Earth Science: INTRODUCTION TO EARTH SCIENCE (Lecture 1)
EARTH ~ is a very small part of a vast universe
but is our HOME. It provides the resources that
support our modern society and the ingredients
necessary to maintain LIFE…
…a knowledge and understanding of our planet is
critical to our social well-being and vital to our
SURVIVAL…
* Daily reports remind us of the destruction caused
by……. Typhoons, earthquakes, floods, landslides
* To comprehend, prepare for, and solve these and
other concerns requires an awareness of how
science is done and the scientific principles that
influence our planet, its rocks, mountains,
atmosphere, and oceans.
* Of all the planets in the solar system, the Earth is
the most important. Why?
=All forms of living things can be found
only in this planet.
* The branch of Physical Science that deals with the
study of solid earth, the water on, within, and
around it is called– EARTH SCIENCE
Under Earth Science:
1. Geology – how Earth’s landforms and rock
change over time
2. Oceanography – how marine ecosystems
interact in the oceans
3. Meteorology – how atmosphere conditions
relate to weather & climate
4. Astronomy – how Earth relates in space and
time
----------------------------------------------------------
GEOLOGY
----------------------------------------------------------
GEOLOGY ~ the study of the Earth
~ the study of:
- Earth’s lithosphere
- substances that make up the Earth
- processes that shape the Earth
- how these materials and processes have
changed the Earth over time
- Earth structures
~ search for fuels and minerals, study natural
hazards, and work to protect Earth's environment
~ Two important subfields
1. volcanology (the study of volcanoes)
2. seismology (the study of earthquakes)
~ help predict and mitigate the effects of natural
disasters such as volcanic eruptions, major quakes,
tsunamis and landslides
~ Geologists are at the forefront of the quest for
natural resources such as oil, natural gas, and other
raw materials
~ involves a very broad area of study, only two of
the major fields are generally accepted:
1. Physical Geology
2. Historical Geology
* PHYSICAL GEOLOGY
~ Focuses on the following areas:
1. The solid part of the Earth which
includes the soils, rocks, and minerals
2. Earth’s surface processes where the
hydrologic cycle, erosion, and weathering
are studied
3. Earth’s internal processes where
tectonics and volcanism are involved.
* HISTORICAL GEOLOGY
~ This is mainly concerned with how the Earth has
evolved by investigating its life-forms through
fossils.
~ Fossils are the remains of plants and animals
preserved on the Earth’s crust
Branches of GEOLOGY:
1. GEOMORPHOLOGY – the study of the nature,
origin, and processes of changes of landforms such
as the rising and subsiding of continents and
mountains.
2. GEOPHYSICS – the study of the physical
phenomena of the Earth such as its magnetic field,
the flow of heat from the interior, and the study of
gravity including tides.
3. GEOCHEMISTRY – the study of the chemical
composition of the Earth and the laws governing
the distribution of elements within the Earth.
* Stratigraphers – those who map out the different
layers of strata of the different kinds of rocks that
make up the Earth.
----------------------------------------------------------
OCEANOGRAPHY
----------------------------------------------------------
OCEANOGRAPHY ~ The study of the ocean and
ocean currents
~ study of Earth's oceans - their composition,
movement, organisms and processes
~ oceans
- cover most of our planet
- resources of food and other commodities
 - energy source
- major influence on the weather and
climate change
~ Oceanographers
- study currents, storms or waves
- evaluate movement of subsea tectonic
plates that might cause rifting and
tsunami waves
- seek to understand and protect marine
ecosystems
- work for governments, for the fishing or
energy industries, or shipping concerns
- work to develop the ocean as a resource
and protect it from human impact - utilize
the oceans while minimizing the effects of
our actions
Branches of OCEANOGRAPHY:
1. PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHERS – interested
in tides, waves, currents, and how water densities
and temperatures affect them.
2. CHEMICAL OCEANOGRAPHERS – primarily
concerned with the composition of seawater.
3. MARINE BIOLOGISTS – closely examine all
life-forms in the ocean together with their
environment.
