Practical Research 2.Q2.W1 W6.V.10 25 2021

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Practical Research 2
Learning Activity Sheets
Quarter 2: Week 1 to 6
Name: ___________________________________ Grade Level: ________________
Section: __________________________________ Date: _______________________
Week 1: Lesson 1 - Choosing Appropriate Research Design
Background Information
During your 1st quarter, you have learned the different types of quantitative
research. These types include descriptive, survey, correlational, quasi-
experimental/causal-comparative, and (true) experimental research designs (Please
refer to your 1st Quarter, Week 1, Lesson 3).
In this lesson, these types of quantitative research are referred to as research design. Part
of your Methodology, usually found in chapter 3 (in Germanic Thesis), is choosing your
research design. This part of your paper shows what research design (the type of
quantitative or qualitative research) you will be employing in pursuing your study.
To write your research design in your paper, you must observe the following:
1. State the type of quantitative research you will employ in your paper.
2. Define the type of research you decided to use in your paper because it will help you
justify your decision to choose such a research design.
3. Justify why you have used the design and explain how it will help you accomplish your
paper.
Example:
“Research Design
This study employed the correlational research design to determine the relationship
of the hypertext writing skills and the quality of academic essays of selected senior high
school students in one school in Angeles City. Basically, the variables in this study were
described as they exist in their setting and were correlated without any attempt to control
or manipulate them. Fraenkel, Wallen, and Hyun (2012) stated that correlation is also
sometimes referred to be descriptive research due to the fact that it describes the
relationship between variables. However, the difference is it describes the degree of
relatedness established between or among variables.
Hence, the method used in this study was appropriate because it first determined the
hypertext writing skills of the students and the quality of their academic essays. The
variables were statistically correlated to predict if there was a positive, negative, and or
no correlation between the variables.”
Source: Hypertext Writing Skills and Quality of Academic Essays… (Tamayo, 2019)
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Learning Competency:
Chooses appropriate quantitative research design (CS_RS12-IIa-c-1)
Activity 1: Work on your paper by writing on a separate sheet in your research design
section.
Excellent (15-20 Good Poor

Criteria
Points) (8-14 Points) (1-7 Points)
Sentences are well-
Sentences are well- Errors in sentence
phrased, and there is
phrased and vary in structure are
some variety in length
Sentence length and frequent enough to
and structure. The flow
Structure structure. They flow be a major
from sentence to
smoothly from one distraction to the
sentence is generally
to another. reader.
smooth.
Word is generally good.
The writer often goes
Word choice is Many words are
beyond the generic
Word Choice consistently precise misused, confusing
word to find one that is
and accurate. the reader.
more precise and
effective.
There are occasional There are so many
Grammar,
errors, but they don't errors that meaning
writing, The writing is free or
represent a significant is obscured, and the
spelling, almost free of errors.
distraction or obscure content becomes
mechanics
meaning. confusing.
Compelling Professionally legitimate
evidence from sources that support
sources is given to claims are generally
Use of References are
support claims. present; an attribution
References seldom cited.
Attribution is is, for the most part,
straightforward and clear and fairly
fairly represented. represented.
References are
primarily peer-
There are virtually no
reviewed Although most of the
professionally
professional journals references are
reliable sources. The
Quality of or other approved professionally
reader seriously
References sources. The reader legitimate, the reader is
doubts the value of
is confident that uncertain of some
the material and
information and sources' reliability.
stops reading.
ideas can be
trusted.
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Lesson 2: Describing Sampling Procedure and Design
You have just learned how to accomplish your research design section. Another
section that you have to complete the Sampling Design.
In writing your sampling design, you will have to determine either in an integrated manner
or independent sections the “Locale of the Study” and “Respondents or Participants of
the Study.”
In the Locale of the Study or sometimes Research Locale must include the following
elements:
• Location
• Total Population
Example:
“Research Locale
The locale of this study was at Angeles City National High School in Angeles
City, Pampanga, Philippines. The participants of this study were from the Senior High
School department which had a total population of 843. The study was conducted
in the computer laboratories of the campus.”
Source: Hypertext Writing Skills and Quality of Academic Essays… (Tamayo, 2019)
After writing the previous section, you need to write to your Respondents or Participants
of the Study. It should include the following elements:
• Sample (derived from the population)

• The formula used in determining the sampling size
• Result of the sampling computation
• Justification in using the sampling computation
• Sampling design in completing or choosing the participants of the sample
Example:
Participants of the Study
The participants of this study were the senior high school students of Angeles
City National High School who took the subject English for Academic and
Professional Purposes during the school year 2017-2018. From the population (N) of
843, the sample (n) of this study were 52 participants which were calculated using
the Calmorin’s formula with a standard value (V) of 2.58 of one (1) percent of
probability with 0.95 reliability. The sampling error (Se) was 0.05 and with the largest
possible proportion (P) of 0.50.
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According to Calmorin and Calmorin (2007), scientific sampling is a must if
the population is more than 100. The following is the formula used to compute for
the samples of this study.
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 + [( 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆)2 𝑥𝑥 (1−𝑝𝑝)]

Ss =
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 + [(𝑉𝑉)2 𝑥𝑥 𝑝𝑝(1−𝑝𝑝)]
In selecting the participants of this study simple random sampling was used.
This was to give equal opportunity among the members of the population. The
sampling design was implemented by choosing an odd number from the list of
students per section.
Now that we have learned how to write these two sections let us talk about the
sampling designs. Remember that Population (N) and Sample (n), as you have learned
from your statistics, are different from each other. Population refers to all the members of
a group or a locality, while the sample relates to the portion of a population. It is like
wanting to know if a whole pizza (Population) is delicious, would only need you to have
a slice of it (sample).
Sampling Designs
There are two types of sampling designs the Probability and Non-Probability. During your
Qualitative research, you have learned about Purposive, Convenience, Theoretical
sampling designs. These designs are referred to as non-probability sampling designs,
which are often used in qualitative.
On the other hand, Probability sampling (as presented by Nuqui, n.d.) includes the
following:
Type Description
All members of a population are given an equal
chance to be selected. Selection is made either by
(Simple) Random Sampling
drawing a lot or the use of the table of random
numbers.
It is choosing the nth name in a population as the sample.
It entails using a list of the population and deciding how
the nth name is chosen.
For example, the population of students in one school is

listed alphabetically and numbered consecutively. From
Systematic Sampling
the list, the sample to be taken is the name that falls
every nth in the list until the desired number of samples is
completed. So, with a population of 500 and 250 as the
selected sample, the individual sample may be the
name that falls in every count of two or all those that are
in the odd number or the even number.
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It is dividing the population into strata and drawing the
sample at random from each division.
For example, the population to be sampled is the senior

high school students in one school. These are stratified
by their gender and intelligence. Samples of an equal
number are drawn from each gender and intelligence.
Stratified Sampling
It is a design that uses a group as a sample rather than

