the solid equilibrium.
b. A solid on an inclined plane has drag and can not therefore remain in
equilibrium on a smooth surface.
15.
a. Very good. In fact, the advantage is to have a first integral that the solution
is easier than the equations from the fundamental principle of dynamics,
which are of second order.
b. The equations of the second level are not easy to solve and are thus a
disadvantage
16.
a. Attention, the mass of a body does not vary
b. Bravo. The weight of a body varies with altitude.
17.
a. Good answer. The moment of a vector from a point is actually a vector.
b. Attention, you are confusing it with the moment of a vector with respect
to a segment
18.
a. Good answer. This is indeed the moment of a vector with respect to a line
which is a scalar.
b. Proofread well and think before responding.
19. The reference R ʹ linked to the boat is also Galilean. With respect to R ʹ , the
laws of mechanics and thus those of free fall are written in the same way as
in R . Very good, you are mastering your course.
20. The energies Ek and EP are defined at a close constant additive. Conventio-
nallyt, Ek = 0 for the body of an immovable object, so that EP = 0 for bodies
infinitely far from each other. It results that EP is negative if the interaction is
positive ; thus En can be negative, contrary to Ek . Very good answer,
21. The magnetic field can bring in, through its properties of deviation, any charged
particle in a region where there is an electric field, which can only increase
the norm of the velocity of the particle. Very good answer.
22. The mechanical energy is not conserved in the general case, because of ex-
ternal and internal forces that do not derive a potential energy; thus this is
not a conservative quantity. In contrast, the total energy, total kinetic energy
of the macroscopic potential energy of external forces and of the internal
energy, is conservative: it is a statement of the first law of thermodynamics.
Very good.
23. To advance, we must rely on the ground. The friction force is an essential
intermediary. Very good. Without the frictional forces we would be unable
to walk properly.
African Virtual University 227
XVII. References
Readings
1. http://www.bipm.fr/fr/si/si_brochure/chapter1/1-2.html
2. http://www.cegep-ste-foy.qc.ca/freesite/index.php?id=3113
3. http://www.ulb.ac.be/cours/psycho/content/cognum/calcul.html
4. ABC SITE
5. http://www.hazelwood.k12.mo.us/grichert/sciweb/applets.htlm.
6. http://www.infoline.ru/g23/5495/Physics/English/waves.htlm
7. http://www.infoline.ru/g23/5495/index.htlm
8. http://jas.eng.buffalo.edu
9. http://lectureonline.cl.msu.edu/∼mmp/kap5/work/work.htlm
10. http://www.glenkrook.k12.il.us/gbsci/phys/Class/1DKin/U1L5a.htlm
11. http://www.glenkrook.k12.il.us/gbsci/phys/Class/1DKin/U1L5b.htlm
12. http://www.glenkrook.k12.il.us/gbsci/phys/Class/1DKin/U1L5c.htlm
13. http://www.glenkrook.k12.il.us/gbsci/phys/Class/1DKin/U1L5d.htlm
14. http://www.glenkrook.k12.il.us/gbsci/phys/Class/1DKin/U1L5e.htlm
15. http://www.glenkrook.k12.il.us/gbsci/phys/Class/1DKin/U1L5c.htlm
16. http://www.glenkrook.k12.il.us/gbsci/phys/Class/1DKin/U1L5d.htlm
17. http://www.hazelwood.k12.mo.su/∼grischert/explore/dswmedia/freefall.htlm
18. http://www.google.ca/search?client=firefox_a&rls=org.mozilla%3Aen-
US%Aofficial-&hl=en&q=c3%A9equilibre+d%27un+solide+sur+plan
&meta
19. http://www.chimix.com/an5/prem5/hotp5/force1htlm
20. http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/statique-du-solide
21. http://e.m.c.2.fr_chute-libre.htm
22. http://e.m.c.2.free.fr\pj00wd3l.html
23. http://www.bipm.fr/fr/si/si_brochure/chapter1/1-2.html
24. http://www.cegep-ste-foy.qc.ca/freesite/index.php?id=3113
25. http://www.ulb.ac.be/cours/psycho/content/cognum/calcul.html
26. http://www.hazelwood.k12.mo.us/grichert/sciweb/applets.htlm.
27. http://www.infoline.ru/g23/5495/Physics/English/waves.htlm
28. http://www.infoline.ru/g23/5495/index.htlm
29. http://jas.eng.buffalo.edu
30. http://lectureonline.cl.msu.edu/∼mmp/kap5/work/work.htlm
31. http://www.glenkrook.k12.il.us/gbsci/phys/Class/1DKin/U1L5a.htlm
32. http://formation.edu-psud.fr/pcsm/physique/outils_nancy/apprendre/Chapitre2/
titre1res.htm
33. http://formation.edu-psud.fr/pcsm/physique/outils_nancy/apprendre/Chapitre3/
partie3 / titre1res.htm
African Virtual University 229
34. http://msch2.microsoft.com/fr-fr/library/system.windows.forms.paddings.op_ad-
dition.aspx
35. http://msch2.microsoft.com/fr-fr/library/system.windows.forms.paddings.
op_methods.aspx
36. http://mathexel.site.voila.fr/index.htlm
37. http://www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/physique/perso/corticol/bibliohtml/chien_
j.html
38. http://www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/physique/perso/corticol/bibliohtml/4mouche_
j.html
39. http://www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/physique/perso/corticol/bibliohtml/lissa-
jou_j.html
40. http://www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/physique/perso/corticol/bibliohtml/hyp_ep
_j.html
41. http://www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/physique/perso/corticol/bibliohtml/plttrn
_j.html
42. http://www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/physique/perso/corticol/bibliohtml/pnd-
hgs_j.html
43. http://electronics.free.fr/school/article.phys3?id_article=9#5
44. http://www.chez.com/Mecanique/cinematipts.htm
45. http://www.chez.com/Mecanique/dynamiqu.htm
46. http://www.chez.com/Mecanique/energeti.htm
47. http://www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/physique/perso/gtulloue/aquadiff.
