Group 3

Heliocentrism

Nicolaus Copernicus first proposed his theory on his book “De revolutionibus
orbium coelestium, "On the revolutions of the heavenly bodies”. After 1400 years,
he was the first person who proposed a theory differ from Ptolemy’s geocentric
system.

The first evidence of the theory is found in the writings of ancient Greek
philosopher-scientists. By the sixth century BC they had deduced that Earth is
round (nearly spherical) from observations that during lunar eclipses Earth’s
shadow on the moon is always a circle of about the same radius wherever the
moon is on the sky. Only a round body can always cast such a shadow

Galileo discovered the four satellites of Jupiter (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and
Callisto in order of increasing distance from Jupiter) in 1610. Their orbits showed
that both Jupiter and Earth were centers of orbital motion for celestial bodies—
refuting geocentric theory, which assumed that celestial bodies revolve only
around Earth. Johannes Kepler’s first of three laws of planetary motion match the
predict planetary positions if Sun is placed at one focus of elliptical planetary
orbits.

The next major development was the generalization of Kepler’s laws in 1687 by
Isaac Newton (1642-1727), who showed that the sun and planets all revolve
around the solar system’s center of mass. Telescopic observations of solar system
objects gave indications of their size, and, when used in the generalized Kepler’s
laws, soon showed that the sun is much larger and more massive than even Jupiter
(the largest and most massive planet). Thus the center of the solar system, around
which Earth revolves, is always in or near the sun.

Final proof of the heliocentric theory for the solar system came in 1838, when
F.W. Bessel (1784-1846) determined the first firm trigonometric parallax for the
two stars of 61 Cygni (Gliese 820). Their parallax (difference in apparent direction
of an object as seen from two different points) ellipses were consistent with orbital
motion of Earth around the sun.
Discovery of Asteroid

1801

In 1801, while making a star map, Giuseppe Piazzi accidentally discovered a small
object. Piazzi named the object Ceres, the first asteroid to be discovered.

On the night of January 1, 1801,

Giuseppe Piazzi, a priest in Palermo, Italy, was mapping the stars in the sky. Over
three nights, he'd look at and draw the same set of stars, carefully measuring their
relative positions. That night, he measured the stars. The next
night, he measured them again. To his surprised, one had moved. The third night,
the peculiar star had moved again. This meant it couldn't be a star at all. It was
something new, the first asteroid ever discovered, which Piazzi eventually named
Ceres. At over 900 kilometers across, Ceres is a very large asteroid. But through a
telescope, like Piazzi's, Ceres looked like a pinpoint of light similar to a star. In
fact, the word asteroid means star-like.

Big Bang Theory

In the 1920s, a Belgian priest named Georges Lemaître proposed the big bang
theory, claiming that the cosmos began with a single primordial atom. The
expansion of the observable universe began, according to the Big Bang theory,
with the explosion of a single particle at a certain instant in time. The hypothesis
goes like this: The cosmos was exceedingly compressed in the first 10-43 seconds
of its existence, less than a million billion billionth the size of a single atom. The
four fundamental forces—gravity, electromagnetism, and the strong and weak
nuclear forces—are considered to have been forged into a single force in such an
incomprehensibly dense, energetic state. Helium abundance is a basic prediction
of the Big Bang theory and has been confirmed by scientist. The perception that
the universe expanded at the speed of light after the Big Bang could bring
physicists closer to their goal, the "Theory of Everything."

What evidence is there to support the Big Bang theory?

Hubble discovered the relationship between the galaxy's distance from Earth and
its velocity in the 1920s, and the cosmic microwave background radiation was
discovered in the 1960s.

What evidence do we have that the Universe is expanding?

The Universe was assumed to be static until the early twentieth century: it was
always the same size, never increasing or contracting. However, in 1924,
astronomer Edwin Hubble utilized a technique developed by Henrietta Leavitt to
calculate distances to distant celestial objects. Hubble calculated the speeds of
these objects using spectroscopic red-shift data, then plotted their distance from
Earth against their speed. He established that the distance between celestial objects
is proportional to the pace at which they move apart.

Problems With the Big Bang Theory

It violates the first law of thermodynamics, which says you can`t create or destroy
matter or energy. Critics claim that the big bang theory suggests the universe
began out of nothing. Proponents of the big bang theory say that such criticism is
unwarranted for two reasons. The first is that the big bang doesn't address the
creation of the universe, but rather the evolution of it. The other reason is that since
the laws of science break down as you approach the creation of the universe,
there's no reason to believe the first law of thermodynamics would apply.