----------------------------------------------------------
METEOROLOGY
----------------------------------------------------------
METEOROLOGY ~ The study of the weather and
atmosphere
~ study of:
- the atmosphere
- how processes in the atmosphere
determine Earth's weather and climate
- changes in temperature, air pressure,
humidity and winds affecting the weather
~ a very practical science because everyone is
concerned about the weather particularly that of
climate changes
* Broadcast meteorologists - interpret and report
weather data on television or radio to inform the
public and protect us when severe weather
threatens
* Forensic meteorologists - determine how
weather conditions may have contributed to
accidents or caused damage to property.
* Climatologists - study the large-scale weather
patterns for a given region over long periods of
time
Branches of METEOROLOGY
1. CLIMATOLOGY – involves the study of the
past and present climate concern with longer
variation.
2. METEOROLOGIST – scientists who forecast
daily weather, carefully examine climates and all
forms of atmospheric disturbances.
----------------------------------------------------------
ASTRONOMY
----------------------------------------------------------
ASTRONOMY ~ The study of stars, planets and
space
~ study of the sun, moon, stars, planets, comets,
gas, galaxies, gas, dust and other non-Earthly
bodies and phenomena
~ the study of stars, planets and space (NASA)
~ astronomy and astrology were historically
associated, but astrology is not a science and is no
longer recognized as having anything to do with
astronomy
* Modern astronomers tend to fall into two fields:
- Observational astronomers in the observational
field focus on direct study of stars, planets,
galaxies, and so forth.
- Theoretical astronomers model and analyze how
systems may have evolved.
- Planetary astronomers - focus on the growth,
evolution, and death of planets
- Solar astronomers - spend their time analyzing a
single star—our sun
- Stellar astronomers - turn their eyes to the stars,
including the black holes, nebulae, white dwarfs,
and supernova that survive stellar deaths
- Galactic astronomers - study our galaxy, the
Milky Way
- Extragalactic astronomers - peer outside of it to
determine how these collections of stars form,
change, and die
- Cosmologists - focus on the universe in its
entirety, from its violent birth in the Big Bang to its
present evolution, all the way to its eventual death
* WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO STUDY THE
EARTH?
= The Earth is in a dynamic state, it is in a
continuous process of changing and development.
Others would refer to Earth as a living machine.
Why?
= Because there are so many continuously
occurring processes that needs to be explained.
This is why the study of Earth Science is important.
= We need to understand the mechanism by which
the only planet that supports life functions…
= It is only through knowing this mechanism can
we SAVE AND CONSERVE OUR PLANET
* THE EARTH: A UNIQUE PLANET
~ water, life
----------------------------------------------------------
Scientists and Philosophers of
Earth Science
----------------------------------------------------------
1. Aristarchus of Samos (310 – 230 BC)
~ Aristarchus Heliocentric Model:
- Greek Astronomer
- advanced the geocentric theory, which
placed the Earth as the center of the Universe
- DEFERENT - circular path in which
planets moves
- EPICYCLE - circles where planets move
3.) Nicholas Copernicus (1473 – 1543)
~ Copernicus’ Heliocentric Model:
- a Polish churchman, mathematician and
astronomer
- the Sun is at the center of the Solar
System
- the Earth is spinning on its axis once
daily, revolves annually around the sun
4.) TYCHO BRAHE (1546-1601)
~ Brahes’ Model:
- Danish nobleman, astronomer, and
writer
- planets revolve around the sun, and the
sun revolving around the earth TYCHO
BRAHE (1546-1601)
~ designed and built a sextant which he
used for many years to measure the
location of heavenly bodies like stars
5.) GALILEO GALILEI (1564-1642)
~ GALILEOS’ MODEL:
- Italian astronomer, physicist and
engineer
- known to be the "father of observational
astronomy", the "father of modern
physics", the "father of the scientific
method", and the "father of modern
science”
- first astronomical telescope
Earth Science: ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE (Lecture 2)
GeNeSis ~ “The God looked over all He had
made, and He saw that it was very good!”