html
48. http://www.n-vandewiele.com/TDMeca2.pdf
49. http://www.ens-lyon.fr/Infosciences/Climats/Dynam-atmo/Cours-Corio-
lis
50. http://www.ucd.ma/fs/modules/meca1/um1./modules3/cin2.htm
51. http://perso.orange.fr/rmchs/physique_05/cours_physique/cours_
mecach5_cinematique.pdf
52. http://www.keepschool.com/cours-fiche-les_systèmes_oscillants
53. http://www.logitheque.com/fiche.asp?I=18755
54. http://www.univ-lemans.fr/enseignements/physique/01/statique.htm
55. http://www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/ physique/perso/cortial/bibliohtm/prlong.
htm
56. http://www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/ physique/perso/cortial/bibliohtm/prlong.
html
57. http://www.sciences.univ-nantes.fr/ physique/perso/cortial/bibliohtm/froflu.
html
African Virtual University 230
Mechanics 1
Professor : Adolphe RATIARISON
Student evaluation spreadsheet Academic year
Mechanics 1:
Professor: RATIARISON Adolphe
Summ. Aver-
Last First A.1 A.2 A.3 A.4 Eval. Total age
Name Name /20 /20 /20 /20 /20 /100 /20 Result
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Bad
0 0 Bad
0 0 Bad
0 0 Bad
0 0 Bad
0 0 Bad
0 0 Bad
0 0 Bad
0 0 Bad
0 0 Bad
0 0 Bad
0 0 Bad
0 0 Bad
0 0 Bad
0 0 Bad
0 0 Bad
0 0 Bad
0 0 Bad
0 0 Bad
0 0 Bad
0 0 Bad
0 0 Bad
0 0 Bad
0 0 Bad
0 0 Bad
African Virtual University 231
Pr Adolphe RATIARISON
Département de Physique
Faculté des Sciences
Université d’Antananarivo,
Madagascar
Tel 261 32 04 266 58
:E_mail : aaratiarison@yahoo.fr
Kinematics of a point
Equilibrium of solids on a plane
Physics quantities-meausurements- Uncertainties- Vector operations
References-Dynamics of a material point-Work- Power, energy, oscillators
Evaluation of activities
MÉCANIQUE
Lectures Obligatoires
Source: Wikipedia.org
1
Table des matières
Mouvement de rotation .............................................................................................................................. 5
Définition ................................................................................................................................................ 5
Cinématique dans l'espace ................................................................................................................ 8
Dynamique et énergétique ..................................................................................................................... 9
Centre instantané de rotation .................................................................................................................. 10
Définition .............................................................................................................................................. 10
Exemple des danseuses de cancan ...................................................................................................... 11
Justification .......................................................................................................................................... 11
Utilisation du CIR dans un problème de cinématique plane ........................................................... 13
Orbite ......................................................................................................................................................... 14
Éléments orbitaux ................................................................................................................................ 14
Périodes ................................................................................................................................................. 17
Relations entre les anomalies et les rayons ........................................................................................ 17
Barycentre (physique) .............................................................................................................................. 18
Historique ............................................................................................................................................. 18
Développement mathématique ............................................................................................................ 19
Développements physiques .................................................................................................................. 20
Centre d'inertie ................................................................................................................................ 21
Centre de gravité .............................................................................................................................. 21
Méthode graphique .......................................................................................................................... 22
Astronomie ............................................................................................................................................ 22
Localisation du centre de gravité d'une plaque à deux dimensions ................................................ 23
Système masse-ressort .............................................................................................................................. 23
Oscillations rectilignes d'une masse soumise à l'action d'un ressort ............................................... 23
Amélioration ......................................................................................................................................... 25
Autre amélioration ............................................................................................................................... 25
Moment de force (mécanique) ................................................................................................................. 25
Translation d'une force ....................................................................................................................... 26
Moment par rapport à un point ...................................................................................................... 26
Moment par rapport à un axe ......................................................................................................... 28
Couple de forces ............................................................................................................................... 29
2
Théorème de Varignon .................................................................................................................... 30
En dynamique ....................................................................................................................................... 30
Moment d'inertie....................................................................................................................................... 31
Approche empirique ............................................................................................................................ 31
Détermination du moment d'inertie ................................................................................................... 31
Moments d'inertie particuliers ........................................................................................................... 32
La boule ............................................................................................................................................. 32
La barre ............................................................................................................................................ 33
Le cylindre plein ............................................................................................................................... 33
Le cylindre creux .............................................................................................................................. 33
Théorème de transport (ou Théorème d'Huygens ou Théorème de Steiner) ................................. 34
Énergie cinétique....................................................................................................................................... 34
Historique ............................................................................................................................................. 34
Conventions .......................................................................................................................................... 34
Définitions ............................................................................................................................................. 35
Cas d'un point matériel ................................................................................................................... 35
Cas d'un système de points .............................................................................................................. 35
Unité ...................................................................................................................................................... 36
Théorème de König .............................................................................................................................. 36
Enoncé ............................................................................................................................................... 36
Application à un solide .................................................................................................................... 36
En mécanique relativiste ..................................................................................................................... 37
Théorème de l’énergie cinétique ......................................................................................................... 38
Énoncé ............................................................................................................................................... 38
Démonstration .................................................................................................................................. 39
Théorème de la puissance cinétique ................................................................................................... 39
L’énergie thermique en tant qu’énergie cinétique ............................................................................ 40
Énergie mécanique .................................................................................................................................... 40
]Expression ........................................................................................................................................... 40
Solide ponctuel ................................................................................................................................. 40
Solide étendu non déformable ......................................................................................................... 41
Solide déformable ............................................................................................................................. 41
3
Théorème de l'énergie mécanique ...................................................................................................... 41
Conservation ......................................................................................................................................... 42
4
Mouvement de rotation
La rotation est l'un des deux mouvements simples fondamentaux des solides, avec la translation
rectiligne. En génie mécanique, il correspond au mouvement d'une pièce en liaison pivot par
rapport à une autre.