Some critics argue that the development of stars and galaxies contradicts the rule
of entropy, which states that changing systems become less ordered with time.
However, if you consider the early cosmos to be entirely homogeneous and
isotropic, the modern universe appears to follow the law of entropy.
The Universe is expanding

1929

In the 1920s, American astronomer Edwin Hubble and other astronomer

discovered that the Universe is expanding by observing that most galaxies are
receding from the Milky Way — and the farther away they are, the faster they
recede. The universe was expanding in such a way that the ratio of galaxies' speeds
to their distances became a constant known as Hubble's constant.

Explanation:

Edwin Hubble measured the redshifts of a number of distant galaxies in 1929

while working at the Carnegie Observatories in Pasadena, California. He also
calculated their relative distances by measuring the apparent brightness of
Cepheids, a type of variable star found in each galaxy. When he plotted redshift
versus relative distance, he discovered that the redshift of distant galaxies
increased linearly with distance. This observation can explain that the universe is
expanding.

When scientists realized that the universe was expanding, they realized that it had
been much smaller in the past. The entire universe would have been a single point
at some point in the past. This point, later known as the big bang, which all we
know is the beginning of the universe.

Multiverse

1957

According to multiverse theory, our universe, with its hundreds of billions of

galaxies and nearly innumerable stars covering tens of billions of light-years, isn’t
the only one out there. Instead, there could be a completely different universe —
and another, and then another — far away from ours.
Just like the theory of aliens, just think that to the extent of our universe we still
didn't know if there are also other human being living out there. And even there is
such rumors, we still didn't know if it's true or it’s just a fiction. Isipin nalang natin
kung tayo lang ang tao sa buong universe, ano pa ang silbi ng ibat ibang planeta at
galaxy? Para saan at nageexist sila, so parang ganun din sa theory ng multiverse.
Yes, hindi gaya ng mga planeta, wala pang proof or evidence na may iba pang
universe, ni wala panga ring matibay na proweba kung may iba pang planeta sa iba
pang galaxy. Kaya posible parin na magkaroon parin ng multiverse, kung meron
man maaring hindi pa sapat ang ating technology para sa mga bagay nato, o di
kaya plano talaga ng Lord na nd na ipaalam satin dahil may mga bagay tayong
dapat at nd dapat malaman at kung wala man sadyang malawak lang talaga ang
ating mga imahinasyon.

Sputnik 1

,
Date Launched: May 15, 1957

Sputnik 1 is an artificial satellite that was successfully launched in space by Soviet

Union. It was only 23 inches or 58 cm but it weighs 83.6 kg or 183.9 pounds and
due to its size it will took 98 minutes to orbit the Earth on its elliptical path.

It orbited for three weeks before its batteries ran out. The satellite orbits the Earth
for two months before it fell back into the atmosphere on 4 January 1958.

The launch paved the way for a new political, military (ex. intensify the arm race
and raise Cold War tensions), technological (example, led to the creation of
NASA), and scientific developments (ex. made it possible to study radio wave
transmission and the density of the atmosphere).

Beginning of NASA

October 1, 1958

President Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed T. Keith Glennan as NASA's first

administrator in 1958. NASA was created in response to the Soviet Union's launch
of Sputnik I, the world's first satellite, which took Americans off guard and
generated fears that the Soviets may be capable of sending nuclear weapons from
Europe to America.
In July 1958, Eisenhower had signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act,
creating the agency, which opened for business on Oct. 1, 1958. National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), a civilian agency responsible for
coordinating America’s activities in space. NASA's science is focused on better
understanding Earth through the Earth Observing System. It has also launched
numerous earth-orbiting satellites that have been instrumental in everything from
weather forecasting to navigation to global communications.

Apollo 11

Apollo 11, the first space mission to put people on the Moon, was launched on July
16, 1969.

Explanation

Because of the Apollo 11 mission, astronauts discovered that the surface of the
moon is solid it is cratered and pitted from comet and asteroid impacts.

Discovery #2

Because the moon lacks an atmosphere, it is vulnerable to meteorites and solar

wind irradiation, which shatters rocks and melts patches of regolith.