- first to place the sun at the center of the
universe
- the Earth is revolving around the sun in
a circular orbit
- stars and the sun remain fixed in position
- tried to estimate the sizes and distance of
the sun and the moon by geometrical
methods, “Sizes and Distance of the Sun
and Moon”
2. Claudius Ptolemy (100AD – 170 AD)
~ Ptolemy’s Geocentric Model:
- an astronomer, mathematician, and
geographer from Alexandria
- sun is at the center while all other planets
including the Earth revolve around it
6.) JOHANN KEPLER (1571-1630)
~ KEPLERS’ MODEL:
- German astronomer, mathematician, and
astrologer
- formulated his three laws of planetary
motion that supported the Copernican
Theory
- movement of planets around the sun
were elliptical
- the closer the planets were to the sun, the
faster they orbited
7.) SIR ISAAC NEWTON (1643-1727)
~ NEWTONS’ MODEL:
- English mathematician, physicist,
astronomer, theologian, and author
- formulated laws of universal gravitation
and motion
- that explain how objects move on Earth
as well as through the heavens.
* The work and labor of the Early Scientists
marked a great increase and enriched the scientific
knowledge about the Earth.
* They opened doors for more comprehensive
research on the nature of the Earth with the use of
modern and sophisticated astronomical
instruments.
* Through these instruments, scientists have
started to UNFOLD THE MYSTERIES OF THE
EARTH AND ITS NEIGHBORS.
1st day – God separated light from darkness
2nd – God made a dome and separated water under
it from the water above it.
3rd – God made Earth. He named the water sea. He
then made fruits grow on Earth.
4th – God made lights to shine throughout the day.
5th – God filled the air and sea with creatures.
6th – God placed animals of many kinds on the
land of the Earth.
RIGVEDA ~ oscillating universe
~ a “cosmic egg” or Brahmanda, containing the
whole universe, expands out of a single
concentrated point called Bindu, and eventually
collapse again.
! Note: oscillating – back and forth (may
pinagmulan at babalikan)
PRIMORDIAL UNIVERSE ~ Anaxagoras of
Clazomenae (ca. 500-480)
~ Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher of the 5th century
~ believed that the original state of the cosmos was
a mixture of all ingredients, which existed in
infinitesimally small fragments of themselves
~ This mixture was set in motion by the action of
the “nous” or mind producing a whirling motion
which separated the ingredients
~ a cosmos of separate material objects with
different properties are produced
! Note: puro hypothesis
GEOCENTRIC UNIVERSE ~ Aristotle (384 BC-
322 BC) & Claudius Ptolemy (100 AD-170 AD)
~ the Earth is motionless in the heavens and
everything is moving around it
HELIOCENTRIC UNIVERSE ~ Nicolaus
Copernicus (1473-1543)
~ Celestial motions are uniform, infinite and
circular
~ Planets revolve around the sun
~ Earth spins on a tilted axis, which accounts for
the seasons
INFINITE UNIVERSE ~ Giordano Bruno (1548 –
1600)
~Italian Dominician friar, philosopher,
mathematician, poet, cosmological theorist, and
Hermetic occultist
~ the stars were distant suns surrounded by their
own planets
~ raised the possibility that these planets might
foster life of their own
~ the universe is infinite and could have no
“centre”
NEWTON’S UNIVERSE ~ Sir Isaac Newton
(1643-1727)
~ an English mathematician, physicist, astronomer,
theologian and author
~ static, steady-state and infinite universe
~ matter on the large scale is uniformly distributed
and the universe is gravitationally balanced but
essentially unstable
VORTEX UNIVERSE ~ Rene Descartes (1596 –
1650)
~ a French philosopher, mathematician and
scientist
~ Cartesian vortex model of the universe
~ the vacuum of space was not empty at all but
was filled with matter that swirled around in large
and small vortices
~ involved a system of huge swirling whirlpools of
fine matter – gravitational effects
EINSTEINS’ UNIVERSE ~ Albert Einstein (1879-
1955)
~ a German-born theoretical physicist who
developed the theory of relativity
~ same idea as Newton – static, dynamically stable
universe which was never expanding nor
contracting
BIG BANG THEORY (1927) ~ Georges Edouard
Lamaitre (1894-1966)
~ Belgian Roman Catholic Priest, mathematician,
astronomer and professor of physics at the
Catholic University of Louvain
~ The “Father of the Big bang”
~ “All the matter and energy in the universe are
crammed into a tiny compact called singularity,
Then suddenly, from this singularity, expansion or
explosion took place sending space, time, matter
and energy in all directions.”