an individual.
For example, the population may be the parents in one

school district. The parents may be grouped by
Cluster Sampling
barangay within the district or by those in the east, west,
north, and south of the district. From these groupings, the
sample cluster is chosen randomly or systematically. This
differs from stratified sampling that includes all the strata
in the sampling process.
Stages do it: two, three, four as the case may be
depending on the number of stages sampling is made.
Here the population is grouped by hierarchy from which
sampling is done in each stage.
Multi-stage Sampling
For example, the population to be studied consists of the
personnel in the public elementary schools in the
country. So samples have to be taken from the national,
regional, provincial, district, and school levels
Sampling Size
As a general rule, the larger the sample, the more reliable is the result of the study
(Zamboni, 2018). However, in determining the sample size, there are factors that need to
be considered. These factors include study design, method of sampling, and outcomes
measure-- effect size, standard deviation, study power, and significance level (Chander,
2017).
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1. Different types of research design (descriptive & analytical) shows the difference in
sampling size. Descriptive studies such as questionnaire and surveys require a large
sample size as compared to analytical studies. More samples are required in an
observational study as compared to the experimental study.
2. Sample size may also be calculated from the standard deviation, significance power,
and effect size. Standard deviation and effect size are determined from previous studies,
literature, or pilot studies. Suppose the researcher’s consideration of the effect of the
study plays a crucial role in the estimation of sample size. If the researcher prefers to
determine the small effect size, increasing sample size will be better appreciated.
3. Normally, there is a need to fixed the significance level (type 1 error) and study power
before the research. Usually, 0.05 or 0.01 are used in setting the significance level. For
more accuracy, it is set at a lower level to increase the sample size. Having more than
the aforementioned significance level can affect the study's impact.
Some Formula Used in Computing for Sample Size
1. Slovin’s Formula
This formula is used to figure out what sample size you need to take. This is usually
used if you do not anything about your target population. The formula is written as follows:
𝑵𝑵
n=
𝟏𝟏+ 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐
Where:
n = Number of samples
N = Total population and;
e= Error tolerance (level/margin of error)
How to determine the sample size using Slovin’s Formula?
Step 1: Figure out what confidence level to be. Let us say you want a 95% confidence
level; therefore, that will give you an alpha of 0.05.
Step 2: Plug your data into the formula. Let us say your target population (N) is 1000, and
you will use a 95% confidence level, so your alpha will be 0.05, which shall be used for e.
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Solution:
𝑵𝑵
n=
𝟏𝟏+ 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
n=
𝟏𝟏+ (𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏)(𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎)𝟐𝟐
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
n=
𝟏𝟏+ 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏(𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎)
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
n=
𝟏𝟏+ 𝟐𝟐.𝟓𝟓
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
n=
𝟑𝟑.𝟓𝟓
n = 285.71
Criticism of Slovin’s Formula
Slovin’s formula shows an estimation to work with; however, it lacks mathematical rigor
(Ryan, 2013). According to Ryan (2013), it is not possible to calculate its statistical power,
and there are no clear reference texts that exact error tolerance is. Furthermore, there
seems to be no author of this formula, and a proponent name Taro Yamane is identical
to it. Hence, using this formula is highly discouraged and considers it good to know the
formula.
2. Calmorin’s Formula
Calmorin’s formula may be used for a population of more than 100. To determine
the sample size the following formula may be used,
𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵 + [( 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺)𝟐𝟐 𝒙𝒙 (𝟏𝟏−𝒑𝒑)]

Ss =
𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵 + [(𝑽𝑽)𝟐𝟐 𝒙𝒙 𝒑𝒑(𝟏𝟏−𝒑𝒑)]
Where
Ss = Sample size
N = Total number of population
V = The standard value (2.58) of 1 percent level of probability with
0.95 reliability
Se = Sampling error
P = The largest possible proportion (0.50)
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To illustrate the above formula, these steps have to be followed:
1. Determine the total population (N) assumed to be studied.

2. Get the value of V (2.58), Se (.05), and p (0.50).
3. Compute the sample size using the above formula
Example: In a total population of 843, that has a standard value of 2.58 at 1 percent level
of probability and 99 percent reliability. The sampling error is 1 percent (0.01), and the
proportion of a target population is 50 percent (0.50).
The sample size is computed as follows:
N = 843
V = 2.58
Se = 0.05
P = 0.50
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 + [( 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆)2 𝑥𝑥 (1−𝑝𝑝)]

Ss =
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 + [(𝑉𝑉)2 𝑥𝑥 𝑝𝑝(1−𝑝𝑝)]
(843)(2.58) + [( 0.05)2 𝑥𝑥 (1−0.5)]

Ss =
(843)(0.05) + [(2.58)2 𝑥𝑥 0.50(1−0.50)]
2 174.94 + [(0.0025) 𝑥𝑥 (0.5)]

=
42.15 + [(6.66) 𝑥𝑥 0.50(0.50)]
2 174.94 +0.00125
=
42.15 + [(6.66) 𝑥𝑥 0.50(0.50)]
2 174.94 +0.00125
=
42.15 + 6.66 𝑥𝑥 0.25
2 174.94 +0.00125
=
42.15 + 1.67
2 174.94125
=
43.82
Ss = 49.63 or 50
Advantages and Disadvantages in Sampling as Discussed by Nuqui (n.d.)
Advantages Disadvantages
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It minimizes time, money, and effort. A detailed classification must be prepared
Sampling respondents/participants are with the utmost care due to the limited
minimized, but they are the representation number of the data source.
of the population. As such, data
collection, analysis, and interpretation are
lessened.
It is more effective because every The result of a study may be misleading if
individual in the population is given an incorrect sampling design or incorrectly
equal chance to be selected through following sampling is implemented.
sampling. Hence, data are scientifically
gathered, analyzed, and interpreted.
It makes research faster and cheaper. There is a need for an expert to conduct a
Having a small portion as the study in a certain area.
representative of the population,
collection, analysis, and interpretation of
data is faster and cheaper.
It makes research more accurate The characteristic to be observed may
because the small size of collected data rarely occur in a population such as a
has fewer errors in tabulation, teacher with 30 years of teaching
presentation, analysis, and interpretation experience.
than larger data.
It gives more comprehensive information It may become complicated, especially in
that allows generalization and conclusion. laborious ones.
Learning Competencies
Describes sampling procedure and sample (CS_RS12-IIa-c-2)
Activity 1. True or False: Write TRUE if the statement is correct. Otherwise, write FALSE.
________1. As a general rule, the larger the sample, the more reliable is the result of a
study.
________2. Cluster sampling is dividing the population according to their strata.
________3. Different types of research designs do not show a difference in sampling size.
________4. Multi-stage sampling is grouped by the hierarchy from which sampling is done
in each stage.
________5. Random sampling gives an equal chance among members of a population
to be included in a study.
________6. Sampling minimizes time, money, and effort in conducting research.
________7. Slovin's formula is highly discouraged in computing for sample size.
________8. Systematic Sampling is done by draw a lot or the use of the table of random
numbers.
________9. The result of a study may be misleading if an incorrect sampling design or plan
is implemented.
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________10. There is no need to fixed the significance level and study power before
conducting research.
Activity 2. Calculate the following sample size using Slovin’s Formula and Calmorin’s
Formula. Please refer to the formula above.
What sample size (n) will be needed from a population of (N) 20,000? Determine the
sample size using both formulae using the sampling error (Se/e) of 0.05.
a. Slovin’s formula: ________

b. Calmorin’s formula: ______
Activity 3. Write your Research Locale and Participants on a separate sheet of paper.