La notion de mouvement circulaire est une notion de cinématique du point : on décrit la position
d'un point dans le plan. La rotation est une notion de cinématique du solide : on décrit
l'orientation d'un solide dans l'espace.
Définition []
Un solide est en rotation si la trajectoire de tous ses points sont des cercles dont le centre est une
une même droite ; cette droite est appelée « axe de rotation », et habituellement notée Δ.
En cinématique dans le plan, les trajectoires des points sont des cercles concentriques, le centre
commun de ces cercle est appelé « centre de rotation » et habituellement noté O.
Définitions []
5
L'orientation du solide est repérée par un angle habituellement noté θ (voir Angles d'Euler). En
cinématique plane, cet angle peut être défini comme l'angle entre
soit également
α=0
ω = ω0
θ = θ0 + ω0×t
où θ0 est l'orientation à l'instant initial. Ce mouvement idéal est en général utilisé pour décrire la
partie centrale d'un mouvement (vitesse angulaire stable).
6
α = α0
ω = ω0 + α0×t
θ = θ0 + ω0×t + 1/2×α0×t2
où θ0 est l'orientation à l'instant initial. Ce mouvement idéal est en général utilisé pour décrire le
début et la fin d'un mouvement (mise en route ou arrêt).
Triangle des vitesses dans le de points situés sur des axes différents
Chaque point M de l'objet a une trajectoire circulaire, donc décrit un cercle de centre O et de
rayon R = OM. Le vecteur vitesse instantané est tangent au cercle, donc perpendiculaire au rayon
[OM]. Sa norme vaut
v = ω×R.
7
Les équations horaires du point dans le cas des mouvements uniforme est décrit dans l'article
Mouvement circulaire uniforme. Dans le cas général, elles sont décrites dans l'article Mouvement
circulaire non uniforme.
Graphiquement, si l'on considère les vecteurs vitesse des points appartenant à une même droite
passant par O, leurs extrémités sont sur une droite passant par O (en raison de la proportionnalité
en R) ; la figure ainsi formée est appelée « triangle des vitesses ».
Cela permet une résolution graphique de problèmes cinématiques : si l'on connaît la vitesse d'un
point du solide — par exemple point en contact avec un actionneur (extrémité de tige d'un vérin,
dent d'engrenage), on peut déterminer le vecteur vitesse de tous les points du solide :
Par « rabattre le point B sur la droite », on entend trouver le point B' de la droite situé sur le
même cercle de centre O.
Dans le cas de la cinématique dans l'espace, on prend un axe de référence normal à l'axe de
rotation et le coupant en O, et un point A du solide situé dans le plan normal à l'axe de rotation et
passant par O.
8
Le vecteur accélération angulaire est la dérivée vectorielle de :
Dynamique et énergétique []
On peut appliquer la dynamique du point à chaque élément de matière du solide. En intégrant sur
la totalité du solide, on trouve les résultats suivants :
l'inertie en rotation, ou inertie à la rotation, par rapport à l'axe Δ est exprimée par le
moment d'inertie JΔ ;
l'accélération angulaire est reliée aux couples extérieurs Cext et aux moments des forces
extérieures par rapport à l'axe par le principe fondamental de la dynamique :
.
Article détaillé : Dynamique de rotation.
et le théorème de l'énergie cinétique énonce que la variation de l'énergie cinétique est égale à la
somme des travaux des couples et moments internes et externes. Le travail d'un couple C
constant entre deux positions θ1 et θ2 s'écrit
le paramètre (θ2 - θ1) étant l'amplitude du mouvement. Si le couple varie, on définit alors le
travail élémentaire pour une petite rotation d'un angle dθ
9
dWC = C⋅dθ
et
PC = C⋅ω.
Définition []
À l'instant t, I est le centre instantané de rotation du solide S dans le repère R défini par les axes
Ox et Oy.
10
Lorsqu'un solide isolé au sens mécanique du terme, se déplace suivant une trajectoire comprise
dans un plan, le CIR se définit comme le point où le vecteur vitesse est nul.
Le CIR se situe sur la perpendiculaire à chaque vecteur vitesse du solide isolé passant par le
point d'application de ce dernier.
Lorsque le solide isolé se déplace uniquement en translation dans un plan, le CIR est projeté à
l'infini.
L'illustration représente des danseuses de cancan vues de dessus. Si on considère que l'ensemble
des cinq danseuses est un solide isolé au sens mécanique du terme, on peut dire que le centre
instantané de rotation est la danseuse centrale, puisqu'elle n'a pas de vitesse relative
contrairement à ses compagnes qui ont une vitesse proportionnelle à leur éloignement du centre.
Justification []
11
Sur un court instant, le mouvement d'une bielle (bas) dans un système manivelle-bielle-piston est
équivalent à une rotation autour du CIR (haut)
Considérons une pièce ayant un mouvement plan quelconque, par exemple le mouvement d'une
bielle. Si l'on prend une photographie, on a un flou en raison du mouvement : les points
« filent », et les segments de droite générés par les points sont une image des vecteurs vitesse.
Si la bielle était en rotation autour de son CIR, on obtiendrait une photo semblable, avec le même
flou. Sur un très court instant — le temps de pose de la photographie —, les deux mouvements
sont équivalents.