BIG BANG THEORY (1927) ~ Edwin Powell
Hubble (1889-1953)
~ American astronomer
~ supporter of Lemaitre
~ demonstrated the continuous expanding of the
universe through his observation of Galactic
Redshift (1929)
~ Noticed that the spectrum of the galaxies he was
studying showed spectral lines that were shifted
towards the end of the spectrum. The redshift
happens because the light’s wavelengths becoming
longer. It indicates that an object is receding from
us.
Time begins
~ The universe begins 13.7 Billion years ago
~ The universe begins as the size of a single atom
~ The universe began as a violent expansion
- All matter and space were created from a
single point of pure energy in an instant
In a Fraction of a Second
* Fundamental Forces of Nature in a Stellar
Nursery
~ This infrared image shows the heat released
throughout a nebula as the fundamental forces
combine to form new stars from massive clouds of
interstellar matter.
1.) Gravity ~ dense hot clouds collapse as gravity
starts the star formation process
2-3.) Strong Nuclear force & Weak Nuclear force
~ these forces work on the nuclear level fueling the
core of new stars
4.) Electromagnetic force ~ this force also works at
the atomic level enabling stars to shine
3 minutes after Big Bang
~ the universe has grown from the size of an atom
to larger than the size a grapefruit
~ cooling down
~ protons and neutrons started to fuse together
~ nucleus Hydrogen and Helium atoms
Three Hundred thousand years after Big Bang
~ universe was cool enough to completely form the
Hydrogen and Helium atom
~ ATOMS were formed
~ photons escaped and light existed for the very
first time
! Note: photons ~ compact of light
MUCH, MUCH, MUCH LATER
300 million years after Big Bang ~ 1st stars and
galaxies form
4.6 billion years ago ~ Our solar system forms
Other THEORIES of the Birth of the Universe:
1.) Oscillating Universe ~ Albert Einstein (1879-
1955)
~ a German-born theoretical physicist who
developed the theory of relativity
~ followed the general theory of relativity
equations of the universe with positive curvature
~ curvature results in the expansion of the universe
for a time, and then to its contraction due to the
pull of its gravity in a perpetual cycle of big bang
and big crunch
! Note: big bang means expansion while big crush
means collapse
2.) Steady State Theory ~ this theory was
proposed by:
1.) Hermann Bondi ~ Anglo-Austrian
mathematician and cosmologist
2.) Thomas Gold ~ Austrian-born astrophysicist, a
professor of astronomy at Cornell University, a
member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences,
and a Fellow of the Royal Society
3.) Sir Fred Hoyle ~ an English Astronomer and
Cosmologist
~ believes that the universe doesn’t change in its
appearance and is homogeneous
~ when an oldster dies, new star replaces it –
everything remains the same
~ The universe has neither any beginning nor any
end. Universe was and will always be the same
through the whole time
Big Bang Model ~ density of galaxies falls as
universe expands
Steady State Model ~ density of galaxies remains
more or less constant as universe expands (spaces
filled in by new galaxies)
! Note: steady state – hindi nagbabago; walang
pinaggalingan; walang babalikan
Homogeneous means pare-pareho; alang
nagbabago
3.) Inflation Theory ~ proposed by the following
physicist:
1.) Alan Guth of Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (M.I.T.)
2.) Andrei Linde of Stanford
3.) Paul Steinhardt of Princeton
4.) Neil Turok, South African physicist
~ regarded as an extension of Big Bang that
proposes a period of exponential expansion of the
universe prior to the more gradual big bang
expansion
~ Evidence: existence of gravitational waves
4.) Multiverse ~ proposed by:
1.) Hugh Everett III, was an American physicist
who first proposed the many-worlds interpretation
(MWI) of quantum physics, which he termed his
“relative state” formation.
