CHAPTER THREE

MEASURING ANGLES AND

DIRECTION

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 Learning outcomes
 At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
 Define the different types of angles with their
measurements;
 Setup a theodolite and make ready for field
measurement;
 Operate different angle and direction measuring
equipments in the field;
 Describe different meridians and system of
designating direction of lines; and
 Explain magnetic declination and local attraction
phenomena.
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 3.1 Setting up a theodolite
 Theodolite is an instrument designed for the measurement of
horizontal and vertical angle.
 Theodolites are of two types, such as optical reading theodolites and
digital theodolties.
 Optical reading theodolites: are theodolties which are read by
means of internal microscope.
 These instruments measure horizontal and vertical angles and have
features very similar to electronic theodolites.
 BUT, their reading systems are very different and rely on manual
operation and recording.
 When taking a reading light is directed into the instrument and is
passed through the H and V circles.
 The optical reading theodolties are intern classified into repeating and
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directional theodolties.
  Repeating theodlites are instruments which have a lower and upper
lock and slow motions.
 They are used to allow angles to be set and repeated for a number of
times.
 Direction theodolties have only one horizontal motion in contrast to
the double center instruments.
 Directions are observed with these theodolties and angle is the
difference between the two directions.

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  Digital theodolties: are also theodolties which electronically
resolve angle readings and display in numerical form.
 In these theodolites, the horizontal and vertical angle measuring
systems are fitted into electronic theodolites, which are made of
glass circles with binary codes etched onto them.
 These are converted into an angular output by a microprocessor
which is accessed through a keyboard and LCD display.

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 3.2. Adjustments in theodolites
 The commonly used methods of employing adjustments are
permanent and temporary in nature.
 Permanent adjustments of theodolites and other surveying
adjustments are usually undertaken by production and distribution
company before final use by surveyors.
 It is made by manufacturers prior to application.
 Temporary adjustments or station adjustments are those
which are made at every instrument setting to take objectivities
with the instrument.
 Therefore, a temporary adjustment includes:
 setting the theodolite over the station,
 leveling up, and
 elimination of parallax.
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 3.3 Measurements of angles
3.3.1 Measuring Horizontal angle
 The horizontal angle is measured by two methods namely, closing the
horizontal method and method of repetition.
 Closing the horizontal method: is also called method of
series.
 It is suitable for the measurement of the angles of a group having a
common vertex points.
 It is processes of measuring the angles around a point to obtain a
check on their sum, which should equal 3600.
 In this case, the horizon is closed (3600-one full rotation of the
theodolite in clockwise direction).

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 Method of repetition:
 It is used to measure a horizontal angle to a finer degree of accuracy
than that obtained with the least count of the theodolite scale
(varnier).
 An angle is measured two or more times by allowing the varnier to
remain fixed(clamped) each time.
 At the end of each measurement instead of setting it back at zero
when viewing(slighting) at previous station.
 Thus, any angle reading is mechanically added several times
depending upon the number of repetitions.
 The average horizontal angle is then obtained by dividing the final
reading by the number of repetitions.
 To measure angle < JIK, the following procedure should be followed.

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 Direction method
 As an alternative to repetition method, the direction method is used
to measure horizontal angles.
 This method is particularly efficient when multiple angles are being
measured at a station.
 For instance, if <QPR and <RPS are measured using direction
method, final values for the two angles are taken as the averages of the
two angles.
 These are 37° 30‘28“and 36° 43‘14“ for angles a and b, respectively.
 Note that in this procedure, the multiple reading increases the
precisions of the angles.