Criteria
Sentences are well-
from sentence to
to another. reader.
smooth.
Word is generally good.
The writer often goes
beyond the generic
word to find one that is
more precise and
effective.
There are occasional There are so many
Grammar,
errors, but they don't errors that meaning
writing, The writing is free or
represent a significant is obscured, and the
spelling, almost free of errors.
distraction or obscure content becomes
mechanics
meaning. confusing.
Compelling Professionally legitimate
evidence from sources that support
sources is given to claims are generally
support claims. present; an attribution
Attribution is is, for the most part,
straightforward and clear and fairly
fairly represented. represented.
References are Although most of the There are virtually no
Quality of primarily peer- references are professionally
References reviewed professionally reliable sources. The
professional journals legitimate, the reader is reader seriously
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or other approved uncertain of some doubts the value of
sources. The reader sources' reliability. the material and
is confident that stops reading.
information and
ideas can be
trusted.
Reflection: Answer the question below on a separate sheet of paper.
1. What is the significance of learning about sample size and research design in your daily
life as a student?
Writing Rubric
1 3 4 5
Criteria Does Not Meet Does Not Fully
Meets Meet Meets Exceeds
Writing is
Writing is limited
Writing does not confident and
in Writes related,
clearly clearly focused.
communicating quality
communicate It holds the
CONTENT/IDEAS knowledge. paragraphs,
knowledge. The reader’s
Length is not with little or no
reader is left attention.
adequate for details.
with questions. Relevant details
development.
enrich writing.
Writing is
Writing includes
Writing is brief confused and
Uses correct a strong,
and loosely
writing format. beginning,
underdeveloped organized.
ORGANIZATION Incorporates a middle, and end
with very weak Transitions are
coherent with clear
transitions and weak and
closure. transitions and a
closure. closure is
focused closure.
ineffective.
Uses a variety of
Language is Shows some use Effective and
VOCABULARY/ word choice to
trite, vague or of varied word engaging use of
WORD CHOICE make writing
flat. choice. word choice.
interesting.
Writer uses
Writes with a
Writer’s voice/ voice/point of
Writer’s voice/ distinct, unique
point of view view. Writes with
point of view voice/point of
VOICE shows that sense the
shows little sense view. Writing is
of audience is understanding
of audience. skillfully adapted
vague. of a specific
to the audience.
audience.
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Many run-ons or Some run-ons or Consistent
Uses simple
fragments. Little fragments. variety of
compound, and
SENTENCE FLUENCY variety in Limited variety in sentence
complex,
sentence sentence structure
sentences.
structure. structure. throughout.
Inconsistent Uses consistent
Maintains
agreement Occasional agreement
agreement
between parts errors between between parts
between parts
of speech. Many parts of speech. of speech. No
of speech. Few
errors in Some errors in errors in
CONVENTIONS errors in
mechanics. mechanics. mechanics.
mechanics.
Limited Some evidence Creative and
Applies basic
evidence of of spelling effective use of
grade level
spelling strategies. spelling
spelling.
strategies. strategies.
Prepared:
Adrian P. Tamayo
ACNHS SHS, Master Teacher I
Alona A. Manalasan
ACNHS SHS, Teacher II
Answer Keys:
Lesson 1. Activity 1: Answer may vary.
Lesson 2. Activity 1: Activity 2: Activity 3:
1. True a. 392 Answer may vary

2. False b. 52
3. False
4. True
5. True
6. True
7. True
8. False
9. True
10. False
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References
Chander, Ngopi. 2017. “Sample Size Estimation.” The Journal of Indian Prosthodontic
Society 17 (3): 217. https://doi.org/10.4103/jips.jips_169_17.
Colcol, Mayang. 2017. “Participants of the Study.” SlideShare. April 19, 2017.
https://www.slideshare.net/MayangColcol/participants-of-the-study.
Glen, Stephanie. 2012. “Slovin's Formula: What Is It and When Do I Use It?” Statistics How
To. 2012. https://www.statisticshowto.com/how-to-use-slovins-formula/.
Nuqui, Roger. n.d. “Sampling Designs.” Angeles.

http://www.carinadizonmaellt.com/statweb/pdf/SAMP.pdf
Ryan, Thomas P.2013.Sample size determination and power. John Wiley & Sons
Yamane, Taro. 1967. Statistics: An introductory analysis. No. HA29 Y2
13
NAME: _____________________________
SECTION: __________________________ DATE: _________________
WEEK 2: VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF THE INSTRUMENT
Background Information:
A questionnaire is one of the most widely used tools to collect data, especially in
social science research. The questionnaire's main objective in the study is to obtain
relevant information most reliably and validly. Thus, the survey/questionnaire's accuracy
and consistency form a significant aspect of research methodology, which is known as
validity and reliability. New researchers are often confused with selecting and
conducting proper validity types, so test their research instruments (Taherdoost 2016).
Learning Competency with code:

Construct an instrument and establishes its validity and reliability (CS_RS12-IIa-c-3)
Describes intervention (if applicable CS_RS12-IIa-c-4)
Exercise 1: Essay. Discuss briefly what is asked below.
1. How do you know if you have chosen the correct instrument?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
2. Will the contents of your instrument lead you to answer your stated problem?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
3. Who are the people who can help you devise a good instrument?
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_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
4. What do you think are the characteristics of an acceptable research instrument?

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
SUBTYPES OF VARIOUS FORMS OF VALIDITY TESTS (Taherdoost 2016)
Validity is the ability of an instrument to measure what it intends to measure.

When a study investigates the common causes of absences, the instrument's content
must focus on these variables and indicators. Similarly, when a researcher formulates a
problem about nursing students' behavior during their clinical duty, the instrument must
consist of the indicators or measures of nursing students' behavior in a clinical study
(Cristobal and Cristobal 2017).
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Types of Validity
1. Face Validity. It is a subjective judgment on the operationalization of a construct.
Face validity is the degree to which a measure appears to be related to a specific
construct, in the judgment of non-experts such as test-takers and representatives of
the legal system. A test has face validity if its content simply looks relevant to the
person taking the test. It evaluates the questionnaire's appearance in terms of
feasibility, readability, consistency of style and formatting, and the clarity of the
language used. In other words, face validity refers to researchers’ subjective
assessments of the presentation and relevance of the measuring instrument as to
whether the items in the instrument appear to be relevant, reasonable, unambiguous,
and clear (Taherdoost 2016).
2. Content Validity. This is determined by studying the questions to see whether they are
able to elicit the necessary information. An instrument with high content validity has
to meet the objective of the research. This type of validity is not measured by a
numerical index but relies instead on logical judgment as to whether the test
measures what it is supposed to measure. This judgment is based solely on a
systematic comparison of the test to the behavior it is intended to measure. In general,
any information makes one aware of whether the result from the test corresponds to
what the researcher expects.
Content validity is measured by subjecting the instrument into analysis by a group
of experts knowledgeable about the subject both in theory and practice (Three to
five experts will suffice). The experts assess the items of the questionnaires and
determine if the items measure the variable being studied. The experts’ criticisms will
be considered in the revision of the instrument (Cristobal and Cristobal 2017).
3. Construct Validity. If a relationship is causal, what particular cause and effect
behaviors or constructs are involved in the relationship? Construct validity refers to
how well you translated or transformed a concept, idea, or behavior that constructs
a functioning and operating reality, the operationalization. Construct validity has two
components: convergent and discriminant validity (Taherdoost 2016).
a. Discriminant validity is the extent to which latent variable A discriminates
from other latent variables (e.g., B, C, D). Discriminant validity means that a
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latent variable can account for more variance in the observed variables
associated with it than a) measurement error or similar external,
unmeasured influences; or b) other constructs within the conceptual
framework. If this is not the case, then the validity of the individual indicators
and the construct is questionable. In brief, Discriminant validity (or divergent
validity) tests that constructs that should have no relationship do, in fact,
not have any relationship.
b. Convergent validity, a parameter often used in sociology, psychology, and
other behavioral sciences, refers to the degree to which two measures of
constructs that theoretically should be related, are in fact related. In brief,
Convergent validity tests that construct that are expected to be related
are, in fact, related. To verify the construct validity (discriminant and
convergent validity), factor analysis can be conducted utilizing principal
component analysis (PCA) with varimax rotation method. Items loaded
above 0.40, which is the minimum recommended value in research, are
considered for further analysis. Also, items cross-loading above 0.40 should
be deleted. Therefore, the factor analysis results will satisfy the criteria of
construct validity, including the discriminant validity (loading of at least
0.40, no cross-loading of items above 0.40) and convergent validity
(eigenvalues of 1, loading of at least 0.40, items that load on posited
constructs). There are also other methods to test the convergent and
discriminant validity (Taherdoost 2016).
4. Criterion-related Validity or Equivalence Test. This type of validity is an expression of
how scores from the test are correlated with an external criterion (Cristobal and
Cristobal 2017).
a. Concurrent validity is a type of evidence that can be gathered to defend
using a test for predicting other outcomes. It refers to the extent to which
particular test results, or measurement, correspond to those of a previously
established measurement for the same construct. In brief, concurrent
validity assesses the operationalization's ability to distinguish between
groups that it should theoretically be able to differentiate between
(Taherdoost 2016).
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b. Predictive validity. The survey is predictively valid if the test accurately
predicts what it is supposed to predict. It can also refer to when scores from
the predictor measure are taken first, and then the criterion data is
collected later. In other words, one assessment tool's ability to predict future
performance either in some activity or on another assessment of the same
construct. The best way to directly establish predictive validity is to perform
a long-term validity study, for example, by administering employment tests
to job applicants and then seeing if those test scores are correlated with
the hired employees' future job performance. Predictive validity studies
take a long time to complete and require reasonably large sample sizes to
acquire meaningful aggregate data. In brief, predictive validity assesses
the operationalization's ability to predict something it should theoretically
be able to predict (Taherdoost 2016).
c. Postdictive validity - For this type of validity, the criterion is in the past. That
is, the criterion (e.g., another test) was administered in the past. It is a form
of criterion-referenced validity determined by the degree to which the
scores on a given test are related to the scores on another, already
established test or criterion administered at a previous point in time
(Taherdoost 2016).
Reliability is essentially concerned with ‘measurement error,’ i.e., how consistently