2.) Bryce Seligman DeWitt, was an American
theoretical physicist who studied gravity and field
theories.
~ initially developed and popularized the concept
of “many worlds” structure of the universe in the
1960s and 1970s.
Earth Science: THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM (Lecture 3)
Ptolemy’s Geocentric Model: (Claudius Ptolemy)
~ Mathematician, astronomer, geographer,
astrologer
~ All members of the solar system moves around
the Earth
~ Planets move with respect to fixed stars, with
changing brightness, changing speed and having
retrograde motion
Copernicus’ Heliocentric Model: (Nicholas
Copernicus)
~ Renaissance mathematician and astronomer
~ The sun is at the center of the Solar System
~ The Earth is spinning on its axis once daily,
revolves annually around the sun.
Descartes’ Vortex Theory: (René Descartes)
~ French mathematician, scientist, and philosopher
who has been called the father of modern
philosophy
~ The solar system was formed into bodies with
nearly circular orbits because of the whirlpool-like
motion in the pre-solar system.
~ The orbits of the planets are the primary
whirlpool and the satellites the secondary
whirlpool motion.
Buffon’s Collision Theory: (Georges-Louis Leclerc
De Buffon)
~ French naturalist, mathematician, and
cosmologist
~ Planets were formed by the collision of the sun
with a giant comet.
~ The debris formed into planets that rotate in the
same direction as they revolve around the sun.
Nebular Theory:
~ Immanuel Kant (German philosopher)
~ Pierre- Simon Laplace (French scholar)
~ The solar system began as a cloud of dispersed
interstellar gas called nebula which collapsed
because of gravitational pull and intense heat
~ The nebula contracts as it spins becoming a
pancake-shaped object with a bulge at the center
which later on became the sun and the planets.
Earth Science: THE EARTH’S SUBSYSTEMS (Lecture 4)
What is a System?
~ A System is any size group of interacting parts
that functions together or works as a whole.
– Closed systems are self-contained, all
parts exist in precise amounts and nothing
~ Collapse – nebula that collapsed because of
gravitational pull and intense heat
~ Spinning – as the collapsed nebula spins it forms
a disk which continuously spins faster and faster
making the temperature decrease
~ Flattening - disk flattened and because of the fast
rotation, fog from the mass of gas escaped
~ Condensation - some of the fog formed the core
of the different masses in space
~ Accretion - core of smaller masses turned into
planets and the sun
Planetesimal Theory:
~ Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin (American
geologist and educator )
~ Forest Ray Moulton (American astronomer)
~ A star passed close enough to the sun creating
huge tides and causing materials to be ejected.
~ Smaller masses quickly cooled and became
numerous smaller bodies called planetesimals.
~ Larger bodies are called protoplanets.
~ As these objects collided over time, the planets
and their moons were built up, with comets and
asteroids being the leftover debris
Tidal Theory:
~ James Hopwood Jeans (English physicist,
astronomer and mathematician)
~ Harold Jeffreys (English mathematician,
statistician, geophysicist and astronomer)
~ A huge tidal wave, raised on the sun by a
passing star, was drawn into a long filament and
became detached from the principal mass.
~ As the stream of gaseous material condensed, it
separated into masses of various sizes, which, by
further condensation, took the form of the planets.
Protoplanet Theory:
~ Sir William Hunter McCrea
~ English astronomer and mathematician
~ A collapse of a fast rotating interstellar gas cloud
producing aggregates.
