INTRODUCTION TO

SURVEYING
BY: Ebrahim Esa (Ph.D., Associate Professor of Environmental and
Natural Resources Management)
ECSU, Addis Ababa
2 CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
 Definition: Surveying is the art of making measurement of
the location of points on, near or under the surface of the
earth.
 The location of points in the horizontal and vertical planes
involves the relative distances and height between
adjacent points.
 As a result, it comprises all the methods of gathering
information about the physical earth and its surroundings
for further analysis and interpreting geographic
information for varies fields.
3

 The need to learn and master surveying is better

appreciated by seeing that; particularly no engineering
activity can be planned, designed, executed and
maintained without the active participation of the
surveyor.
 In fact, surveys are required before planning &
construction of any engineering projects.
4 1.1. Classification of surveying
 Geodetic Verses Plane Surveying
 It considers the curvature of the earth as a main factor.
 Geodetic surveying: a branch of surveying where the
survey to be conducted requires better precision & the
area to be surveyed formed a good portion of the total
earth surface.
 It takes the curvature of the earth surface in to account.
Thus, the line connecting any two points on the surface is
not a straight line rather an arc of a circle (curve).
 The distance between A and B on the surface of the
spheroid is calculated as

𝐴𝐵 = 𝜋 𝑅Τ1800 𝐿𝑎𝑡 𝐴 − 𝐿𝑎𝑡 𝐵 2 + 𝐷𝑒𝑝 𝐴 − 𝐷𝑒𝑝 𝐵 2

5 Figure 1.1 A spheroid showing lines of
latitudes and longitudes
6 Plane surveying:

 It is where the effect of the curvature of the earth is

negligible and assumed as plane earth.
 It is used in surveying of small areas.
 The distance connecting any tow points on the surface
of the earth taken as plane (straight line).
 The distance between A and B on the earth’s surface is
on Cartesian coordinate system and calculated as:
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐿𝑎𝑡 𝐴 − 𝐿𝑎𝑡 𝐵 2 + 𝐷𝑒𝑝 𝐴 − 𝐷𝑒𝑝 𝐵 2
7 Classification Classification based
based on function on Instruments
employed
 Control surveying  Chain survey
 Land surveying  Compass survey
 City surveying  Plane table survey
 Topographic surveying  Leveling survey
 Engineering surveying  Theodolite survey
 Route surveying  Photogrammetric survey
 Geological surveys, etc  EDM survey, etc.
8 1.2. Principles of surveying
 The fundamental principles up on which the variables methods of
summering are based, are very simple to understand. They involve:
 Fixing a point in relation to points already fixed
 The position of two points A and B are already fixed in the
above figures. The third point C can be located in relation to A
and B by the following direct approaches.
 Measure the distances AC and BC, and locate C as the
intersection point the arcs with centers at A and B.
 Measure the perpendicular distance CD of C from AB and the
distance AD or BD to locate C.
 Measure the distance AC and angle B AC, to locate C.
 Measure the angles BAC and ABC, to locate C.
 Measure the angle BAC and the distance BC, to locate C.
9 Figure1.2 Fixing a point in relation to
points already fixed

Note: The plotting of the points on drawing sheet is done by scaling

the measured distance.
10 Working from the whole to the part
 This is the ruling principle in surveying.
 The surveyor should first establish a sufficient number of points with
high degree of precision in and around the area to be surveyed
known as primary control points.
 The gaps are then filled with a system of second dry control
systems at leaser intervals with slightly less interval and with even
less precision.
 As a rule, the errors in survey details should be too small to plot,
while the accuracy of the control points used for plotting the detail
must be as high as possible.
 The purpose of working from the whole to the part is mainly to
localize the errors and control the accumulation of errors.
 In the reverse process of working from the part to the whole, the
errors will get magnified.
11 1.3. Units of measurements
 The two widely used and commonly applied systems for units of
measurements in surveying are metric (USs) systems and British system.
 i. Units of linear measurements: measurements have been obtained by
different methods. The most important and commonly used methods are
taping, tachometry, pacing, EDM, satellite systems, etc.

Metric unties British units

10mm = 1 cm 12” = 1’
100 cm = 1m 3’= 1 yards
1000 m = 1 km 5.5 Yards = 1 rod = 1 pole
4 poles = 66 feet= 1 chain
Conversion factor 10 chain= 1 furlong

1” = 2.54 cm. 8 furlong= 1 mile (Nautical

mile)
12 Ii. Units of angular measurements:
 Angle measured in surveying are classified as horizontal or vertical
depending on the plane in which they are measured.
 Angles are often directly measured in the field by total satiation,
theodolite, compass, clinometers, etc.
 The widely used units for angular measurements are degree (0),
minute (‘), second (“), grad (grad) & radians (rad).

Metric Units British units

10mmx10mm= 1cm2 12” x12” = 1ft2
100mx 100m = 1 ha 10 chain2 = 1 acer
1000m x 1000m =100 ha 640 acer = 1 mile2

1000m x 1000m = 1km2 484 yards2 = 1 chains2

13 iii. Units of Angular measurements
 Degrees, minutes and seconds are used in USA and many other
countries.
 In Europe, the grade (gon) is a standard unit. Radiance may be
more suitable in computation.

