Pencil Lead Grade Alphabets of Lines

The hard leads in this group (left, from 9H to 4H) are

used when extreme accuracy is required, as on
graphical computations and charts and diagrams.
✓ Line work on machine drawings
✓ Architectural drawings
The soft leads (right, from 2B to 9B) are sometimes
used for line work on engineering drawings, but their
use is restricted because the lines are apt to be too
light.
✓ For general purpose work in technical
drawing
✓ Technical sketching
✓ Lettering
✓ Arrowheads
✓ Other free hand work on mechanical drawing
H and 2H – lead grades that are widely used on
pencil tracings for reproduction. These leads are too
soft to be useful in mechanical drawing. Used for
artwork of various kinds, and for full-sized details in
architectural drawings.
 Work results in smudge
 Rough lines that are hard to erase
 Lead must be sharpened continually
1. OBJECT OR VISIBLE LINES – Thick dark line use to
show outline of object, visible edges, and surfaces.
2. CONSTRUCTION LINE – Very light and thin line use to
construct layout work.
3. DIMENSION LINE – Thin and dark lines use to show the
size (span) of an object with a numeric value. Usually
terminates with arrowheads or tick markings.
4. HIDDEN LINE – Short dash lines use to show
nonvisible surfaces. Usually shows as medium
thickness.
5. CENTER LINE – Long and short dash lines. Usually
indicates center of holes, circles, and arcs. Line is thin
and dark.
6. EXTENSION LINE – Thin and dark line use to show the
starting and ending of dimension.
7. CUTTING PLANE LINE – Extra thick lines use to show
cutaway views or plane of projection where a section
view is taken. Arrow indicates the direction of view.
8. SHORT AND LONG BREAK LINES –Short and long
medium line use to show cutaway view of a long
section.
9. LEADER LINE – Medium line with arrowhead to show
notes or label for size or special information about a
feature.
10. PHANTOM LINE – Long line followed by two short
dashes use to show alternate position of a moving
part.
11. SECTION LINE – Medium lines drawn at 45 degrees use
to show interior view of solid areas of cutting plane
line.
Drawing Horizontal Lines
To draw a horizontal line, press the head of the T-
square firmly against the working edge of the board
with your left hand; then slide your hand so that the
blade is pressed tightly against the paper
 Lean the pencil in the direction of the line at
an angle of approximately 60 degrees
 Draw the line from left to right
 Keep the pencil in vertical plane, otherwise,
line may not be straight
 While drawing the line, let the little finger of
the hand holding the pencil glide tightly on
the blade of the T-square, and rotate the
pencil slowly, except for the thin-lead pencils
 Hold the pencil between your thumb and
forefinger to distribute the wear uniformly on
the lead and maintain a symmetrical point
 Thin-lead pencils should be held nearly
vertical to the paper and not rotated. Also,
bushing the thin lead pencil from left to right,
rather than pulling it, tends to minimize lead
breakage
When great accuracy is required, the pencil maybe
" toed in” to produce a perfectly straight line.
For left handers, reverse the procedures above,
place the T square head against the right edge of
the board, and with the pencil in the left hand,
draw the line from right to left.
 Triangles
Most inclined lines in mechanical drawings are
drawn at standard angles with the 45 degrees
triangle and the 30 degrees x 60 degrees angle triangle,
made of transparent plastic so that lines of the
drawing can be seen through them.
A good combination of triangles is the 30x60 degrees
triangle with alongside of 10” in a 45 degrees triangle
with each side 8” long.

Drawing a Vertical Lines

Use either the 45 degrees triangle or the 30
degrees x 60 degrees triangle to draw vertical
lines.
 Place the triangle on the T square with
the vertical edge on the left
 With the left hand, pressed the head of Protractors
the T square against the board, then slide
the hand did the position where it holds For measuring or setting off angles other than
both the T square and the triangle firmly those obtainable with the triangles, the protractor is
 Draw the line upward, rotating the pencil used.
slowly between the thumb and forefinger. *The best protractors, which produced the most
 Lean the pencil in the direction of the line accurate measurements, are made of nickel silver.
at an angle of approximately 60 degrees
with the paper and in a vertical plane. *For ordinary work, a plastic protractor is
 The upper part of the body should be satisfactory and much cheaper.
twisted to the right Drafting Angles
For left handers, reverse the procedures above, place There are a variety of devices that combined the
the T square head on the right and the vertical edge protractor we triangles to produce great versatility
of the triangle on the right. With the right hand hold of use.
the T-square and the triangle firmly together, and
with the pencil in the left hand, draw the line
upward.