~ Then a star was formed from the aggregates,
smaller aggregates formed into planetary disks
and planets
can be lost or added. (e.g., an automobile
cooling system)
– Open systems allow both energy and
matter to flow in and out of the system,
 parts can either be lost from or added to ~ thinnest of all layers
the system (e.g., a river system) ~ sub divided into large parts called plates -
~ All systems requires energy to drive them. floating over the asthenosphere
~ Mohorovicic Discontinuity – boundary between
The Earth as a System the Earths’ crust and the mantle
OPEN SYSTEM
~ The Earth is an Open System with respect to 1.1. Continental Crust
energy. ~ 20 to 70 km thick
~ Solar radiation enters the Earth system and ~ composed mainly of light granitic rock
energy leaves it in the form of heat and reflected ~ old (up to 4 billion years old)
light
CLOSED SYSTEM 1.2. Oceanic Crust
~ Earth is essentially a Closed System with respect ~ deep ocean seafloor
to matter because very little matter enters or leaves
the Earth’s system. Crust & Mantle: Lithosphere
~ The white arrow indicates the cycling of energy ~ derived from the Greek word “Lithos” meaning
and matter Rocky/Stone
~ primarily the rocky and stony part covering the
* The Sun is the main source of energy to drive surface of the Earth
external processes such as weather, ocean ~ Joseph Barrell (1914), studied the motion of the
circulation, and erosional processes on Earth lithosphere over a molten layer - aesthenosphere
~ upper portion – crust
* The Earth’s interior drives internal processes ~ lower portion – mantle
including volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountain
building on Earth 2. Mantle
~ lies between the crust and the core
-------------------------------------------------------------------- ~ two parts: Upper & Lower Mantle
Earth’s Subsystems / Spheres ~ Asthenosphere: Upper mantle
-------------------------------------------------------------------- – soft, weak layer
– rocks are close enough to their melting
~ The earth is made up of several subsystems that point that they are easily deformed
interact to form a complex and continuously – because of too much pressure and heat
changing Earth the rocks can flow like a liquid
~ They are interdependent and function as a whole ~ Mesosphere: Lower Mantle (RED)
~ Geosphere, Atmosphere, Hydrosphere and - 56% of the Earth's total volume, and is
Biosphere 660 to 2900 km below the Earth's surface
~ Repiti Discontinuity (GREEN)
-------------------------------------------------------------------- – boundary between the upper and lower
Geosphere mantle
-------------------------------------------------------------------- ~ Gutenburg Discontinuity (BLUE)
- boundary between the mantle and the
outer core

The Earth’s Layers 3. Core

~ The geosphere is the solid Earth that includes the ~ very hot, very dense center of our planet
continental and ocean crust as well the various ~ the ball-shaped core lies beneath the cool, brittle
layers of Earth’s interior. crust and the mostly-solid mantle
~ 94% of the Earth is composed of oxygen, silicon, ~ found about 2,900 km below Earths’ surface
and magnesium ~ radius of about 3,485 km
~ surface (crust) is in a constant state of motion
~ mineral resources are mined from the geosphere 3.1 Outer Core
~ about 2,200 km thick, mostly composed of liquid
1. Crust iron and nickel
~ outer most layer of the Earth ~ very hot, between 4,500°C and 5,500°C
~ exposed to atmosphere ~ very low viscosity, easily deformed and
~ coldest layer malleable
~ site of violent convection which creates and
sustains Earth’s magnetic field
~ Lehman Bullen Discontinuity
– hottest part, about 6,000°C - as hot as the
surface of the sun
– boundary between the outer and inner
core
~ form of oxygen that combines three oxygen
atoms into each molecule (O3)
~ gaseous layer in the upper atmosphere that
protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet
radiation
~ concentrated in the stratosphere, bet. 10-50 km at
lower levels, ozone becomes a major pollutant

3.2 Inner Core 3. SMOG

~ hot, dense ball of (mostly) iron
~ radius of about 1,220 km
~ temperature is about 5,200°C
~ pressure is nearly 3.6 million atm
~ pressure and density are simply too great for the
iron atoms to move into a liquid state – solid
Geosphere Interactions
* Volcanoes (geosphere) erupt, sending ash and
gases into the air (atmosphere) and sending lava
and ash down onto surrounding forests
(biosphere) and human habitations (biosphere).
Geosphere
Atmosphere Biosphere
* Earthquakes (geosphere) can damage buildings
which may kill people (biosphere), as well as cause
fires which release gases into the air (atmosphere).
* Earthquakes (geosphere) in the ocean may cause
a tsunami (hydrosphere) which can eventually hit
land and kill both animals and people (biosphere).