or dependably a measurement scale measures what it is supposed to measure. The
premise for conducting reliability tests is that there will always be a degree of random
error in administering measurement scales. An example of a random error is a mistake in
measurement due to the respondent or rater being distracted. Reliability assesses ‘the
extent to which a score is free of random error…[and]…is defined as the proportion of
observed variation in scores’ (Bannigan and Watson 2009).
Methods in Establishing Reliability (Cristobal and Cristobal 2017)

1. Test-retest or Stability Test. The same test is given to a group of respondents twice. The
scores in the first test are correlated with the scores in the second test. When there
is a high correlation index, there is also a high reliability of the test. Problems to
18
consider here are 1) that some students may remember some of the items
during the first test administration and 2) that the scores may differ not only
because of the unreliability of the test but also because the students
themselves may have changed in some ways.
Weaknesses Identified in Using the Test-Retest Method

a. Even if a test-retest correlation can be computed, its interpretation is not
necessarily straightforward. A low test-retest correlation may not indicate
that the test's reliability is low but may instead signify that the underlying
theoretical framework has changed. The longer the time interval between
measurements, the more likely that the concept has changed.
b. Reactivity refers to the fact that sometimes, the very process is not done
logically, and sometimes, a phenomenon can induce a change in itself.
2. Overestimation due to memory. The person’s mental recollection of his/her
responses that he/she gives during the first measurement is quite likely to
influence the answers he/she provides during the second measurement.
Memory effects may affect reliability estimates.
3. Internal Consistency. Suppose the test in question is designed to measure a single
basic concept. In that case, it is reasonable to assume that a respondent who gets
one item right is likely to answer another item that is similar correctly. In other words,
items sought must be correlated with each other, and the test should be internally
consistent.
a. Split half. It is a method of establishing internal consistency wherein a test is
given only once to the respondents. For example, the test has 100 items; it
is divided into either a first half and a second half, or a half containing all
odd-numbered items and the other half containing all even-numbered
items. The scores of the two halves are then correlated using the Spearman-
Brown prophecy formula:
2𝑟𝑟
r SB = where r – the correlation coefficient computed
1+r
for split halves
r SB – the estimated reliability on the entire test
19
b. Kuder-Richardson Test – This method measures the extent to which items in
one form of a test share commonalities with one another as do the items of
an equivalence test form. This is also called the item-total correlation. It
requires one administration of the test, a determination of whether an
individual test-taker correctly answers each item or not, and computes the
standard deviation of the distribution. When the reliability coefficient is high,
the test items are said to be homogenous. The internal consistency method
takes into account the test itself and its administration. The consistency of
test scores is determined over different parts of the test.
Kuder-Richardson Formula 20
𝑛𝑛 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆t2− Ʃ𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
Rtt = � �
𝑛𝑛−1 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆t2
Where: Rtt – reliability coefficient of the whole test

n – number of items in the test
SDt – Standard deviation of the total scores of the test
Ʃpq – tabulating the proportion of persons who answered correctly
(p)
and persons who did not answer correctly (q) each item.
OTHER CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING QUANTITATIVE MEASURE (Cristobal and Cristobal 2017)
1. Sensitivity. The instrument should be able to identify a case correctly. (i.e., screen or
diagnoses a condition correctly)
2. Specificity. The instrument should identify a non-case correctly (i.e., to screen out
those without the conditions correctly).
3. Comprehensibility. Subjects and researchers should be able to comprehend the
behavior required to secure accurate and valid measurements.
4. Precision. An instrument should discriminate between people who exhibit varying
degrees of an attribute as precisely as possible.
5. Speed. The researcher should not rush the measuring process so that he/she can
obtain reliable measurements.
6. Range. The instrument should detect the smallest expected value of the variable to
the largest to obtain meaningful measurements.
7. Linearity. A researcher normally strives to construct equally accurate and sensitive
measures over the entire range of values.
20
8. Reactivity. The instrument should, as much as possible, avoid affecting the attribute
being measured.
PLANNING THE COLLECTION OF DATA

The researcher should clarify whether the type of data to be collected is textual
or numerical. The researcher must also have a timeline in collecting the data from the
subjects or respondents for practical purposes. When data collection is adequately
planned, it will motivate and help save money, time, effort, and energy of the researcher
The following should be considered in the data collection:
1. The People. After identifying the characteristics of the subjects/respondents, secure
the proper authorities' approval and endorsement for the conduct of the study (i.e.,
allow the distribution of the survey questionnaires or conduct of the interview). This is
done by submitting a letter seeking approval, which also identifies the person. Who
will collect the data, conduct the interview, or observe the person/s being studied.
There are times that the researcher himself/herself will do all tasks related to the
research, but there also times when he/she cannot do these tasks alone, and he/she
needs somebody or a group of enumerators to assist him/her.
2. Finances. All research undertakings have financial requirements. The amount varies
depending on the type of study to be conducted. It is crucial to properly plan the
amount for the instrument's production and the research study, the travel expenses
in going to the participants, or the venue where the research is to be conducted,
honoraria, and other incremental costs.
3. The Schedule. A good projection of when to start, how much time to be consumed
in going from one participant to the other, when to retrieve questionnaires or the
data, when to do follow-ups and the like are factors to consider in formulating or
finalizing the schedule. Are you going to collect the data during the morning or
afternoon? Do you have enough free time to do the data collection?
4. Miscellaneous. The researcher must consider the following—what to wear during the
conduct of the study and data collection; what to do to ensure that the participants
are safe; what encourage participants to answer all the items in the instrument; an o
to do to build rapport and gain the trust and cooperation of the participants
(Cristobal and Cristobal 2017).
21
Exercise 2: Answer the following questions. You may use additional references.
1. How will you establish the validity of your instrument? Describe your step-by-step
process.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
References:______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________
2. What kind of validity will you use? Justify your choice.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
References:______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________
3. How will you determine the reliability if your instrument? Describe the steps involved in
the process?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
22
_________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
References:______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________
4. Is your instrument valid and reliable? Justify your answer.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
References:______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________
5. What steps do you follow in collecting the data of your study?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
References:______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________
Rubric for Essay
23
Source: Washburn University
Prepared:
MARK ANTHONY N. LISING, RN, CRN, MAN

SHS Teacher III BVRHS
References for Learners
Bannigan, Katrina, and Roger Watson. 2009. "Reliability and validity in a nutshell."
Journal of Clinical Nursing 3239.
Cristobal, Amadeo Pangilinan, and Maura Consolacion Pangilinan Cristobal. 2017.

