Lecture 1: Angles and Direction

Measurements
+Topic Outline
+ Meridians
+ Units of Angular Measurements
+ Computations on Angular Measurements
+ Direction of a Line
+The Compass
+ Magnetic Declination
+ Isogonic Chart
+ Local Attraction
+ Compass Surveying

What is a MERIDIAN?
• The direction of a line is usually defined by the horizontal angle it makes with a fixed reference
line or direction. In surveying, this is done with reference to a meridian which lies in a vertical
plane passing through a fixed point of reference and through the observer’s position.

TYPES OF MERIDIAN

+True Meridian
• The true meridian is sometimes known as
the astronomic or geographic meridian. It
is the generally adapted reference line in
surveying practice. This line passes through
the geographic north and south poles of
the Earth and the observer’s position.

+Magnetic Meridian
• A magnetic meridian is a fixed line of
reference which lies parallel with the
magnetic line of force of the Earth. Its
direction is defined by a freely suspended
magnetic needle of a compass held at the
observer’s position.

+Grid Meridian
• A grid meridian is a fixed line of reference
parallel to the central meridian of a
system of plane rectangular coordinates.
One central meridian, which coincides
with true meridian, is usually selected and
all other meridians are made parallel to
this meridian.

+Assumed Meridian
• An assumed meridian is an arbitrarily chosen fixed line of reference which is taken for
convenience. This meridian is usually the direction from a survey station to an adjoining station
or some well-defined and permanent point.
Units of Angular Measurement

• The magnitude of an angle can be expressed in different units, all of which are basically derived
from the division of circumference of a circle. A purely arbitrary unit is used to define the value
of an angle.

Principal System of Units

The Degree
• The sexagesimal system is used in which the circumference of a circle is divided into 360 parts or
degrees. The basic unit is the degree, which is further subdivided into 60 minutes, and the
minute is subdivided into 60 seconds. The °, ‘ and “ are used to denote degrees, minutes, and
seconds, respectively. 360x60
• 1 degree = 60 minutes
• 1 minute = 60 seconds

The Grad
• The grad is the unit of measure in the centesimal system. In this system the circumference of a
circle is divided into 400 parts called grad. The grad is subdivided into 100 centesimal minutes,
and a centesimal minute is further subdivided into 100 centesimal seconds. The symbols g, c and
cc are used to denote grads, centesimal minutes, and centesimal seconds, respectively.
• 400 grads = 360 degrees

The Mil
• The circumference is divided into 6400 parts called mils.
• 6400 mils = 360 degrees

The Rad
• The radian is another measure of angles used frequently for a host of calculations. One radian is
defined as the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc length equal to the radius of
the circle.
• 2π rad = 360 degrees

Conversion of an Angle to Decimal Degrees

1. Decimal Equivalent = Degree + Minutes/60 + Seconds/3600

Conversion of an Angle to Degrees, Minutes, and Seconds

1. Retain the whole number as degree
2. Minutes = (degree – D) (60’/degree)
3. Seconds = (minutes – M) (60’’/minutes)

Conversion from Degrees to Grads, Mils, and Radians

1. Grads = Degree (400 grads / 360°)
2. Mils = Degree (6400 mils / 360°)
3. Radians = Degree (2π rad / 360°)

Direction of Lines
• The direction of a line is defined as
the horizontal angle the line makes
with an established line of reference.
There are various kinds of angles
which can be used to describe the
direction of lines.
Interior Angles
• The angles between adjacent lines in a closed polygon are called interior angles. When the value
of an interior angle is greater than 180 degrees, it is referred to as a re-entrant angle.
Remember that for any closed polygon, the sum of the interior angles is equal to (n-2)(180),
where n is the number of sides of the polygon.
• (n-2)(180) is the sum of interior angle formula

Exterior Angles
• Exterior angles are
located outside a
closed polygon and are
referred to as
explements of interior
angles.

Deflection Angles
• The angle between a line and the
prolongation(extension) of the preceding
line is called a deflection angle. It may be
turned to the right (clockwise) or to the
left (counterclockwise) and it is always
necessary to append the letters
R(positive) or L(negative) to the
numerical value to define the direction in
which the angle has been turned. Usually,
a positive sign is used to define a
deflection angle to the right and a
negative sign for deflection angles
to the left.