Drawing a Line through Two Points
To draw a line through two points, the pencil
vertically at one of the points, and move the street
edge about the pencil point as a pivot until it lines up
with the other point, then draw the line along the
edge
Drawing Parallel Lines
To draw a parallel line, move the triangle and T
square as a unit until the hypotenuse off the triangle
lines up with the given line, then holding the T square
firmly in position, slide the triangle away from the
line, and draw the required line along the hypotenuse.
Drawing a Perpendicular Lines
To draw a perpendicular line, move the T-square
end the triangle as a unit until one edge of the
triangle lines up with a given line, then slide the
triangle across the line and draw the required line.
 One of the lines makes 15 degrees with
horizontal.
Drawing Lines at 30degrees, 60degrees, or
45degrees with a Given Line
To draw a line making 30 degrees with a given line,
arrange the triangle, with angles of 60 degrees and 45
degrees may be drawn in a similar manner.
Scales
Scales are instruments used in making technical
drawings full size at a given enlargement or
reduction.
 the ratio of reduction or enlargement
depends on the relative sizes off the object
end of the sheet of paper on which the
drawing is to be made
Scales are usually made of plastic or boxwood.
Scales are either triangular or flat.
Architect’s scale - is an open divided scale, one in
which only the end unit is subdivided.
Triangular scales - have the advantage off combining
many scales on one stick, but the user waste much
time looking for the required scale if a scale guard is
not use.
Scale guard - marks the scale that is being use
Flat scales - are almost universally used by
professional
A full divided scale is one in which the basic units are
subdivided throughout the length of the scale.
Types of Scale
• Metric scale
• Engineer’s scale
• Decimal scale
• Mechanical scale
• Architect’s scale
Drawing Ink
Drawing ink is composed chiefly of carbon in
colloidal suspension and gum.
• Find particles of carbon gives the deep black
luster to the ink and the gum makes it
waterproof and quick to dry
• The ink bottle should not be left uncovered,
as evaporation will cause the ink to thicken
Special drawing ink is available for use on acetate and
polyester films.
 • Should not be used in technical fountain pens
unless the pen is specifically made for
acetate-based ink
Pen cleaning fluids - used for removing dried
waterproof drawing ink from pens or instruments.
* Such symbols may be used on sketches, but not on
production drawings.
Two perpendicular lines may be marked with a “box”
to indicate perpendicularity.

Geometric Constructions
All traditional drawing and CAD drawing techniques
are based on the construction of basic geometric
elements.
Point line, arc, and a circle - are the basic elements
used to create the most complex drawings
The geometry of drawing is the same for traditional
drawing and CAD drawing.
T-square, triangles, dividers, and other equipment -
can often yield accurate results more quickly

Points and Lines

Point - represents a location in space or on a drawing
and has no width, height, or depth.
→ Represented by the intersection of two lines,
by a short crossbar on a line, or by a small
cross
→ Do not represent a point by a simple dot on
the paper
Line - is defined by Euclid as “that which has linked
without breadth”.
→ Straight line - is the shortest distance between
two points and is commonly referred to
Angles
simply as a “line”
→ If the line is indefinite in extent, the length is Angle - is formed by two intersecting lines
a matter of inconvenience, and the endpoints
∠ - symbol for angle (singular)
are not fixed.
→ if the endpoints of the lines are significant, ∠s – symbol for angle (plural)
they must be marked by means of small
mechanically drawn crossbars There are 360 degrees (360) in a full circle. A degree is
→ Either straight lines or curved lines are divided into 60 minutes (60’), and a minute is divided
parallel if the shortest distance between them into 60 seconds (60”).
remains constant
37 26’ 10” – is read as 37 degrees, 26 minutes, and 10
|| - symbol for parallel lines seconds

⊥ - symbol for perpendicular lines (singular) When minutes alone are indicated, the number of
minutes should be preceded by 0, as in 0 20’
⊥ s – symbol for perpendicular lines (plural)
Complementary Angle - total of 90 → If the opposite sides are parallel, the
quadrilateral is also a parallelogram
Supplementary Angle – total of 180
*Vernier protractor – tangent, sine, or chord
methods

Polygons
Polygon - is any plane figure bounded by straight
lines
→ Regular Polygon - if the Polygon has equal
Triangles angles and equal sides, and can be inscribed in
Triangle - is a blend figure bounded by three straight or circumscribed around a circle
sides, and the sum of the interior angles is always
180
Right triangle – has one 90 angle, end the square of
the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of
the two sides

Circles and Arcs

Circle - it's a closed curve, all points of which are the
same distance from a point called the center
→ Circumference - refers to the circle or to the
Quadrilaterals distance around the circle. this distance equals
Quadrilateral - is a plain figure bounded by four the diameter multiplied by π (pi or 3.1416)
straight sides