Practical Research 2 for Senior High School. Quezon: C & E Publishing Inc.
“Rubric for Graduate Admissions Writing Sample,” n.d. Retrieved from
24
https://washburn.edu/academics/college-
schools/artssciences/departments/education/resources/resources-files/rubric-
graduateadmissions-writing-sample.pdf
Taherdoost, Hamed. 2016. "Validity and Reliability of the Research Instrument."

International Journal of Academic Research in Management 2.
25
12
Quarter 2: Week 3 & 4

Name: ___________________________________ Grade Level: ________________
Section: __________________________________ Date: _______________________
Week 3: Collecting Data Using Appropriate Instruments
One of the unique features of quantitative research is the employment of

research instruments. As compared to qualitative, the researcher directly collects
data from the informants or participants because they serve as the research
instrument. In quantitative research, one must learn various instruments to be used for
data gathering.
Types of Quantitative Data Collection
Data Collection Method Description

This method involves questionnaires or
interviews to collect data about people
and their preferences, thoughts,
behaviors, opinions, and attitudes in s
Survey Research
systematic manner. It is usually used in
social science where issues in politics,
religion, preferred restaurants, etc. are
tackled.
It is the most rigorous research design. It
has three features, independent
variables are manipulated, subjects are
randomly assigned to different
Experiment treatments or interventions, and the
treatments' results on outcomes are
observed. It is usually done in natural
science where laboratories are set to
conduct this data collection.
The use and analysis of official statistics
for social research purposes is another
alternative to collecting quantitative
Official Statistics data. Data coming from the Philippine
Statistics Office or other statistical
organizations are also used in
quantitative research.
It is also another data collection method
in quantitative research. This approach
analyzes documents and texts that seek
Content Analysis
to quantify content in terms of
predetermined categories and a
systematic and replicable manner.
Types of Research Instruments
Research Instrument Description
1
A structured interview is also called a
standardized interview. The aim of this
interview is for all interviewees to be
given the same context of questioning.
Structured Interview It means that each respondent receives
the same interview stimulus as another to
ensure that interviewees’ replies. One of
which is the interview done by those
from PSA during the census.
It is also known as the Self-Administered
Questionnaire (SAQ), which is pretty
much the same as the structured
Self-Completion Questionnaire interview. The difference is it is self-
accomplished and has no interviewer.
Example of these includes bio-data,
enrollment forms, or registrations forms.
This instrument is typically used during
survey research. Basically, they are also
classified as SAQ, but the content is more
Survey Questionnaires of knowing someone’s opinion, attitude,
or perception. These include the Likert
Types Scales, Binary Scales, Semantic
Differential Scale, and Guttman Scale.
Typically used in Education, these
instruments are used to measured
academic performance or
achievements in various learning areas.
Test Papers
These are generally used in classrooms,
but other standardized instruments such
as NAT and NCAE may also fall under this
category.
As soon you are done determining which instrument you will be using, it is important
to document it in the section of your manuscript. Part of your paper includes
“Research Instrument,” where you need to describe your research instrument to be
used and its parts. At the same time, write in your paper on how you will administer
your data gathering procedure.
Ex:
Research Instrument
The instruments that were used in the data gathering of this study
were the following:
1. Task-list. This instrument was formulated by adapting the

checklist of Armishaw (2013) to determine the students'
hypertext writing skills. They were asked to open the Microsoft
word application on the computer and perform the
2
instrument's tasks. These tasks were categorized as beginner,
intermediate, and advance.
2. Mavis Beacon Teaches Typing. It is a typing tutorial computer

application that has a feature in determining a student's
typing speed. This application is installed on the computers
and needs to be opened by the students. After this, the
students registered their names in the application section and
took the software's typing speed test to determine their typing
speed.
3. Writing Task. The students accomplished this instrument in

writing their academic essays. This writing task asked the
students to write a reaction paper on a specific topic. Their
essays' structure should observe the linear model, which has
an introduction, body, and conclusion.
4. Rubric. The ESL Composition Profile: Essay Rubric (Jacobs,

1981) was adapted and used to score the students' reaction
papers. The descriptors in the criteria were simplified from (1)
“Excellent to Very Good” to “Excellent”; (2) “Good to
Average” to Average; (3) “Fair to Poor” to “Fair”; (4) “Very
Poor” to “Poor.” However, the rubric categories are the
content, organization, vocabulary, language use, and
mechanics were retained. The content determines the
relevance of the essay to the topic being asked to write on.
The organization determines the coherence of ideas from
among the paragraphs. Also, the vocabulary also, as part of
the rubric, determines the appropriateness of words or terms
used in the essay. In contrast, language use determines the
accuracy in the English grammar rule of the students. Lastly,
the mechanics decide if proper punctuation and
capitalization in the essay have been observed. All of these
criteria should be followed by the students to produce quality
essay output.
Data Gathering Procedure
A task-list and a writing task were developed, and the

initial draft was presented to the adviser and a statistician to
evaluate its validity and reliability. The task-list was used to
determine students’ hypertext writing skills while the writing
task elicited the content of academic essays accomplished
by the students in the form of a reaction paper. In evaluating
the essays of the students, the ESL Composition Profile: Essay
Rubric (Jacobs, 1981) was used by the three expert raters to
score the reaction papers.
As soon as the proposed paper was approved for

implementation, a dry run was conducted to selected senior
high school students from the other school specifically
3
Sapang Bato National High School in Angeles City, Philippines.
This is to refine the procedure or the implementation of the
data gathering. Nevertheless, the participants of the dry run
had the same characteristics as the participants of this study
because both of them are senior high school students who
took the subject English for Academic and Professional
Purposes.
Prior to the data gathering, the researcher sent a

communication letter to the Schools Division Superintendent
of Angeles City through the School Governance and
Operations Division’s Research Committee Unit to secure for
a permit to conduct a study. As soon as the permit was
approved, the researcher sent a separate communication
letter to the school head attached with the permit to conduct
a study signed by the Schools Division Superintendent that
allowed the researcher to conduct the study and to use the
computer laboratory for the hypertext writing skills test and
academic essay writing.
After which, the participants of the study were

determined and gathered for an orientation on the purpose
and manner of implementation of the study. The participants
were divided into three batches and were asked to
accomplish the task at the same time of schedule which is
8:00 A.M. to 10:00 A.M. every other day.
Based on the agreed schedule between the

participants and the researcher, the writing task was
administered in batches for easy management of the
activities. There were 17 participants for the two batches, and
18 participants for the third batch. Each batch were given
one hour for each activity, one hour for the task-list and
another one hour for the essay writing.
During the essay writing, the students could browse the

internet for them to be able to find materials or resources such
as news articles, video clips, etc.
Finally, the scores from the participants were

organized. The task-list scores were encoded, and the essays
were scored by three raters using the rubric. The scores from
both activities were organized and subjected to statistical
treatment. The findings of the study and its implication were
prepared for presentation and dissemination.
Source: Hypertext Writing Skills and the Quality Academic

Essays… Tamayo (2019)
Learning Competencies
4
Collects data using appropriate instruments (CS_RS12-IId-g-1)
Activity 1: Accomplish your manuscript and write the Research Instruction and Data
Gathering Procedure section of your manuscript. Use a separate sheet of
paper in doing this activity.