De manière plus rigoureuse : le torseur cinématique d'un solide en mouvement plan dans le plan
(Oxy ) réduit à un point quelconque A s'écrit :
c'est un glisseur puisque et sont orthogonaux. Il existe donc un point B tel que
. d'après la propriété d'équiprojectivité, on a
12
Si l'on note (X, Y, 0) les composantes de , on a alors
si ωz n'est pas nul, alors le point B existe et est unique ; il est appelé centre instantané de rotation.
Prenons l'exemple d'une voiture en virage, dont on connaît la direction, le sens, le point
d'application et l'intensité (5 m/s) du vecteur vitesse de la roue avant. On connaît également la
direction, le point d'application et le sens de la roue arrière. Les points A et B sont les centres des
roues et respectivement les points d'application de leur vecteur vitesse.
13
1. On choisit une échelle des vitesses, par exemple 10 mm pour 1 m/s ;
2. On place le vecteur vitesse de la roue avant au point A ;
3. On trace (en rouge) la direction du vecteur vitesse de la roue arrière au point B ;
4. Le CIR se situe sur une droite passant par le point d'application des vecteurs vitesse et
perpendiculaire à ces derniers : on trace donc les traits verts, et on déduit le CIR ;
5. On mesure le segment [CIR B] et on reporte la mesure sur le segment [CIR A] trait bleu ;
6. On trace une droite passant par le CIR et par l'extrémité du vecteur vitesse associé au
point A ;
7. On trace un segment perpendiculaire à [CIR A] passant par le mesure reportée sur [CIR
A] et coupant le segment passant par CIR et par l'extrémité de ;
8. On mesure ce dernier segment et en fonction de l'échelle on trouve l'intensité du vecteur
vitesse .
Orbite
Orbite circulaire de deux corps de masse différentes autour de leur barycentre (croix rouge).
En mécanique céleste, une orbite est la trajectoire que décrit dans l'espace un corps autour d'un
autre corps sous l'effet de la gravitation.
L'exemple classique est celui du système solaire où la Terre, les autres planètes, les astéroïdes et
les comètes sont en orbite autour du Soleil. De même, des planètes possèdent des satellites
naturels en orbite. De nos jours, beaucoup de satellites artificiels sont en orbite autour de la
Terre.
Les trois lois de Kepler permettent de déterminer par le calcul le mouvement orbital.
Éléments orbitaux []
14
Orbite elliptique
Une orbite elliptique peut se définir dans l'espace selon six paramètres permettant de calculer très
précisément la trajectoire complète. Deux de ces paramètres (excentricité et demi-grand axe)
définissent la trajectoire dans un plan, trois autres (inclinaison, longitude du nœud ascendant et
argument du péricentre) définissent l'orientation du plan dans l'espace et le dernier (instant de
passage au péricentre) définit la position de l'objet. Voici la description plus détaillée de ces
paramètres :
15
Inclinaison i : l'inclinaison (entre 0 et 180 degrés) est l'angle que fait le plan orbital avec
un plan de référence. Ce dernier étant en général le plan de l'écliptique dans le cas
d'orbites planétaires (plan contenant la trajectoire de la Terre; en noir dans la figure 1).
L'inclinaison est l'angle orange dans la figure 1.
Longitude du nœud ascendant ☊ : il s'agit de l'angle entre la direction du point vernal
et la ligne des nœuds, dans le plan de l'écliptique. La direction du point vernal (en noir
dans la figure 1) est la droite contenant le Soleil et le point vernal (point de repère
astronomique correspondant à la position du Soleil au moment de l'équinoxe du
printemps). La ligne des nœuds (en vert dans la figure 1) est la droite à laquelle
appartiennent les nœuds ascendant (le point de l'orbite où l'objet passe du côté nord de
l'écliptique) et descendant (le point de l'orbite où l'objet passe du côté sud de l'écliptique).
Argument du périhélie ω: il s'agit de l'angle formé par la ligne des nœuds et la direction
du périhélie (la droite à laquelle appartiennent le Soleil et le périhélie de la trajectoire de
l'objet), dans le plan orbital. Il est en bleu dans la figure 1. La longitude du périhélie est
la somme de la longitude du nœud ascendant et de l'argument du périhélie.
16
seconde consiste à spécifier l'anomalie moyenne M (en rouge dans la figure 1) de l'objet
pour un instant conventionnel (l'époque de l'orbite). L'anomalie moyenne n'est pas un
angle physique, mais spécifie la fraction de la surface de l'orbite balayée par la ligne
joignant le foyer à l'objet depuis son dernier passage au périhélie, exprimée sous forme
angulaire. Par exemple, si la ligne joignant le foyer à l'objet a parcouru le quart de la
surface de l'orbite, l'anomalie moyenne est ° = 90°. La longitude moyenne
de l'objet est la somme de la longitude du périhélie et de l'anomalie moyenne.
Périodes []
Lorsqu'on parle de la période d'un objet, il s'agit en général de sa période sidérale, mais il y a
plusieurs périodes possibles :
Période sidérale : Temps qui s'écoule entre deux passages de l'objet devant une étoile
distante. C'est la période « absolue » au sens newtonien du terme.
Période anomalistique : temps qui s'écoule entre deux passages de l'objet à son périastre.
Selon que ce dernier est en précession ou en récession, cette période sera plus courte ou
longue que la sidérale.
Période draconitique : temps qui s'écoule entre deux passages de l'objet à son nœud
ascendant ou descendant. Elle dépendra donc des précessions des deux plans impliqués
(l'orbite de l'objet et le plan de référence, généralement l'écliptique).
Période tropique : temps qui s'écoule entre deux passages de l'objet à l'ascension droite
zéro. À cause de la précession des équinoxes, cette période est légèrement et
systématiquement plus courte que la sidérale.