Solids
Polyhedra - solids bounded by plane surfaces
Faces - surface of polyhedral
Regular Polyhedra - if the faces are equal regular
polygons
Prism - has two bases, which are parallel equal
polygons, and three or more lateral faces, which are
parallelograms.
→ Triangular prism - has a triangular base
→ Rectangular prism - has a rectangular base
→ Allelpiped - if the bases are parallelograms
→ Right prism - has faces and lateral edges
perpendicular to the bases
→ Oblique prism - has faces an laterals edge
oblique to the bases
→ Truncated - if one end is cut off to form an
end and not parallel to the bases
Pyramid - has a Polygon for a base and triangular
lateral face intersecting at a common point called
the vertex
 Vertex – common point in pyramid
 Axis - the centerline from the center of the
base to the vertex
 Right pyramid - if the axis is perpendicular to
the base
 Triangular pyramid - has a triangular base
 Square pyramid - has a square base
 Frustum or truncated - if a portion near the
vertex has been cut off
Cylinder - is generated by a straight line, call
generatrix, moving in contact with a curve line and
always remaining parallel to its previous position or
to the axis
→ Element of the cylinder - each position of
the generatrix
Cone - is generated by a straight line moving in
contact with the curved line and passing through a
fixed point, called the vertex of the cone
→ Element of the cone - each position of the
generatrix
Sphere - is generated by a circle revolving around
one of each diameter
→ Axis of the sphere – diameter
→ Poles of the sphere - the ends of the axis
Torus - is shaped like a doughnut, is generated by a
circle (or another curve) revolving about an axis
that is eccentric to the curve
Ellipsoid - is generated by revolving an ellipse
around its minor or major axis, respectively
 Bisecting a Line with Triangle and T-square
From endpoints A and B, draw construction lines at
30, 45, or 60 with the given line; then through their
intersection, C, draw a line perpendicular to the given
line to locate the center D

Bisecting an Angle
1. Strike large arc R
2. Strike equal arcs r with radius slightly larger
than half BC, to intersect at D
3. Draw line AD, which bisects the angle

Bisecting a Line or Circular Arc

1. From A and B draw equal arcs with radius
greater than half AB
2. Join intersections D and E with a straight line
to locate center C

Transferring an Angle
1. Use any convenient radius R, and strike arcs
from centers A and A’
2. Strike equal arcs r, and draw side A’C’
 respectively, as centers, and CD as radius. The line GH,
tangent to the arcs, is the required line.

Dividing a Line into Equal Parts

First Method:
1. Draw a light construction line at any
Drawing a Line through a Point and Parallel convenient angle from one end of line
2. With dividers or scale, set off from
to a Line
intersection of lines as many divisions as
needed
3. Connect the last division point to the other
end of line, using triangle and T-square
4. Slide the triangle along T-square and draw
parallel lines through other division points

Move the triangle and T-square as a unit until the

triangle lines up with the given line AB, then slide the
triangle until its edges passes through the given point
P. Draw CD, the required line

Drawing a Line Parallel to a Line and at a

Given Distance

Second Method:
1. Draw vertical construction line at one end of
given line
2. Set zero of scale at other end of the line
3. Swing the scale up until the third unit falls
on the vertical line, and make tiny dots at
each point, or prick points with dividers
4. Draw vertical construction lines through each
point

Let AB be the line and CD the given distance. Draw

the two arcs with points E and F near A and B,

Dividing a Line into Proportional Parts
Draw a vertical line from point B. Select a scale of
convenient size for a total of nine units and set the
zero of the scale at A. Swing the scale up until the
9th unit falls on the vertical line. Along the scale, set
off for 2,3, and 4 units. Draw vertical lines through
these points.
Drawing a Line through a Point and
Perpendicular to a Line
When the Point is not on the Line:
When the point is on the line:
Move the triangle and T-square as a unit until the
triangle lines up with AB, then slide the triangle until
its edges passes through the point P (whether P is on
or off the line) and draw the required perpendicular.
Drawing a Triangle with Sides Given
Given the sides A, B, and C:
1. Draw one side, as C, in desired position, and
strike arc with radius equal to side A
2. Strike arc with radius equal to side B
3. Draw sides A and B from intersection of arcs
Drawing a Right Triangle with Hypotenuse
and One Side
Given sides S and R, with AB as a diameter equal to S,
draw a semicircle. With A as center and R as radius,
draw an arc intersecting the semicircle at C. Draw AC
and CB to complete the right triangle
 Laying Out an Angle Chord Method:

Tangent Method:

Draw line x to any convenient length and draw arc

with any convenient radius R. Find the chordal
The tangent of angle θ is y/x and y= x tan θ. length C in the table of chords and multiply the
value by 10 since the table is made for a radius of 1
unit.