Criteria
Sentences are well-
from sentence to
to another. reader.
smooth.
Word is generally
good. The writer often
goes beyond the
generic word to find
one that is more
precise and effective.
There are so many
There are occasional
Grammar, errors that meaning
The writing is free or errors, but they don't
writing, is obscured, and
almost free of represent a significant
spelling, the content
errors. distraction or obscure
mechanics becomes
meaning.
confusing.
Compelling Professionally
evidence from legitimate sources that
sources is given to support claims are
support claims. generally present; an
Attribution is attribution is, for the
straightforward and most part, clear and
fairly represented. fairly represented.
References are
primarily peer-
There are virtually
reviewed Although most of the
no professionally
professional journals references are
reliable sources.
Quality of or other approved professionally
The reader seriously
References sources. The reader legitimate, the reader
doubts the value of
is confident that is uncertain of some
the material and
information and sources' reliability.
stops reading.
ideas can be
trusted.
Reflection: Answer on a separate sheet the following question.
1. What is the significance of collecting data in our daily lives?
5
1 3 4 5
Criteria Does Not Meet Does Not Fully
Meets Meet Meets Exceeds
Writing is
Writing is limited
Writing does confident and
in Writes related,
not clearly clearly focused.
communicating quality
communicate It holds the
CONTENT/IDEAS knowledge. paragraphs,
knowledge. The reader’s
Length is not with little or no
reader is left attention.
adequate for details.
with questions. Relevant details
development.
enrich writing.
Writing includes
Writing is
a strong,
Writing is brief confused and
Uses correct beginning,
and loosely
writing format. middle, and
underdeveloped organized.
ORGANIZATION Incorporates a end with clear
with very weak Transitions are
coherent transitions and
transitions and weak and
closure. a
closure. closure is
focused
ineffective.
closure.
Uses a variety
Language is Shows some Effective and
VOCABULARY/ of word choice
use of varied
trite, vague or engaging use
WORD CHOICE to make writing
flat. word choice. of word choice.
interesting.
Writes with a
Writer uses
Writer’s voice/ distinct, unique
voice/point of
Writer’s voice/ point of view voice/point of
view. Writes
point of view shows that view. Writing is
VOICE with the
shows little sense sense of skillfully
understanding
of audience. audience is adapted
of a specific
vague. to the
audience.
audience.
Some run-ons or
Many run-ons or Consistent
fragments. Uses simple
fragments. Little variety of
SENTENCE Limited variety compound,
variety in sentence
FLUENCY in and complex,
sentence structure
sentence sentences.
structure. throughout.
structure.
Inconsistent Uses consistent
Occasional Maintains
agreement agreement
errors between agreement
between parts between parts
parts of between parts
of speech. Many of speech. No
speech. Some of speech. Few
errors in errors in
CONVENTIONS errors in errors in
mechanics. mechanics.
mechanics. mechanics.
Limited Creative and
Some evidence Applies basic
evidence of effective use of
of spelling grade level
spelling spelling
strategies. spelling.
strategies. strategies.
Prepared:
6
Adrian P. Tamayo
Master Teacher I
ACNHS-SHS
References
Melegrito, Ma. Lourdes F., and Diana J. Mendoza. 2016. “Chapter 2: Research
Problems and Questions.” Essay. In Applied Research: An Introduction to
Quantitative Research Methods and Report Writing, 57–61; 252-253. Quezon City,
Philippines: Phoenix Publishing House.
Tamayo, Adrian P. 2019. “Hypertext Writing and the Quality of Academic Essays of
Selected Senior High School Students.” 7-9 Thesis. Tarlac State University, Tarlac
City.
Name: ___________________________________ Grade Level: ________________

Section: __________________________________ Date: _______________________
Week 3: Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data
Background Information for Learners
Data Collection refers to the process of gathering information (Prieto, Naval

and Carey 2017).
The following are the types of Qualitative Data Collection Procedures (Prieto,
Naval and Carey 2017):
A. Observation
• It is an objective collection of data which is primarily focused on
numbers and values – it suggests “associated to, of or depicted in terms
of a quantity”. Results of quantitative observation are derived using
statistical and numerical analysis methods. It implies observation of any
entity that can be associated with a numeric value such as age, shape,
weight, volume, scale etc. (QuestionPro n.d.).
• It is usually used in situations where the respondents cannot answer the
researcher’s questions to obtain information for a research study.
B. Survey
The following are the four (4) main types of survey (Prieto, Naval and
Carey 2017):
• Sample Survey
7
o It is a survey which is carried out using a sampling method,
i.e. in which a portion only, and not the whole population
is surveyed (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development 2005).
• Administrative Survey
o It is a survey on the organization’s day-to-day operations.
This kind of data is now supported with various ICT tools
and software making it easy to organizations especially
government, schools, industry, NGO to update their
records efficiently and effectively and put up their own
Management Information System (MIS).
• Census
o It includes the total process of collecting, compiling,
analyzing, evaluating, publishing and disseminating
statistical data regarding the population and housing and
their geographical location. Population characteristics
include demographic, social and economic data and are
provided as of a particular date (reference period)
(Planning and Statistics Authority 2010).
• Tracer Studies
o It is a survey (in written or oral form) of graduates from
education institutions, which takes place sometime after
graduation or the end of the training. The subjects of a
tracer study can be manifold, but common topics include
questions on study progress, the transition to work, work
entrance, job career, use of learned competencies,
current occupation and bonds to the education institution
(school, center, university) (Schomburg 2016).
C. Quantitative Interview
• It like qualitative interviews in that they involve some
researcher/respondent interaction. But the process of conducting and
analyzing findings from quantitative interviews also differs in several
ways from that of qualitative interviews. Each approach also comes with
its own unique set of strengths and weaknesses (Schmitz 2012).
D. Questionnaire
• It may be standardized, or researcher made (Prieto, Naval and Carey
2017).
• Standardized questionnaire has gone through the process of
psychometric validation, has been piloted, and revised (Prieto, Naval
and Carey 2017).
• Researcher made questionnaire is developed by the researcher
specifically for a study and should go through validity and reliability
checks (Prieto, Naval and Carey 2017).
8
The following are some online tools you can use for data collection in research
(teamscope n.d.):
• Teamscope (Android & iOS)

• Open Data Kit (Android)
• KoboToolbox (Android)
• EDcap (Android & iOS)
• Magpi (Android & iOS)
• Jotforms mobile (Android & iOS)
• Survey CTO (Android)
• CommCare (Android)
The following are the purpose of Data Analysis Plan (Prieto, Naval and Carey
2017):
• Describe data sets;

• Determine the degree of relationship of variables;
• Determine differences between variables;
• Predict outcomes; and
• Compare variables.
The following are the different data analysis strategies that can be used in
quantitative research (Prieto, Naval and Carey 2017):
• Exploratory Data Analysis