Biosphere
Geosphere Atmosphere
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Hydrosphere
Atmosphere
--------------------------------------------------------------------
~ body of gases that surrounds our planet
~ 79% nitrogen and just under 21% oxygen
~ small amount remaining is carbon dioxide and
other gases
~ absorbs the energy of the sun
~ recycles water and other chemicals
~ protects and support life
Composition of the Air
1. Water vapor
~ is the source of all clouds and precipitation
~ like carbon dioxide, water vapor absorbs heat
given off by Earth
~ absorbs some solar energy.
2. Ozone
~ pollution formed by the interaction of pollutants
and sunlight (photochemical smog), usually
restricting visibility, and occasionally hazardous to
health
4.) Haze
~ a slight obscuration of the lower atmosphere,
typically caused by fine suspended particles
5.) Human Influence
~ emissions from transportation vehicles account
for nearly half the primary pollutants by weight
Weather vs Climate
Weather
~ constantly changing
~ a temporary atmospheric conditions at a specific
place at a specific point in time
~ day-to day- state of the atmosphere (temperature
& precipitation) in a region
~ Meteorology(studied in)
~ includes sunshine, rain, cloud cover, winds, hail,
snow, sleet, freezing rain, flooding, blizzards, ice
storms, thunderstorms, steady rains from a cold
front or warm front, excessive heat, heat waves
and more
~ combination of temperature, humidity,
precipitation, cloudiness, visibility, and wind.
Climate
~ average weather observed at a given place and
have been collected over a long period
~ a region's climate is generated by the climate
system, which has five components: atmosphere,
hydrosphere, cryosphere, land surface, and
biosphere
~ Climatology(studied in)
~ include precipitation, temperature, humidity,
sunshine, wind velocity, phenomena such as fog,
frost, and hailstorms over a long period of time
Quantities / Properties that are measured
regularly as weather and climate are observed
 Air temperature
 Humidity
 Type and amount of cloudiness
 Type and amount of precipitation
 Air pressure
  Speed and direction the wind
Layers of the Atmosphere
1. Troposphere
~ lowest and densest layer
~ extents to about an average of 10km above sea
level
~ nearly 75% of the atmosphere is in the
troposphere
~ where most of the water vapor are present • all
weather-associated cloud types
~ temperature decreases as altitude increases,
because as atmosphere becomes thinner and
absorbs less solar radiation
2. Stratosphere
~ temperature increases as altitude increases
~ holds 85-90% of atmospheric ozone (O3)
~ temperature ranges from -51°C to -15°C
~ temperature stops increasing at the stratopause
~ where jet planes fly
~ very dry; air contains little water vapor
~ completely free of clouds and other forms of
weather
3. Mesosphere
~ extends from 50km to 85 km above ground
~ coldest region, temperature ranges from -15°C to
-120°C
~ temperature decreases as altitude increases
~ protects the earth from the meteoroids
– most meteoroids that enter the
atmosphere burn up due to the intense
friction that builds up between air and
meteoroid
– produce higher concentration of iron
and other metal ions
~ temperature stops decreasing at the
mesopause
4. Thermosphere
~ second highest layer
~ extends from about 90km to 500km above the
ground
~ temp can reach as high as 1500oC
~ temperature increases as altitude increases
~ temperature ranges from 200°C to 2,000°C or
higher
– absorbs huge amount of UV radiation
and turns it into heat
~ temperature stops increasing at the thermopause
~ the International Space Station orbits Earth in
this layer
5. Exosphere
~ outermost layer
~ extends at about 500km to about 100,000km
above sea level, no clear boundary as it gradually
dissolves to outer space
~ orbiting satellites and low-density elements can
be found
~ temperature ranges can reach up to 1,500°C in
the uppermost atmosphere as the thin air transmits
little heat
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Hydrosphere
--------------------------------------------------------------------
~ liquid component of the Earth that covers ¾ of
the its surface
~ includes the oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, air, ponds
and streams
~ atmospheric moisture is included (clouds, fogs,
and mists)
~ 97% of the earth's water is in the oceans
~ remaining 3% is fresh water (mostly in ice sheets,
but also in the air as vapor, and groundwater)
~ maintain the heat balance between the earth and
the sun
~ hydrogen and oxygen atoms (H2O)
~ only substance that exists in the atmosphere as a
solid (ice), liquid (liquid water) and gas (water
vapor)
– differ only in the arrangement of the
water molecules
– the higher the temperature, the more
vigorous the movement resulting to its
distinct property
Ice, Liquid and Water Vapor
~ When water changes state, it does not turn into a
different substance; only the distances and
interactions among solid the water molecules
change.