Discovery #3 The moon has a crust, mantle, and core like the Earth

The Moon has a relatively small solid core spanning less than 25% of its radius,
according to NASA's Apollo 11 mission. This is less than half the proportion filled
by Earth's solid core, compared to Earth's rocky crust and outer planets such as
Mars and Saturn.

Discovery #4 The moon is lifeless, it does not contain living organisms, fossils, or
native organic compounds.

Extensive readings revealed no evidence for life, past, or present, among the lunar
samples. Even non-biological organic compounds are amazingly absent; this can
be attributed to contamination by meteorites.
Hubble Space Telescope

A big telescope in space is the Hubble Space Telescope, which initially called as
the Large Space Telescope. Named after Edwin Hubble, who discovered that the
universe is expanding. Hubble is self-contained and runs on solar energy. Planets,
stars, and galaxies are among the celestial objects photographed by Hubble.

Here are some discoveries of Hubble Space Telescope

It discovered two moons of Pluto, Nix and Hydra.

Discovered that nearly every major galaxy is anchored by a black hole at the
center. Hubble took the famous photo of the Eagle Nebula which was later named
'pillars of creation'.

Discovered that there are billion and trillion of galaxies that we thought it was just
a space dust

James Webb Space Telescope

December 25, 2021

Designed to observe the most distance object in the universe.

After 25 years of construction, it finally launched on December 25, 2021. It is the

most powerful and largest spaceship ever built; it costs 10 billion dollars. Nung
January 24, nakarating na si JWST sa L2 Zone (L2 is located 1.5 million
kilometres directly 'behind' the Earth as viewed from the Sun). Nung January 8,
JWST successfully deployed its primary mirror, malaki kasi ang JWST kaya
kailangan ifold para magkasya sa rocket. Around 6 months pa for it to be fully
functional at makadiscover mula sa ating universe. It was named after James Webb
who is an Administrator of NASA (1961-1968). To make it clear, yes, wala pang
nadidiscover ang James Webb Telescope. But once na mag fully function na ito,
makakadiscover na tayo MORE about sa universe, it can detect infrared lights, it
can detect and see the eldest and first space object in universe, it can also detect
atmosphere compositions from exoplanet. Malalaman na rin natin kung may buhay
ba sa ibang planeta, kung may alien.

Heliocentrism

Nicolaus Copernicus first proposed his theory on his book “De revolutionibus
orbium coelestium, "On the revolutions of the heavenly bodies”. After 1400 years,
he was the first person who proposed a theory differ from Ptolemy’s geocentric
system.

The first evidence of the theory is found in the writings of ancient Greek
philosopher-scientists. By the sixth century BC they had deduced that Earth is
round (nearly spherical) from observations that during lunar eclipses Earth’s
shadow on the moon is always a circle of about the same radius wherever the
moon is on the sky. Only a round body can always cast such a shadow

Galileo discovered the four satellites of Jupiter (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and
Callisto in order of increasing distance from Jupiter) in 1610. Their orbits showed
that both Jupiter and Earth were centers of orbital motion for celestial bodies—
refuting geocentric theory, which assumed that celestial bodies revolve only
around Earth. Johannes Kepler’s first of three laws of planetary motion match the
predict planetary positions if Sun is placed at one focus of elliptical planetary
orbits.

The next major development was the generalization of Kepler’s laws in 1687 by
Isaac Newton (1642-1727), who showed that the sun and planets all revolve
around the solar system’s center of mass. Telescopic observations of solar system
objects gave indications of their size, and, when used in the generalized Kepler’s
laws, soon showed that the sun is much larger and more massive than even Jupiter
(the largest and most massive planet). Thus the center of the solar system, around
which Earth revolves, is always in or near the sun.

Final proof of the heliocentric theory for the solar system came in 1838, when
F.W. Bessel (1784-1846) determined the first firm trigonometric parallax for the
two stars of 61 Cygni (Gliese 820). Their parallax (difference in apparent direction
of an object as seen from two different points) ellipses were consistent with orbital
motion of Earth around the sun.
Discovery of Asteroid

1801

In 1801, while making a star map, Giuseppe Piazzi accidentally discovered a small
object. Piazzi named the object Ceres, the first asteroid to be discovered.