o It refers to the critical process of performing initial investigations
on data so as to discover patterns, to spot anomalies, to test
hypothesis and to check assumptions with the help of summary
statistics and graphical representations (Patil 2018).
• Descriptive Data Analysis
o This type of data analysis is used to describe, show, or summarize
data in a meaningful way, leading to a simple interpretation of
data. Descriptive Data Analyses do not allow you to formulate
conclusion beyond the data that you have describe. The
commonly used descriptive statistics are those that analyze the
distribution of data such as frequency percentage, measures of
central tendency, and measures of dispersion.
• Inferential Data Analysis
o It is used to generalize the results obtained from a random
(probability) sample back to the population from which the
sample was drawn. This analysis is only required when a sample is
drawn by a random procedure and the response rate is very high
(Blaikie 2003).
9
The following are the levels of measurement scales (Prieto, Naval and Carey
2017):
• Nominal Scale
o In nominal measurement the numerical values just “name” the
attribute uniquely. No ordering of the cases is implied. For
example, jersey numbers in basketball are measures at the
nominal level. A player with number 30 is not more of anything
than a player with number 15 and is certainly not twice whatever
number 15 is (Trochim 2020).
• Ordinal Scale
o In ordinal measurement the attributes can be rank ordered. Here,
distances between attributes do not have any meaning. For
example, on a survey you might code Educational Attainment as
0=less than high school; 1=some high school.; 2=high school
degree; 3=some college; 4=college degree; 5=post college. In
this measure, higher numbers mean more education. But is
distance from 0 to 1 same as 3 to 4? Of course not. The interval
between values is not interpretable in an ordinal measure
(Trochim 2020).
• Interval Scale
o In interval measurement the distance between attributes does
have meaning. For example, when we measure temperature (in
Fahrenheit), the distance from 30-40 is same as distance from 70-
80. The interval between values is interpretable. Because of this,
it makes sense to compute an average of an interval variable,
where it doesn’t make sense to do so for ordinal scales. But note
that in interval measurement ratios don’t make any sense - 80
degrees is not twice as hot as 40 degrees (although the attribute
value is twice as large) (Trochim 2020).
• Ratio Scale
o Finally, in ratio measurement there is always an absolute zero that
is meaningful. This means that you can construct a meaningful
fraction (or ratio) with a ratio variable. Weight is a ratio variable.
In applied social research most “count” variables are ratio, for
example, the number of clients in past six months. Why? Because
you can have zero clients and because it is meaningful to say
that “…we had twice as many clients in the past six months as we
did in the previous six months.” (Trochim 2020).
DESCRIPTIVE DATA ANALYSIS
1. Measures of Central Tendency
10
• It is a single value that attempts to describe a set of data by identifying
the central position within that set of data. As such, measures of central
tendency are sometimes called measures of central location. They are
also classed as summary statistics (Laerd Statistica n.d.).
1.1. Mean
• It is the sum of the observed values in the distribution divided by the
number of observations. It is frequently used for interval or ratio data
(Prieto, Naval and Carey 2017).
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒔𝒔

𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴(𝒙𝒙𝒙) =
𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐
The formula is:
𝒏𝒏
𝑿𝑿𝑿𝑿 ∑ 𝑿𝑿
𝑿𝑿𝑿 = � 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝑿𝑿𝑿 =
𝒏𝒏 𝒏𝒏
𝒊𝒊 = 𝟏𝟏
Ungrouped Data
Example 1:
Find the mean of the measurement 18, 26, 27, 29, 30
Solution:
∑ 𝑿𝑿 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

𝑿𝑿𝑿 = = = = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝒏𝒏 𝟓𝟓 𝟓𝟓
Answer: X̅ = 26
Example 2:
Find the mean of the following:
Scores in the National Achievement Test (NAT)

90 95 96 87 110
102 95 98 87 117
115 96 91 95 95
93 105 86 103 106
Solution:
∑ 𝑿𝑿 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝑿𝑿𝑿 = = = 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗
𝒏𝒏 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
11
Answer: X̅ = 98
Grouped Data
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐

𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴(𝒙𝒙𝒙) = × 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐
1.2. Weighted Mean

• The weighted average or weighted mean is necessary in some situations.
Suppose that you are given the means of two or more measurements and
you wish to find the mean of all the measures combined into one group
∑ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑤𝑤 =
𝑛𝑛
Where:
f = Frequency
x = numerical value or item in a set of data
n = number of observations in the data set
Example 1:
Find the mean of the heights of 50 senior high school students
summarized as follows:
Heights (in inches) Frequency Height x Frequency
56 6 336
57 15 855
58 12 696
59 8 472
60 5 300
61 2 122
62 2 124
� 𝑓𝑓 = 50 � 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 2905
Solution:
∑ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 2905
𝑋𝑋𝑤𝑤
𝑋 = = = 58.1 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝑛𝑛 50
Answer: X̅w = 58.1 inches
Example 2:
Solve for the mean of the data below:
Class Frequency (f) Class Midpoint (x) fx
76-80 3 78 234
71-75 5 73 365
66-70 6 68 408
61-65 8 63 504
56-60 10 58 580
12
51-55 7 53 371
46-50 7 48 336
41-45 3 43 129
36-40 1 38 38
Total 50 2965
Solution:
∑ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 2965
𝑋𝑋𝑤𝑤
𝑋 = = = 59.3 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝑛𝑛 50
Answer: X̅w = 58.1 inches
1.3. Median
• The median is the midpoint of the distribution. It represents the point in the
data where 50% of the values fall below that point and 50% fall above it.
When the distribution has an even number of observations, the median is
the average of the two middle scores. The median is the most appropriate
measure of central tendency for ordinal data (Prieto, Naval and Carey
2017).
Ungrouped Data
The median may be calculated from ungrouped data by doing the following
steps (Prieto, Naval and Carey 2017):
1. Arrange the items (scores, responses, observations) from lowest to highest.

2. Count to the middle value. For an odd number of values arranged from the
lowest to highest, the median corresponds to value. If the array contains an even
number of observations, the median is the average of the two middle values.
Example 1:
Consider these odd numbers of numerical values:
7, 8, 8, 9, 10, 12, 23
Answer: Median = 9
Example 2:
Consider these even numbers of numerical values:
12, 15, 18, 22, 30, 32
Solution:
18 + 22
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = = 20 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
2
Answer: Median = 20
Grouped Data
Formula:
𝑛𝑛� − 𝐹𝐹
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 𝐿𝐿 + 𝑖𝑖 � 2 �
𝑓𝑓
13
Where:
L = exact lower limit of the class containing the median (median
class)
i = interval size
f = Frequency
n = number of observations in the data set
F = frequency of the median class
Example 1:
The following data show the distribution of the ages of people
interviewed for a survey on a topic about climate change.
Class Interval (x) Lower Limit (L) Frequency (f) Cumulative Frequency (F)
11-20 10.5 20 20
21-30 20.5 14 34
31-40 30.5 22 56
41-50 40.5 18 78
51-60 50.5 14 88
61-70 60.5 12 100
f = 100
Solution:
Since there are 100 values in the data set, the median will represent the
(n/2) or the (100/2)th item, that is the 50th largest value.
th
Determine in which class the 50th value falls. The first two classes have a
cumulative frequency of 34 classes.
We need another 16 to reach 50. Thus, the 50th value falls in the next class
which contains 22 values. The median class then is 31-40.
Thus:
L = 30.5
i = 10
f = 22
n = 100
F = 34
100� − 34
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 30.5 + 10 � 2 �
22
50 − 34
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 30.5 + 10 � �
22
16
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 30.5 + 10 � �
22
160
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 30.5 +
22
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 30.5 + 7.27
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 37.77
This means that 50% or 50 of the 100 ages will fall below 37.77 and 50%
or 50 will fall above it.
1.4. Mode
14
• The mode is the most frequently occurring value in a set of observations.
In cases where there is more than one observation which is the highest but
with equal frequency, the distribution is bimodal (with 2 highest
observations) or multimodal with more than two highest observations. In
cases where every item is an equal number of observations there is no
mode. The mode is appropriate for nominal data.
Example 1:
The ages of fifteen (15) persons assembled in a room are as follows:
14, 15, 16, 16, 17, 17, 18, 18, 25, 25, 25, 30, 34, 36, and 38.
Solution:
An age of 25 is the mode because it has been recorded three times in
the sample, more than any other age.
Example 2:
The number of hours spent by 10 students in an internet café was as
follows:
2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5.
Solution:
Both 2 and 4 have a frequency of 3. The data therefore is bimodal.
2. Measure of Dispersion
• It shows the scatterings of the data. It tells the variation of the data from
one another and gives a clear idea about the distribution of the data. The
measure of dispersion shows the homogeneity or the heterogeneity of the
distribution of the observations (Toppr n.d.).
2.2. Range
• The range is the difference between the largest and the smallest values in
a set of data (Prieto, Naval and Carey 2017).
Consider the following scores obtained by ten (10) students participating

in a mathematics contest:
6, 10, 12, 15, 18, 18, 20, 23, 25, 28
Thus, the range is 22. The scores range from 6 to 28.
2.3. Mean Deviation