Période synodique : temps qui s'écoule entre deux moments où l'objet prend le même
aspect (conjonction, quadrature, opposition, etc.). Par exemple, la période synodique de
Mars est le temps séparant deux oppositions de Mars par rapport à la Terre; comme les
deux planètes sont en mouvement, leur vitesses angulaires relatives se soustraient, et la
période synodique de Mars s'avère être 779,964 d (1,135 années martiennes).
17
ou encore
Une application fréquente consiste à trouver E à partir de M. Il suffit alors d'itérer l'expression :
Si on utilise une valeur initiale E0 = π, la convergence est garantie, et est toujours très rapide (dix
chiffres significatifs en quatre itérations).
Barycentre (physique)
En physique et en mécanique, le barycentre (ou centre de masse) d’un solide est le centre des
poids.
Historique []
Le barycentre de barus (poids) et centre est initialement le centre des poids. C'est donc une
notion physique et mécanique. Le premier à avoir étudié le barycentre en tant que centre des
poids (ce qu'on appelle de nos jours le centre de gravité) est le mathématicien et physicien
Archimède. Il est un des premiers à comprendre et expliciter le principe des moments, le principe
des leviers et le principe du barycentre. Il écrit dans son traité Sur le centre de gravité de surface
plane:
« Tout corps pesant a un centre de gravité bien défini en lequel tout le poids du corps peut être
considéré comme concentré. »
Son principe des moments et des leviers lui permet de construire assez simplement le barycentre
O de deux points de masses m1 et m2 différentes.
18
Pour que la balance soit en équilibre, il faut que les moments et soient
égaux. Si par exemple la masse m1 est 4 fois plus importante que la masse m2, il faudra que la
longueur OA soit 4 fois plus petite que la longueur OB. Cette condition se traduit de nos jours par
l'égalité vectorielle
Il est le premier à avoir cherché des centres de gravité de surface comme des demi-disques, des
paraboles. Il procède par approximations successives et a pu prouver que la recherche d'un centre
de gravité utilise des méthodes analogues à celle du calcul d'aire. Son travail est prolongé par
celui de Paul Guldin (1635/1640) dans son traité Centrobaryca et celui de Leibniz à qui l'on doit
la fonction vectorielle de Leibniz.
La notion de centre d'inertie G pour un système non solide est une notion dégagée par Christiaan
Huygens (1654), lors de l'établissement de sa théorie des chocs : même s'il sait que P = P0, il n'est
pas évident pour lui que G ira à vitesse constante. En particulier au moment de la percussion, où
des forces quasi-infinies entrent en jeu, avec éventuellement bris de la cible, G n'en continue pas
moins imperturbé son mouvement : cela paraît mirifique à Huygens, qui ne connaît pas encore le
calcul différentiel. C'est alors qu'il énonce le principe de mécanique :
« Le barycentre d'un système matériel se meut comme si toute la masse du système y était
transportée, les forces extérieures du système agissant toutes sur ce barycentre. »
On peut remarquer le glissement subtil entre barycentre, centre des poids (= centre de gravité)
comme le voyait Archimède et barycentre, centre des masses (= centre d'inertie).
Développement mathématique []
Article détaillé : barycentre (géométrie affine).
19
Le nombre de points peut passer à trois points, quatre points et se généraliser à n points. Si la
somme des masses ai est non nulle, le barycentre du système est le point G tel
que
Les coordonnées sont données par les formules, pour j variant de 1 à la dimension de l'espace
C'est sous cette forme qu'il devient un outil puissant en géométrie affine.
Le nombre de points peut même devenir infini, permettant de trouver le barycentre d'une courbe
ou d'une surface.
Si les points M ont pour coordonnées (x1;x2,x3) la fonction de densité s'écrit g(x1,x2,x3) et les
coordonnées de G s'écrivent
Si l'on se ramène à une dimension, ou bien si l'on considère chaque coordonnée séparément, on
retrouve la formule de la moyenne pondérée :
Développements physiques []
20
Centre d'inertie []
En mécanique, le centre d'inertie d'un corps correspond au barycentre des particules qui
composent le corps en question ; chaque particule étant pondérée par sa masse propre. C'est donc
le point par rapport auquel la masse est uniformément répartie.
Dans le cas d'un corps continu , on emploie comme fonction de pondération la masse
volumique ρ du corps. Dans ce cas, la position du centre d'inertie G est défini par la relation
suivante (O étant un point quelconque de l'espace) :
ou
Le centre d'inertie ne dépend donc que de la masse volumique et de la forme du corps. C'est une
caractéristique intrinsèque.
Une propriété étonnante du centre d'inertie est que son mouvement est parfaitement déterminé
par les lois du mouvement, quoi qu'il arrive à ses composants aussi longtemps que ceux-ci ne
subissent pas eux-mêmes de force nouvelle. Ainsi par exemple si un obus éclate en vol, le centre
d'inertie de ses fragments continue à suivre imperturbablement une parabole comme si de rien
n'était (aux effets de résistance de l'air près) avant, pendant et après l'explosion. Attention : ceci
ne s'applique évidemment pas à un obus balistique ou un astéroïde, précisément parce que la
force sur chaque éclat d'obus varie.
Centre de gravité []
Le centre de gravité d'un corps correspond au barycentre des particules qui composent le corps
en question ; chaque particule étant pondérée par son poids propre.
La position du centre de gravité Gg est défini par la relation suivante ( étant le champ de
gravité au point M):
Le centre de gravité est fondamentalement lié au champ de gravité dans lequel le corps est
plongé. Il n'existe pas forcément !
Très souvent en mécanique, la dimension des corps étant faible devant la rotondité de la terre, on
considère un champ de gravité uniforme. Sous cette hypothèse, le centre de gravité et le centre
d'inertie sont confondus.
21
Méthode graphique []
Dans le cas d'un assemblage composé de pièces dont on connaît la masse et le centre de gravité,
on peut déterminer le centre de gravité de l'ensemble avec la méthode du dynamique et du
funiculaire :
1. on détermine la résultante des différents poids avec un premier funiculaire, la pièce étant
dans une position donnée ;
2. on effectue un second funiculaire en considérant les « poids horizontaux », ce qui revient
à tourner la pièce d'un quart de tour.