Currents
~ move the warm waters in the tropics toward the
poles and colder water from the polar regions
toward the tropics
~ exist on the surface of the ocean and at great
depths (up to about 4km)
Temperature and Salinity
~ warm water is less dense and tends to move up
toward the surface
~ colder water is more dense and tends to sink
toward the bottom
~ salty water is more dense and tends to sink
~ fresh or less salty water is less dense and tends to
rise toward the surface
Purpose of Oceans in the Climate System
1. It is a large reservoir of chemicals that can
contribute to the greenhouse effect and energy
absorbing 90% of the solar radiation.
2. It works with the atmosphere to redistribute the
energy received from the sun such that the heat in
the topics is transferred toward the poles, where
heat is generally lost to space.
~ includes all living organisms on Earth, together
with the dead organic matter produced by them
~ concentrated near the geosphere surface, from
the ocean floor to the upper areas of the
atmosphere where birds and insects can be found
~ global ecological system integrating all living
things and their relationships

4 Main Ocean Basins It is the crossroads of all the other earth science
1. Pacific ocean spheres
– largest and deepest ~ The land of the lithosphere interacts with the
– contains slightly more than half of the water in oceans of the hydrosphere at the coastlines. The
the world ocean coasts are teeming with life such as fish, birds,
– include few shallow seas along its margin invertebrates, and mammals.
2. Atlantic ocean ~ The land also interacts with the air of the
– bounded by almost parallel continental margins atmosphere and different climates. Mountains cool
– relatively narrow ocean compared to the Pacific the air and force clouds to drop their water,
ocean leading to rain for forests.
3. Indian ocean ~ Interaction between the forces deep in the Earth
– third largest ocean and energy coming to the Earth from space.
4. Arctic ocean Volcanic vents under the seas are surrounded by
- Most of its water surface is frozen life.
- Shallowest and smallest ~ Interacts with and exchanges matter and energy
with other spheres, helping to drive the global
The Hydrological Cycle: biogeochemical cycling of carbon, nitrogen,
(picture is in ppt) phosphorus, sulfur and other elements.
~ It is the "global ecosystem", comprising the
Hydrosphere Interactions totality of Earth and performing all manner of
Atmosphere: biological functions including photosynthesis,
~ Water is transferred between the hydrosphere respiration, decomposition, nitrogen fixation and
and biosphere by evaporation and precipitation. denitrification.
Energy is also exchanged in this process.
Biosphere: * All of these interactions create the variety in our
~ Water is necessary for the transport of nutrients living world.
and waste products in organisms.
Geosphere: Biosphere: Life’s Identity
~ Water is the primary agent for the chemical and * Millions of species of organisms have appeared
mechanical breakdown of rock (weathering), to and disappeared over time. Each having their own
form loose rock fragments and soil, and sculpts the unique characteristics
surface of the Earth.
BIOMES
Hydrosphere ~ a major terrestrial community that is found in
different areas with similar climate
~ geographical areas filled with major
communities, plants and animals
~ also known as major life zones
Biosphere ~ each biome is characterized by a particular type
of climate, vegetation and animals
~ often have different types of animals and plants,
Geosphere Atmosphere
or fauna and flora, which have adapted to the
environment
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Biosphere * The importance of biomes cannot be
-------------------------------------------------------------------- overestimated. Thus, conservation and
~ “Zone of life” preservation of biomes should be a major concern
to all.
* Because we share the world with many other
species of plants and animals, we must consider
the consequences of our actions. It is important to
preserve all types of biomes as each houses many
unique forms of life.