Sine Method:

Drawing an Equilateral Triangle

Draw line x to any convenient length, preferably 10

units. Find the sine of angle θ in a table of natural
sines, multiply by 10, and strike arc R= 10 sin θ. Draw
the other side of the angle tangent to the arc.
 Drawing a Square Geometrical Method:
1. Bisect radius OD at C
2. With C as center and CA as radius, strike arc
AE. With A as center and AE as radius, strike
arc EB
3. Draw line AB, then set off distances AB around
the circumference of the circle, and draw the
sides through these points

One side AB is given. Through the point A, draw a

perpendicular. With A as center and AB as radius,
draw an arc to intersect the perpendicular at C. With
B and C as centers and AB as radius, strike arcs to
intersect at D. Draw the lines CD and BD.

Drawing Hexagon

Drawing a Regular Pentagon

Each side of a hexagon is equal to the radius of the

circumscribed circle. Using the compass or dividers
and the radius of the circle, set off six sides of the
hexagon around the circle and connect the points
with straight lines. For accuracy, make sure that
opposite sides of the hexagon are parallel.

Other Methods:

Divide the circumference of the circle into five equal

parts with the dividers, and join the points with
straight lines
 Draw diagonals of square, then with the corners of
the given square as centers and with half the
diagonal as radius, draw arcs cutting the sides. Using
T-square and 45 degrees triangle, draw the eight sides

Transferring Plane Figures by Geometric

Methods
Transferring a triangle to a new location

Drawing an Octagon
Given an inscribed circle, use T-square and 45 degrees
triangle to draw the eight sides tangent to the circle.
Transferring a polygon by the Triangle Method Transferring Figures by a system of Squares

Transferring Drawings by Tracing-paper

Transferring a polygon by the Rectangle Method
Method
1. Trace the half already drawn
2. Turn tracing paper over and maneuver to the
position for the right half. Then trace over
the lines freehand or mark over the lines with
short strokes
3. Remove the tracing paper, revealing the dim
imprinted lines for the right half. Heavy in
these lines to complete the drawing

Transferring Irregular Figures

Enlarging or Reducing a Drawing

Transferring Figures by Offset Measurements

To enlarge or reduce a rectangle, simply use

diagonals.
 Finding the Center of a Circle
Draw any chord AB, preferably horizontal. Draw
perpendiculars from A and B, cutting the circle at D
and E. Draw diagonals DB and EA whose intersection C
will be the center of the circle. This method uses the
principle that any right triangle inscribed in a circle
cuts off a semicircle

Drawing a Circle Tangent to a Line at a given

A simple method of enlarging or reducing a drawing is
to make use of radial lines. The original drawing is
placed underneath a tracing paper, and the enlarged
or reduced drawing is made directly on the tracing
paper.
Point
1. At P, erect a perpendicular to the line
2. Set off the radius of the required circle on
the perpendicular
3. Draw a circle with radius CP

Drawing a Circle through Three Points

1. Let A, B, and C ne the three given points not in
a straight line. Draw lines AB and BC, which
will be the chords of the circle. Draw
perpendicular bisectors EO and DO intersecting
at O
2. With the center at O, draw the required circle
through the points

Drawing a Tangent to a Circle through a

given Point
 Drawing Tangents to Two Circles Drawing an Arc Tangent to Two Lines at
Acute or Obtuse Angles
1. Two lines intersecting not making 90 degrees
with each other are given
2. Draw lines parallel to given lines, at distance
R from them, to intersect at C, the required
center
3. From C, drop perpendiculars to the given lines,
respectively, the locate tangent points T
4. With C as center and with given radius R,
Drawing an Arc Tangent to a Line or Arc and draw the required tangent arc between the
through a Point points of tangency

Drawing an Arc Tangent to Two Lines at

Right Angles
1. Two lines are given at right angles to each
other
2. With given radius R, strike arc intersecting
given lines at tangent points T
3. With given radius R again, and with points T
as centers, strike arcs intersecting at C
4. With C as center and given radius R, draw the
required tangent arc

Drawing an Arc Tangent to an Arc and a

Straight Line
1. An arc with radius G and a straight-line AB is
given
 2. Draw a straight line and an arc parallel,
respectively, do they given straight line and
arc at the required radius distance R from
them, to intersect at C, the required center
3. From C, drop a perpendicular to the given
straight line to obtain one point of tangency T.
join the centers C and O with a straight line to
locate the other point of tangency T
4. With center C and given radius R, draw the
required tangent arc between the points of
tangency