On the night of January 1, 1801,

Giuseppe Piazzi, a priest in Palermo, Italy, was mapping the stars in the sky. Over
three nights, he'd look at and draw the same set of stars, carefully measuring their
relative positions. That night, he measured the stars. The next
night, he measured them again. To his surprised, one had moved. The third night,
the peculiar star had moved again. This meant it couldn't be a star at all. It was
something new, the first asteroid ever discovered, which Piazzi eventually named
Ceres. At over 900 kilometers across, Ceres is a very large asteroid. But through a
telescope, like Piazzi's, Ceres looked like a pinpoint of light similar to a star. In
fact, the word asteroid means star-like.

Big Bang Theory

In the 1920s, a Belgian priest named Georges Lemaître proposed the big bang
theory, claiming that the cosmos began with a single primordial atom. The
expansion of the observable universe began, according to the Big Bang theory,
with the explosion of a single particle at a certain instant in time. The hypothesis
goes like this: The cosmos was exceedingly compressed in the first 10-43 seconds
of its existence, less than a million billion billionth the size of a single atom. The
four fundamental forces—gravity, electromagnetism, and the strong and weak
nuclear forces—are considered to have been forged into a single force in such an
incomprehensibly dense, energetic state. Helium abundance is a basic prediction
of the Big Bang theory and has been confirmed by scientist. The perception that
the universe expanded at the speed of light after the Big Bang could bring
physicists closer to their goal, the "Theory of Everything."

What evidence is there to support the Big Bang theory?

Hubble discovered the relationship between the galaxy's distance from Earth and
its velocity in the 1920s, and the cosmic microwave background radiation was
discovered in the 1960s.

What evidence do we have that the Universe is expanding?

The Universe was assumed to be static until the early twentieth century: it was
always the same size, never increasing or contracting. However, in 1924,
astronomer Edwin Hubble utilized a technique developed by Henrietta Leavitt to
calculate distances to distant celestial objects. Hubble calculated the speeds of
these objects using spectroscopic red-shift data, then plotted their distance from
Earth against their speed. He established that the distance between celestial objects
is proportional to the pace at which they move apart.

Problems With the Big Bang Theory

It violates the first law of thermodynamics, which says you can`t create or destroy
matter or energy. Critics claim that the big bang theory suggests the universe
began out of nothing. Proponents of the big bang theory say that such criticism is
unwarranted for two reasons. The first is that the big bang doesn't address the
creation of the universe, but rather the evolution of it. The other reason is that since
the laws of science break down as you approach the creation of the universe,
there's no reason to believe the first law of thermodynamics would apply.

Some critics argue that the development of stars and galaxies contradicts the rule
of entropy, which states that changing systems become less ordered with time.
However, if you consider the early cosmos to be entirely homogeneous and
isotropic, the modern universe appears to follow the law of entropy.
The Universe is expanding

1929

In the 1920s, American astronomer Edwin Hubble and other astronomer

discovered that the Universe is expanding by observing that most galaxies are
receding from the Milky Way — and the farther away they are, the faster they
recede. The universe was expanding in such a way that the ratio of galaxies' speeds
to their distances became a constant known as Hubble's constant.

Explanation:

Edwin Hubble measured the redshifts of a number of distant galaxies in 1929

while working at the Carnegie Observatories in Pasadena, California. He also
calculated their relative distances by measuring the apparent brightness of
Cepheids, a type of variable star found in each galaxy. When he plotted redshift
versus relative distance, he discovered that the redshift of distant galaxies
increased linearly with distance. This observation can explain that the universe is
expanding.

When scientists realized that the universe was expanding, they realized that it had
been much smaller in the past. The entire universe would have been a single point
at some point in the past. This point, later known as the big bang, which all we
know is the beginning of the universe.

Multiverse

1957

According to multiverse theory, our universe, with its hundreds of billions of

galaxies and nearly innumerable stars covering tens of billions of light-years, isn’t
the only one out there. Instead, there could be a completely different universe —
and another, and then another — far away from ours.
Just like the theory of aliens, just think that to the extent of our universe we still
didn't know if there are also other human being living out there. And even there is
such rumors, we still didn't know if it's true or it’s just a fiction. Isipin nalang natin
kung tayo lang ang tao sa buong universe, ano pa ang silbi ng ibat ibang planeta at
galaxy? Para saan at nageexist sila, so parang ganun din sa theory ng multiverse.
Yes, hindi gaya ng mga planeta, wala pang proof or evidence na may iba pang
universe, ni wala panga ring matibay na proweba kung may iba pang planeta sa iba
pang galaxy. Kaya posible parin na magkaroon parin ng multiverse, kung meron
man maaring hindi pa sapat ang ating technology para sa mga bagay nato, o di
kaya plano talaga ng Lord na nd na ipaalam satin dahil may mga bagay tayong
dapat at nd dapat malaman at kung wala man sadyang malawak lang talaga ang
ating mga imahinasyon.