Astronomie []
On parle de barycentre en ce qui concerne le couple formé par un corps stellaire possédant un
satellite. Le barycentre est le point autour duquel l'objet secondaire gravite. Si la plupart des
couples connus possède leur barycentre à l'intérieur de l'objet principal, il existe des exceptions
notables :
Le cas du couple Pluton/Charon : la différence de masse entre ces deux corps est
relativement faible, le barycentre se trouve donc à l'extérieur de Pluton. Pour certains
astronomes, plutôt que de parler de planètes et de satellites, il conviendrait dans ce cas
précis de retenir la notion de « planète double ».
Plusieurs astéroïdes reproduisent le cas de figure ci-dessus.
Le barycentre du couple Jupiter/Soleil se trouve à l'extérieur de ce dernier à environ un
rayon solaire de distance.
On retrouve aussi cette particularité chez certaines étoiles doubles
22
Localisation du centre de gravité d'une plaque à deux
dimensions []
Cette méthode est utile lorsque l'on souhaite trouver le centre de gravité d'un objet plan dont la
forme est complexe et dont on ne connait pas les dimensions exactes.
Système masse-ressort
Un système masse-ressort est un système mécanique à un degré de liberté. Il est constitué par
une masse accrochée à un ressort contrainte de se déplacer dans une seule direction. Son
mouvement est dû à trois forces :
Le système masse-ressort est un sujet d'étude simple dans le cadre des oscillateurs harmoniques.
Mouvement horizontal
23
Oscillation verticale
On peut mettre en oscillation une masse soumise à l'action d'un ressort. Ces oscillations peuvent
être, suivant les cas, des oscillations verticales ou des oscillations horizontales (en utilisant un
dispositif permettant de minimiser les frottements sur le support).
Dans les deux cas, les oscillations sont harmoniques : la fonction du temps [x(t)] de la position
de la masse de part et d'autre de la position d'équilibre (statique) est une fonction sinus. Dans le
cas de l'oscillateur vertical, l'effet de la pesanteur n'introduit qu'une translation de la position
d'équilibre statique. La relation déduite de l'application du théorème du centre d'inertie peut
s'écrire :
, avec
La période est indépendante de l’amplitude (isochronisme des oscillations) : elle ne dépend que
de l'inertie du système (masse m) et de la caractéristique de la force de rappel (constante de
raideur k du ressort) :
24
Remarque : cet oscillateur est soumis à la conservation de l'énergie mécanique : celle-ci est de la
forme
En dérivant membre à membre l'équation par rapport au temps on retrouve l'équation
différentielle précédente.
Amélioration []
Ce qui précède est valable si la masse du ressort est négligeable par rapport à celle de la masse
qui oscille. L'expérience montre que la période est plus proche de :
Autre amélioration []
Ceci est de nouveau une approximation. Une étude complète se trouve dans les liens externes.
Chercher : « Étude de la période d'oscillation d'un ressort ».
On montre que la période correcte d'oscillation est :
25
Le moment de force est l'aptitude d'une force à faire tourner un système mécanique autour d'un
point donné, qu'on nomme pivot.
Soit une planche en équilibre au bord d'un muret. Pour la déséquilibrer, on peut poser une charge
sur la partie en porte-à-faux, au-dessus du vide. La capacité de cette charge à faire basculer la
planche n'est pas la même suivant qu'elle est posée près du muret ou au bout de la planche. De
même, on peut au même endroit, placer une charge plus lourde et constater une différence de
bascule.
On intègre ces trois composantes du problème par le modèle de moment d'une force, qui est
l'aptitude d'une force à faire tourner un système mécanique autour d'un point donné, qu'on
nommera pivot.
26
Définition vectorielle
Expression vectorielle []
Le moment d'une force s'exerçant au point A par rapport au pivot P, est le pseudovecteur :
Si d est la distance orthogonale du pivot P à la droite d'action, c’est-à-dire PH, alors sa norme
vaut :
27
La longueur d est appelée bras de levier. Dans le cas bidimensionnel, il est fréquent de
considérer la norme du moment comme le moment lui-même, celui-ci ne comportant qu'une
composante non nulle.
Les composantes et la norme d'un moment de force sont exprimées en newton-mètre (Nm), dans
le système international d'unités et leurs dimensions sont ML2T − 2.
Puisqu'il s'agit ensuite d'établir la somme nulle des moments, on peut naturellement s'intéresser
aux cas de nullité individuelle des moments de force ; de par les propriétés du produit vectoriel :
Formule de Varignon []
Lorsqu'on connaît le moment d'une force en un point, il est possible de le recalculer en n'importe
quel point de l'espace. Cette opération est inévitable lorsqu'on manipule les torseurs d'actions
mécaniques. Cela revient à poser une rallonge au levier AP. On montre alors la relation suivante :
En réalité une force est modélisée par un vecteur (représentant la force) et son point
d'application. Il est possible de représenter cette action mécanique par le couple de vecteurs force
et moment en un point, qui sont les éléments de réduction du torseur d'action mécanique. La
relation d'équilibre liée au principe fondamental de la statique devient une somme de torseurs ;
en pratique, on effectuera parallèlement la somme des forces, et la somme des moments tous
exprimés au même point, d'où l'intérêt de la formule de transport de moments.
Lorsqu'un solide est animé d'un mouvement de rotation effectif autour d'un axe (cas d'une roue
guidée par un palier) il est intéressant de ne considérer que la part utile du moment d'une force.
On définit le moment de la force par rapport à l'axe (Δ) par
28
où est un vecteur unitaire de (Δ), P est un point quelconque de (Δ) et où les crochets dénotent
le produit mixte.