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 3.3.2 Measuring vertical angles
 A vertical angle is the angle between the inclined line of sight to
an object and the horizontal plane.
 It is the angle which the inclined line of sight to objective makes
with the horizontal.
 It may be an angle of elevation or angle of depression depending
up on whether the object is above or below the horizontal plane
through the instrument’s center.
 If the vertical angle is measured downwards from the zenith
called zenith distance or zenith angle (z).
 In this case, the direction of the line through the instrument
center to the center of the earth (downwards) termed as
Nadir.
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  <NAC= 83ᴼ38’ and <NAB = 137ᴼ17’ are Zenith
angles.
 The vertical angle for <NAC reading is 90ᴼ - 83ᴼ38’
= 6ᴼ 22’
 Angle of elevation.
 The vertical angle for <NAB is 90ᴼ - 137ᴼ17’ =
47ᴼ17’
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 Angle of depression
  If the theodolite is required to measure the vertical angle between two
points A and B as subtended at the instruments center:
 sight first the higher point and take the reading of vertical axis.
 Then, sight the lower point and take the reading.
 The required vertical angle will be equal to the algebraic difference
between the two readings.
 With the face left (normal), the vertical angle is equal to 900 minus
the vertical circle reading, whether as with the face right, the vertical
angle is equal to the vertical circle reading of the theodolite minus
2700 i.e.
 Face left; B = 900 - circle reading
 Face right; B = circle reading -2700
 Note: To eliminate errors, a vertical angle should be observed with
face left and face right, and take the average of the two values.
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 3.4 Measurement of directions
3.4.1 Bearings
 It is defined as the direction of any line with respect to a given
meridian.
 Three basic requirements in determining an angle/bearing are:
 a fixed Reference or starting line,
 direction of turning, and
 angular distance (value of the angle).
 A fixed reference line OM with respect to which the horizontal angles
are measured in clock wise direction is known as meridian.
 The reference direction used may be one of the following:
 True or astronomic meridian: If the fixed reference line is a north-
south line passing through the geographical poles of the earth.
 Grid meridian:To eliminate the effect of convergence of meridian, a
meridian through a station is adopted as a reference meridian and all other
meridians are considered parallel to the reference meridian.
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  Magnetic meridian: is the (imaginary) line of intersection of a
(imaginary) plane passing through the magnetic North and South
poles of the earth with its actual surface.
 Arbitrary or assumed meridian: Any convenient direction
from a survey station to some well defined permanent object is
known as arbitrary meridian.
 This is used for small area survey or to determine the relative
directions of small traverse.
 Thus, it is the reference meridian is arbitrary chosen.

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 Bearing
 Any straight line has two diametrically opposite directions.
 These are forward and backward bearing.
 Forward bearing (FB) is measured if the bearing of the survey line is in
the direction of the survey.
 For example, the angle at A (65 degree) is measured in the direction of
the progress of the survey called forward bearing.
 Back bearing (BB) is a bearing in the direction opposite to the progress
of the survey line.
 For example, the angle at B (245 degree) is measured at B for the same line
AB, in the direction opposite to the direction of progress of the survey.

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  Depending up on the meridian chosen, bearing may be true bearing,
magnetic bearing or assumed bearings.
 If the bearings α1, α 2, α 3 and α 4 one measured clock wise from
north side of the meridian, then they are whole circle bearings.
 The acute angle is known as the reduced bearing or quadrant
bearing.
 If the bearings measured from north branch of the meridian in
clockwise direction and the line falls in the 00 to 900 quadrant. It is
written as NθE.
 If the line in the 2700 to 3600 quadrant, the bearing is measured from
the north branch of meridian and is written as NθW.
 Similarity, if the line lies in 900 to 1800 quadrants and 180 to 270
quadrants, the bearing are measured from the south branch of the
meridian and written as SθE and SθW, respectively.
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 3.4.2 Azimuths
 The clockwise angle between a line and the meridian measured
in clockwise direction usually from the north branch of the
meridian is the Azimuth of the line.
 Azimuths may be true (astronomic), magnetic or assumed
depending on the reference meridian adapted.
 They have values ranging from 00 to 3600.
 Thus, Azimuths are in fact whole circle bearings.
 Note: The concept of forward and back azimuth of a line is only
valid in plane surveying where there is no convergence of
meridian.

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 3.5 Magnetic Declination
 The horizontal angle which a magnetic meridian makes with the
true or astronomic meridian is called the magnetic
declination, or magnetic variation.
 If the north end of the compass needle deflects right of the true meridian,
the declination is said to be east (+ve) and
 if it deflects to the left of the true meridian, the declination is said to be
west (-ve).
 Declination varies from place to place and at any station time to time
because of plate tectonics.

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 3.6 Local Attraction
 In presence of magnetic materials, the magnetic needle
deviates from the magnetic meridian and thus provides wrong
direction of a line.
 The deviation arising from such local sources is called local
attraction.
 If the fore bearing and back bearing of a line does not differ by
180°, then there is a possibility of local attraction during the
observation of the line.
 Otherwise, if the sum of the interior angles of a closed traverse
does not provide (2n - 4) right angles, then there is a possibility
of local attraction during the observation of the traverse.
 Ex: Compass survey in towns not advisable than rural areas
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