Drawing an Arc Tangent to Two Arcs

Drawing an Arc Tangent to Two Arcs and
1. Arcs with centers A and B, and required radius Enclosing one or Both
R are given
2. With A and B as centers, draw arcs parallel to
the given arcs and at a distance R from them,
their intersection C is the center of the
required tangent arc
3. Draw lines of centers AC and BC to locate
points of tangency T, and draw the required
tangent arc between the points of tangency
Drawing a Series of Tangent Arcs Conforming Rectifying a Circular Arc
to a Curve To rectify a quadrant of a circle

Drawing an Ogee Curve

To rectify arc

Setting off a given length along a given arc

Drawing a Curve Tangent to Three

Intersecting Lines

Conic Sections
Conic sections are curves produced by planes
intersecting a right circular cone
Circle, ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola – four types
of curves produced
 Drawing a Trammel Ellipse

Ellipse Construction
An ellipse is generated by a point moving so that the
sum of its distances from two points (the foci) is
constant and equal to the major axis. Drawing a Concentric-Circle Ellipse
Major axis - the long axis of an ellipse
Minor axis - the short axis of an ellipse

Drawing a Foci Ellipse

1. To find foc1 E and F, strike arcs R with radius
equal to half the major axis and with centers
at the ends of the minor axis
2. Between E and O on the major axis, mark at
random and number of points, equal to the
number of points desired in each quadrant of
the ellipse
3. Sketch the ellipse lightly through the points,
then heavy in the final ellipse with the aid of
an irregular curve Drawing an Ellipse on Conjugate Diameters:
The Oblique-Circle Method
Drawing a Parallelogram Ellipse

Ellipse Template
Ellipse templates are plastic sheets with elliptical
openings in a wide variety of sizes, and they usually
come in sets of six or more sheets
→ Ellipse templates are used to save time in
drawing ellipses and to ensure uniform
results
→ For inking the ellipses, a technical fountain
pen is recommended

Finding the Axes of an Ellipse with Conjugate

Diameters given

Drawing a Tangent to an Ellipse

 Drawing an Approximate Ellipse
1. Draw line AC. With O as center and OA as
radius, strike the arc AE. With C as center and
CE as radius, strike the arc EF
2. Draw perpendicular bisector GH of the line AF,
the point K and J, where it intersects the axes,
are centers of the required arcs
3. Find centers M and L by setting off OL = OK
and OM = OJ. Using centers K, L, M, and J, draw
circular arcs. The points of tangency T are at
the junctures of the arcs on the lines joining
the centers

Drawing a Parabola
Parabola - is generated by a point moving so that its
distance from a fixed point, the focus, and from a Joining Two Points by a Parabolic Curve
fixed line, the directrix, remain equal
→ Focus – fixed point of a parabola
→ Directrix – fixed line of a parabola
 Drawing a Hyperbola
Hyperbola - so that the difference of its distances
from two fixed points, the foci, is constant and equal
to the transverse axis of the hyperbola
Drawing an Equilateral Hyperbola
In equilateral hyperbola, the asymptotes, which are at
the right angles to each other, may be used as the
axes to which the curve is referred
Drawing a Spiral of Archimedes
Drawing a Helix
Helix is generated by a point moving around and
along the surface of a cylinder or cone with a
uniform angular velocity about the axis, and with a
uniform linear velocity about the axis, and with a
uniform velocity in the direction of the axis
Drawing an Involute
Involute - is the path of a point on a string as the
string unwinds from a line, Polygon, or circle
To draw an involute of a line, triangle, and square:
To draw an involute of a circle Computer Graphics
CAD programs – are particularly well suited for
repetitive operations, such as dividing a line into
several equal parts, and for generating lines
representing mathematical curves, such as hyperbola
and parabola

Drawing a Cycloid
Cycloid - generated by a point P in the circumference
of a circle that rolls along a straight line

Chapter Summary
 Understanding basic geometric construction
techniques is fundamental to the success of
both traditional drawing and CAD drawing
 All drawings are made up of points, lines, arcs,
and circles drawn at various sizes and
constructed in specific location to each other
 Geometric construction cannot be
approximated
 Every point, line, arc, and circle must be
precisely located. CAD cannot draw correctly
if you cannot tell the program where you
want an element drawn
 The advantage that CAD provides in geometric
construction is drawing precision
 One of the most difficult types of geometric
construction are tangencies. There are many
different types of tangencies, and each
requires a special drawing technique