Couple de forces []
On remarque que le résultat est indépendant du point de pivot P considéré. Cette quantité est
appelée couple. Il n'est pas besoin de préciser le point de rotation. Les deux forces constituent
alors un couple de forces.
Outre les autres cas évidents, le couple est nul lorsque les deux forces ont la même droite
d'action. Le couple augmente avec l'intensité commune des forces, mais aussi avec l'éloignement
des points. Il est maximal lorsque et sont orthogonaux.
Cas général []
En réalité le couple n'existe pas intrinsèquement. Il est toujours associé à un ensemble de forces
s'annulant vectoriellement mais dont les moments s'ajoutent sans s'annuler. C'est par exemple le
résultat de l'action du vent sur une éolienne, ou l'action des forces électromagnétiques sur l'induit
d'un moteur électrique.
On ne doit donc pas faire le raccourci « somme des moments = moment de la somme ». Cela
n'est vrai que pour un ensemble de forces appliquées au même point. Cela montre enfin qu'une
29
action mécanique n'est pas représentable par un seul vecteur force. La considération du point
d'application est primordiale.
Théorème de Varignon []
avec .
En effet :
En dynamique []
En mécanique dynamique, on peut montrer que le moment des forces est la dérivée du moment
cinétique par rapport au temps :
On peut aussi montrer que si est le vecteur vitesse angulaire, c'est-à-dire le vecteur
30
Moment d'inertie
Le moment d'inertie quantifie la résistance d'un corps soumis à une mise en rotation (ou plus
généralement à une accélération angulaire), et a pour grandeur physique [M.L²]. C'est l'analogue
de la masse inertielle qui, elle, mesure la résistance d'un corps soumis à une accélération linéaire.
Cette appellation est aussi utilisée en mécanique des matériaux pour déterminer la contrainte
dans une poutre soumise à flexion. Il s'agit alors d'une notion physique différente, encore appelée
moment quadratique, qui a pour grandeur physique [L4].
Approche empirique []
Lorsque l'on prend un balai en main au milieu du manche et qu'on le fait tourner comme sur la
figure ci-contre. Il est plus aisé de le faire tourner autour de l'axe du manche (1), qu'autour de
l'axe transversal indiqué (2).
Cela est dû au fait que dans le deuxième cas, la matière constituant le balai se trouve plus
éloignée de l'axe de rotation. Comme pour un solide en rotation, la vitesse linéaire d'un point
croît en proportion avec cet éloignement, il est nécessaire de communiquer une plus grande
énergie cinétique aux points éloignés. D'où la plus grande résistance du balai à tourner autour
d'un axe transversal qu'autour de l'axe du manche.
31
Le calcul de l'énergie cinétique de cet objet donne :
Par extension dans un solide considéré comme ensemble continu de points matériels x affectés
d'une masse volumique ρ, le moment d'inertie s'écrit :
où
où
Il découle de la définition du moment d'inertie que plus la masse d'un solide est répartie loin de
l'axe de rotation, plus son moment d'inertie est important. Ainsi, le patineur sur glace rapproche
les bras de son corps lors d'une pirouette. Cela a pour effet de diminuer son moment d'inertie, ce
qui, par conservation du moment cinétique, implique une plus grande vitesse de rotation.
La boule []
32
Pour une boule de rayon R et de centre O, les moments d'inertie au centre de la boule par rapport
aux trois axes sont égaux :
(avec )
La barre []
Dans le cas d'une barre de section négligeable et de longueur L, le moment d'inertie selon un axe
perpendiculaire à la barre est, en son centre :
(avec M = ρL)
Le cylindre plein []
Dans le cas d'un cylindre de rayon R et de hauteur h, le moment d'inertie selon l'axe du cylindre
est :
(avec M = ρπR2h)
Le cylindre creux []
Dans le cas d'un cylindre creux de rayons intérieur R1 et extérieur R2, et de hauteur h, le moment
d'inertie selon l'axe du cylindre est :
(avec )
33
Théorème de transport (ou Théorème d'Huygens ou
Théorème de Steiner) []
Soit l'axe Δ passant par le centre de masse de l'objet, et un axe Δ' parallèle à Δ et distant de d. En
calculant comme précédemment le moment d'inertie, on retrouve la relation établie par
Christiaan Huygens connue sous le nom de théorème de transport[1] ou théorème de Huygens
ou théorème de Steiner ou théorème des axes parallèles qui donne le moment d'inertie JΔ' en
fonction de JΔ :
À l'énergie cinétique de rotation propre d'un corps, s'ajoute celle de « translation » circulaire du
centre de masse auquel on a affecté la masse totale du solide.
Une conséquence immédiate du théorème de Huygens est qu'il est moins coûteux (en énergie) de
faire tourner un corps autour d'un axe passant par le centre de masse.
Énergie cinétique
L'énergie cinétique est l’énergie que possède un corps du fait de son mouvement réel. L’énergie
cinétique d’un corps est égale au travail nécessaire pour faire passer le dit corps du repos à son
mouvement de translation ou de rotation.
Historique []
Article détaillé : vis viva.
Gottfried Leibniz, s'opposant ainsi à Descartes, qui estimait que la quantité de mouvement se
conservait toujours, développa l'idée de la « force vive » (vis viva), à laquelle il attribuait la
valeur mv2. La force vive est donc le double de l'énergie cinétique.
Conventions []
L'énergie cinétique est généralement notée Ec ou Ek, l'indice c faisant référence au mot
« cinétique » et l'indice k à son équivalent anglais, « kinetic ».
34
Définitions []
Ec formule de l'énergie cinétique selon la masse et la vitesse :
Dans le domaine de validité de la mécanique newtonienne, la notion d'énergie cinétique peut être
facilement mise en évidence pour un point matériel, corps considéré comme ponctuel de masse
m constante.