Angles to the Right

• Angles to the right are measured
clockwise from the preceding line
to the succeeding line.
Bearings
• The bearing of a line is the acute horizontal angle between reference meridian and the line. A
quadrantal system is used to specify bearings such that a line may fall under one of the following
quadrants: NE, NW, SE, and SW.

Azimuths
• The azimuth of a line is its direction as given by the angle between the meridian and the line
measured in a clockwise direction from either north or south branch of the meridian.

DETERMINING ANGLES FROM BEARINGS

DETERMINING ANGLES FROM AZIMUTHS

CONVERTING BEARINGS TO AZIMUTHS

CONVERTING AZIMUTHS TO BEARINGS

The Compass
• The compass is a hand-held instrument for determining the horizontal instrument for
determining the horizontal direction of a line with reference to the magnetic meridian.
Parts of a Compass
• Compass Box
• Line of Sight
• Magnetic Needle

Types of Compasses
1. Brunton Compass
2. Lensatic Compass
3. Surveyor’s Compass
4. Plain Pocket Compass
5. Prismatic Compass
6. Forester’s Compass
7. Transit Compass

Magnetic Declination
• The horizontal angle and direction by which the needle of a compass deflects from the true
meridian at any locality is called magnetic declination.
 Variations in Magnetic Declination
• The changes in the direction of the magnetic meridian at any given place is not constant. It is
subject to cyclic fluctuations which vary over a certain period. These variations in magnetic
declination can be categorized as daily (diurnal), annual, secular, and irregular.

Isogonic Chart
• A map or chart which shows lines connecting points where the magnetic declination of the
compass needle is the same at a given time is called an isogonic chart.
• The lines drawn on such a chart are in turn referred to as isogonic lines.
• For some parts of the chart, it will be observed that magnetic declinations are zero and the lines
connecting them are called agonic lines. On an agonic line the magnetic needle defines true and
magnetic north along the same direction.
• Correspondingly, in areas west of the agonic line the needle has easterly declination; those east
of the line, a westerly declination.

Local Attraction
• Local attraction is any deviation of the magnetic needle of a compass from its normal pointing
towards magnetic north.
• Local attraction at a particular point may be constant or may vary depending upon surrounding
magnetic influences.

COMPASS SURVEYS

Compass Surveying
• The method of compass surveying is one of the most basic and widely practiced methods of
determining the relative location of points where a high degree of precision is not required.
Such surveys, which employ a magnetic compass, are performed by traversing.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

• Traverse. A traverse is a series of lines connecting successive points whose lengths and
directions have been determined from field measurements.
• Traversing. The process of measuring the lengths and directions of the lines of a traverse for the
purpose of locating the position of certain points.
• Traverse Station. Any temporary or permanent point of reference over which the instrument is
set up. It is usually marked by a peg or a hub driven flush with the ground and identified by
consecutive letters or numbers as the survey progresses. Traverse stations are usually called
angle points because an angle is usually measured at such stations.
• Traverse Lines. Are lines connecting traverse stations and whose lengths and directions are
determined.

TYPES OF COMPASS SURVEYS

+Open Compass Traverse

• An open compass traverse consists of a series of lines of known lengths and magnetic
bearings which are continuous but do not return to the starting point or close upon a point
of known position.
• An open traverse is generally avoided since the offer no way of checking the field
measurements for errors and mistakes.

+Closed Compass Traverse

• A closed compass traverse consists of a series of lines of known lengths and magnetic
bearings which forms a closed loop, or begin and end at points whose positions have been
fixed by other surveys of higher precision.
• Since a closed traverse provides checks on the measured angles and distances, they are used
extensively in construction surveys, establishment of control for triangulation work, as well
as in property and topographic surveys.
Open and Closed Compass Traverse

• NOTE: best line is

known if the observed forward
and backward bearing is the
same degree but it has different
direction.
Closed Compass Traverse
Note: when you get the all the interior angle the next thing you do is to find the ERROR by subtracting
the summation of all interior angle by the total interior angle you get in the formula (n-2)(180).Next to
get the correction just simply divide it by the number of sides that the closed traverse has.
GET THE ADJUSTED BEARING