Conversion
3600 = 400g= 2π rad
900= 100g= π/2 rad
10 = 60’ (minute)
1’= 60” (second)
14 1.4. The concept of scale
 Most often, the purpose of making a survey is to produce some kind of
plan.
 The kind of plan we result depends to a large extent on the scale to which
it is drawn.
 The scale of the map or plan is the ratio of any distance on a map and the
same distance on the ground.
 The scale of the map depends up on the purpose, and level of detail for
which the map is required.

𝑴𝑫
𝑺𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆 =
𝑮𝑫
15

 The scale of the map or plan can be shown in three

ways.
Representative fraction (ratios)
Equation or statement form
Graphical Scale
 Map scales can also be classified as large, medium or
small
Large scale= 1,50,000 or greater
Medium scale= 150,000= 1250,000
Small scale= 1,250,000 and smaller.
16 1.5. Accuracy and errors
 Precision is the degree of perfection used in the
instruments, the methods and the observation.
In other words, it refers to the degree of closeness or
conformity of repeated measurements of the same
quality to each other.
 Accuracy: is the degree of perfection obtained or the
degree of conformity or closeness of a measurement to
its true values. Accuracy depends upon:
Precise instruments,
Precise methods, and
Good planning
17 1.5.1. Errors
 The use of precise instrument simplified the work, save
time and provides economies.
 That means the use of precise methods eliminate or tries to
reduce the effect of all types of errors.
 As a result, good planning, which includes proper
choose and arrangement of survey control and proper
choice of instruments and methods for each operations,
 Save time, and
 Reduce the possibilities of errors.
 It is the difference between measurement and true
value of the quantity measured.
 However, it is never known since the true value (exact)
of quantity is also never known.
18 1.5.2. Sources and types of errors
 The true errors can be computed as the difference between the value
of any measured quantity and the true measurement value.
 There are basically three sources of errors in surveying operations:
 i)Instrumental errors: are errors due to imperfection or faulty
adjustment of instrument in which measurement is taken. Example:
Too long or too short tape or angle measuring instrument may be
out of adjustment.
 ii)Personal errors : are also errors due to imperfection of human
sight in observing and lack of skill in manipulating the instrument.
 iii)Natural errors: are errors due to variation in natural phenomena;
temperature, gravity, wind, refraction, and magnetic deviation.
 Errors may also be classified as:-
 i) Mistakes(gross errors)
 ii)Systematic errors or cumulative errors
 iii)Accidental or random errors.
19 1.5.3. Kinds of errors
 Mistakes: are errors which arise from inexperience, carelessness and poor
adjustment or confusion in the mind of the observer.
 Some common examples of mistakes are:-
 Pointing on the wrong survey target,
 Incorrect reading on the scale,
 Reading on the wrong scale, &
 Wrong recording the value of reading on the scale.
 Good field procedures designed to reduce mistakes are:-
 Careful checking of all pointing on survey targets.
 Taking multiple readings on scales checking for reasonable
consistency.
 Verifying recorded data by reading scales.
 Taking repeated measurements independently & checking for
constancy.
 Use simple algebraic or geometric checks.
20
 Systematic errors: errors always fallow some definite mathematical or physical
laws or tend to follow some pattern.
 These can be expressed by certain functional relationships.
 Example: Measurement of distance by tape and true effect of temperature (thermal
exposition) on length accuracy.
 Accidental or random errors: These are those which remain after mistakes and
systematic errors have been eliminated, and are caused by a combination of
reasons beyond the ability of the observer to control.
 However, both systematic errors and mistakes can be detected and eliminated
from the survey measurements before adjusting the remaining errors.
 Accidental errors tend some times in one direction and sometimes on the
other.
 As a result, they obey the law of chance and must be handled according to
mathematical law of probability.
 Example: use of normal distribution curve to reduce the effect of these errors
21 1.5.4. Permissible errors
 It is the maximum allowable limit that a measurement may vary from
the true value or from a value previously adopted as correct/exact.
 The value of the permissible error in any given case dependents up on:
 The scale,
 Purpose of the survey
 The instruments available,
 Class of work etc.
 However, the best surveyor is not the one who is extremely accurate in
all he/she works, rather the one who does it accurately enough for the
purpose at hand without waste of time & money.
 As a result, a surveyor showed make the precision of each step in the
field work correspondingly to the importance of that step.
22 1.6. Phases of survey work
 A survey work has the following phases:-
 a) Planning, analysis and design making: involves the
following:-
 i)Selection of an appropriate method of surveying;
 ii) Selection of instruments & other equipment; and
 iii) Selection and fixing of survey stations.
 b) Care and adjustment of instruments: To ensure best
results, the instruments must be kept in a good working
condition.
 The survey or must cheek before use that the permanent
adjustments of instruments are not disturbed.
23 1.6. Phases …
 c) Field work: A process of collecting field data by making
linear and angular measurements and recording them in a
systematic manner.
 d) Office work: Involves:
 i)Computation of coordinates
 ii)Data processing
 iii)Preparing plans or maps to a suitable scales
 iv)Computation of areas & volumes.
 f) Setting out works: Involves pegging out the structure on
the ground before construction starts.