, or , il vient ainsi :
On peut obtenir une expression plus générale en considérant que l'on a donc
L'énergie cinétique Ec du système de points peut être alors simplement définie comme la somme
des énergies cinétiques associées aux points matériels constituant le système :
Unité []
L'unité légale est le joule. Les calculs s'effectuent avec les masses en kg et les vitesses en
.
Théorème de König []
L'expression (1) n'est guère utilisable directement, bien que générale. Il est possible de la réécrire
sous une autre forme, dont l'interprétation physique est plus aisée.
Enoncé []
L'énergie cinétique d'un système est alors la somme de deux termes: l'énergie cinétique du centre
dans (R*), .
Application à un solide []
36
Un solide est un système de points tels que les distances entre deux points quelconques de (S)
sont constantes. Il s'agit d'une idéalisation d'un solide réel, considéré comme absolument rigide.
Dans ce cas, le mouvement du solide peut être décomposé en un mouvement de son centre de
masse G dans (R) et un mouvement de rotation autour d'un axe instantané (Δ) dans le référentiel
barycentrique (R*).
Plus précisément, pour un solide on peut écrire le champ des vitesses dans le référentiel
barycentrique (R*) sous la forme , étant le vecteur rotation instantané du
solide dans (R*) [ou (R), puisque les deux référentiels sont en translation]. Son énergie cinétique
propre s'exprime alors
D'après le théorème de König, l’énergie cinétique totale d’un solide s'écrit donc ainsi:
que l'on peut considérer comme la somme d’une énergie cinétique "de translation" et d’une
Si, de surcroît, il y a rotation autour d'un axe (Δ) fixe dans (R), le moment cinétique par rapport à
G du solide s'écrit , où IΔ est le moment d'inertie du solide par rapport à l'axe de
rotation (Δ). Son énergie cinétique de rotation se mettra ainsi sous la forme:
En mécanique relativiste []
Dans la théorie de la relativité d’Einstein (utilisée principalement pour les vitesses proches de la
vitesse de la lumière, mais valable pour toutes vitesses), l’énergie cinétique est :
37
Ek = mc2(γ − 1) = γmc2 − mc2
La théorie de la relativité affirme que l’énergie cinétique d’un objet (ayant une masse « au
repos[2]» non nulle) tend vers l’infini quand sa vitesse s’approche de la vitesse de la lumière et
que, par conséquent, il est impossible d’accélérer un objet jusqu’à cette vitesse.
On peut montrer que le rapport de l’énergie cinétique relativiste sur l’énergie cinétique
newtonienne tend vers 1 quand la vitesse v tend vers 0, i.e.,
Ce résultat peut être obtenu par un développement limité au premier ordre du rapport. Le terme
de second ordre est 0,375 mv4/c4, c’est-à-dire que, pour une vitesse de 10 km/s il vaut 0,04 J/kg,
et que, pour une vitesse de 100 km/s il vaut 40 J/kg, etc.
Quand la gravité est faible et que l’objet se déplace à des vitesses très inférieures à la vitesse de
la lumière (c’est le cas de la plupart des phénomènes observés sur Terre), la formule de la
mécanique newtonienne est une excellente approximation de l’énergie cinétique relativiste.
Énoncé []
38
Dans un référentiel galiléen, pour un corps ponctuel de masse m constante parcourant un chemin
reliant un point A à un point B, la variation d’énergie cinétique est égale à la somme W des
travaux des forces extérieures et intérieures qui s’exercent sur le solide en question :
Démonstration []
D’après la 2e loi de Newton, l’accélération du centre de gravité est liée aux forces qui s’exercent
sur le solide par la relation suivante :
Si le solide parcourt un chemin d’un point A à un point B, alors le travail total s’obtient en
faisant une intégrale le long du chemin :
étant une différentielle totale, l’intégrale ne dépend pas du chemin suivi entre A et B et
peut donc être obtenue explicitement :
39
L’énergie thermique en tant qu’énergie cinétique []
L’énergie thermique est une forme d’énergie due à l’énergie cinétique totale des molécules et des
atomes qui forment la matière. La relation entre la chaleur, la température et l’énergie cinétique
des atomes et des molécules est l’objet de la mécanique statistique et de la thermodynamique.
La chaleur, qui représente un échange d’énergie thermique, est aussi analogue à un travail dans
le sens où elle représente une variation de l’énergie interne du système. L’énergie représentée par
la chaleur fait directement référence à l’énergie associée à l’agitation moléculaire. La
conservation de la chaleur et de l’énergie mécanique est l’objet du premier principe de la
thermodynamique.
Énergie mécanique
L'énergie mécanique est une quantité utilisée en mécanique classique pour désigner l'énergie
d'un système emmagasinée sous forme d'énergie cinétique et d'énergie potentielle mécanique.
C'est une quantité conservée en l'absence de frottement ou de choc et s'avère pour cela pratique à
utiliser.
L'énergie mécanique n'est pas un invariant galiléen et dépend donc du référentiel choisi.
]Expression []
L'énergie mécanique s'exprime généralement :
Em = Ec + Ep
où :
Solide ponctuel []
40
Pour un solide ponctuel M l'énergie potentielle mécanique est donnée par sa position et l'énergie
cinétique par sa vitesse. On a donc
où :
Pour un solide indéformable non ponctuel, il convient d'ajouter l'énergie cinétique de rotation.
L'énergie potentielle est donnée, dans le cas d'un potentiel gravitationnel, par la position du
centre de gravité G.
Solide déformable []
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On a ainsi le théorème de la puissance mécanique, la dérivée de l'énergie mécanique est
égale à la puissance des forces non conservatives :
Conservation []
L'énergie mécanique d'un système soumis à des forces conservatives, c'est-à-dire dérivant d'un
potentiel, est conservée.
42