Sputnik 1

,
Date Launched: May 15, 1957

Sputnik 1 is an artificial satellite that was successfully launched in space by Soviet

Union. It was only 23 inches or 58 cm but it weighs 83.6 kg or 183.9 pounds and
due to its size it will took 98 minutes to orbit the Earth on its elliptical path.

It orbited for three weeks before its batteries ran out. The satellite orbits the Earth
for two months before it fell back into the atmosphere on 4 January 1958.

The launch paved the way for a new political, military (ex. intensify the arm race
and raise Cold War tensions), technological (example, led to the creation of
NASA), and scientific developments (ex. made it possible to study radio wave
transmission and the density of the atmosphere).

Beginning of NASA

October 1, 1958

President Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed T. Keith Glennan as NASA's first

administrator in 1958. NASA was created in response to the Soviet Union's launch
of Sputnik I, the world's first satellite, which took Americans off guard and
generated fears that the Soviets may be capable of sending nuclear weapons from
Europe to America.
In July 1958, Eisenhower had signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act,
creating the agency, which opened for business on Oct. 1, 1958. National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), a civilian agency responsible for
coordinating America’s activities in space. NASA's science is focused on better
understanding Earth through the Earth Observing System. It has also launched
numerous earth-orbiting satellites that have been instrumental in everything from
weather forecasting to navigation to global communications.

Apollo 11

Apollo 11, the first space mission to put people on the Moon, was launched on July
16, 1969.

Explanation

Because of the Apollo 11 mission, astronauts discovered that the surface of the
moon is solid it is cratered and pitted from comet and asteroid impacts.

Discovery #2

Because the moon lacks an atmosphere, it is vulnerable to meteorites and solar

wind irradiation, which shatters rocks and melts patches of regolith.

Discovery #3 The moon has a crust, mantle, and core like the Earth

The Moon has a relatively small solid core spanning less than 25% of its radius,
according to NASA's Apollo 11 mission. This is less than half the proportion filled
by Earth's solid core, compared to Earth's rocky crust and outer planets such as
Mars and Saturn.

Discovery #4 The moon is lifeless, it does not contain living organisms, fossils, or
native organic compounds.

Extensive readings revealed no evidence for life, past, or present, among the lunar
samples. Even non-biological organic compounds are amazingly absent; this can
be attributed to contamination by meteorites.
Hubble Space Telescope

A big telescope in space is the Hubble Space Telescope, which initially called as
the Large Space Telescope. Named after Edwin Hubble, who discovered that the
universe is expanding. Hubble is self-contained and runs on solar energy. Planets,
stars, and galaxies are among the celestial objects photographed by Hubble.

Here are some discoveries of Hubble Space Telescope

It discovered two moons of Pluto, Nix and Hydra.

Discovered that nearly every major galaxy is anchored by a black hole at the
center. Hubble took the famous photo of the Eagle Nebula which was later named
'pillars of creation'.

Discovered that there are billion and trillion of galaxies that we thought it was just
a space dust

James Webb Space Telescope

December 25, 2021

Designed to observe the most distance object in the universe.

After 25 years of construction, it finally launched on December 25, 2021. It is the

most powerful and largest spaceship ever built; it costs 10 billion dollars. Nung
January 24, nakarating na si JWST sa L2 Zone (L2 is located 1.5 million
kilometres directly 'behind' the Earth as viewed from the Sun). Nung January 8,
JWST successfully deployed its primary mirror, malaki kasi ang JWST kaya
kailangan ifold para magkasya sa rocket. Around 6 months pa for it to be fully
functional at makadiscover mula sa ating universe. It was named after James Webb
who is an Administrator of NASA (1961-1968). To make it clear, yes, wala pang
nadidiscover ang James Webb Telescope. But once na mag fully function na ito,
makakadiscover na tayo MORE about sa universe, it can detect infrared lights, it
can detect and see the eldest and first space object in universe, it can also detect
atmosphere compositions from exoplanet. Malalaman na rin natin kung may buhay
ba sa ibang planeta, kung may alien.