• This measure of spread is defined as the absolute difference or deviation
between the values in a set of data and the mean, divided by the total
number of values in the set of data.
Ungrouped Data
|𝒙𝒙 − 𝒙𝒙𝒙|
𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫𝑫 (𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴) = �
𝒏𝒏
15
Example 1:
Consider a set of values which consists of 20, 25, 35, 40, 45.
Solution:
∑ 𝑿𝑿 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 + 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 + 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝑿𝑿𝑿 = = = = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝒏𝒏 𝟓𝟓 𝟓𝟓
|𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 − 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑| + |𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 − 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑| + |𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 − 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑| + |𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 − 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑| + |𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 − 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑|
𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 =
𝟓𝟓
| − 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏| + | − 𝟖𝟖| + |𝟐𝟐| + |𝟕𝟕| + |𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏|
𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 =
𝟓𝟓
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 + 𝟖𝟖 + 𝟐𝟐 + 𝟕𝟕 + 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 =
𝟓𝟓
𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒
𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 =
𝟓𝟓
𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 = 𝟖𝟖. 𝟒𝟒
Answer: MD = 8.4
Example 2:
A set of observations consists of 22, 60, 75, 85, 98. Find the average
deviation.
Solution:
∑ 𝑿𝑿 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 + 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 + 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 + 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝑿𝑿𝑿 = = = = 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔
𝒏𝒏 𝟓𝟓 𝟓𝟓
|𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 − 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔| + |𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 − 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔| + |𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 − 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔| + |𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 − 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔| + |𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 − 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔|
𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 =
𝟓𝟓
| − 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒| + | − 𝟖𝟖| + |𝟕𝟕| + |𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏| + |𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐|
𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 =
𝟓𝟓
𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 + 𝟖𝟖 + 𝟕𝟕 + 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 =
𝟓𝟓
𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗
𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 =
𝟓𝟓
𝑴𝑴𝑫𝑫 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟔
Answer: MD = 19.6
2.4. Standard Deviation

• The standard deviation (SD) is a measure of the spread or variation of data
about the mean (Prieto, Naval and Carey 2017).
∑(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥𝑥)2
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = �
𝑛𝑛 − 1
Example 1:
Consider the following scores obtained by ten (10) students participating

in a mathematics contest:
6, 10, 12, 15, 18, 18, 20, 23, 25, 28
𝟔𝟔 + 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 + 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 + 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 + 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 + 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝑿𝑿𝑿 = = = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
16
X (x – x̄) (x – x̄)2
6 -11.5 132.25
10 -7.5 56.25
12 -5.5 30.25
15 -2.5 6.25
18 0.5 0.25
18 0.5 0.25
20 2.5 6.25
23 5.5 30.25
25 7.5 56.25
28 10.5 110.25
�(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥𝑥)2 = 428.5
428.5
10 − 1
428.5
9
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = √47.61
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 6.90
INFERENTIAL DATA ANALYSIS
1. T-Test
• The t test tells you how significant the differences between groups are; In other
words, it lets you know if those differences (measured in means) could have
happened by chance (Goulden 1956).
|𝑥𝑥𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑥𝑥2 |
𝑇𝑇 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 =
2 2
�𝑆𝑆1 + 𝑆𝑆2
𝑛𝑛1 𝑛𝑛2
Where:
x̄1 = mean group 1

x̄2 = mean group 2
s1 = variance group 1
s2 = variance group 2
n1 = sample size group 1
17
n2 = sample size group 2
Example 1:
Tea Water
12 11.2
12.3 15.1
14.1 16
6.2 7.2
6.9 3.1
5 1.2
16.2 5.2
3.2 4.1
4.8 3.1
5.9 11.6
15 2.1
12 6.5
11.1 9.1
Thus:
x̄1 = 9.59
x̄2 = 7.35
s1 = 19.31
s2 = 24.02
n1 = 13
n2 = 13
|9.6 − 7.3|
2 2
�19.3 + 24.0
13 13
|9.6 − 7.3|
�372.5 + 576
13 13
2.3
�948.5
13
2.3
√72.96
2.3
8.54
𝑇𝑇 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 0.27
1. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

• ANOVA is used when significance of difference of means of two or more
groups are to be determined at one time (Prieto, Naval and Carey 2017).
2. Spearman Rho
18
• This is used when data available are expressed in terms of ranks
𝟔𝟔 ∑ 𝑫𝑫𝟐𝟐
𝒑𝒑 = 𝟏𝟏 −
𝑵𝑵(𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐 − 𝟏𝟏)
1. Chi-Square Test for Independence
• This is used when data are expressed in terms of frequencies or percentages

• Case 1: Multinomial
• Case 2: Contingency Table
(𝟎𝟎 − 𝑬𝑬)𝟐𝟐
𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 = � [𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = (𝒓𝒓 − 𝟏𝟏)(𝒄𝒄 − 𝟏𝟏)]
𝑬𝑬
Where:
(𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡)(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡)

𝐸𝐸 =
𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
2. Pearson r
• This is used when data are expressed in terms of scores such as weights and
heights or scores in a test (Prieto, Naval and Carey 2017).
• Case 1: When deviations from the mean are used.
∑(𝒙𝒙 − 𝒙𝒙𝒙)(𝒚𝒚 − 𝒚𝒚𝒚)

𝒓𝒓 =
[∑(𝒙𝒙 − 𝒙𝒙𝒙)]𝟐𝟐 [∑(𝒚𝒚 − 𝒚𝒚𝒚)]𝟐𝟐
• Case 2: When raw scores on the original observations are used.
𝒏𝒏 ∑ 𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 − (∑ 𝒙𝒙)(∑ 𝒚𝒚)

𝒓𝒓 =
�[𝒏𝒏 ∑ 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 − (∑ 𝒙𝒙)𝟐𝟐 ][𝒏𝒏 ∑ 𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐 − (∑ 𝒚𝒚)𝟐𝟐 ]
Presenting Written Methodology
The following tips on how to present your written methodology (McCombes

2019):
1. Explain your methodological approach

2. Describe your methods of data collection
3. Describe your methods of analysis
4. Evaluate and justify your methodological choices
Learning Competency with Code

5. Plans data collection procedure CS_RS12-IIa-c-5
19
6. Plans data analysis using statistics and hypothesis testing (if appropriate)
CS_RS12-IIa-c-6
7. Presents written research methodology CS_RS12-IIa-c-7
Activities
Activity 1
Instructions: Read the questions below. Write your answers on a separate sheet of
paper.
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each one of the types of data
collection methods for quantitative research?
2. Why is it important to look on different ways on collecting data, other than the
traditional data collection strategies?
3. Are your variables’ levels of measurement scale affects your statistical analysis?
Why?
4. Why is it important to have a cohesive data collection and data analysis plan
for a quantitative research?
Activity 2
Instructions: Determine the level of measurement scale of the following. Write your
answers on a separate sheet of paper.
1. Gender 11. Educational Attainment
2. Economic Status 12. Size of Shoes
3. Length of Service 13. Level of Agreement
4. Honor Roll 14. Temperature
5. Religious Preference 15. Number of Children
6. Time of the Day 16. Political Affiliation
7. Level of Happiness 17. Income for a Year
8. Foot Size 18. Pain Severity
9. Eye Color 19. Grade Point Average
10. Ethnicity 20. Pet Type
Activity 3
Instructions: Compute for the mean, median, mode, mean deviation, and standard
deviation of the following ungrouped data. Write your answers, with your solutions, on
a separate sheet of paper.
1. 6, 10, 0, 7, 9
2. 10, 15, 12, 16, 15, 10, 14, 15, 12, 10
3. A student scored 80%, 72%, 50%, 64%, and 74% marks in five subjects in
examination.
4. Sachim Endulkar scores the following runs in six innings of a series. 45, 2, 78, 20,
116, 55.
5. First six numbers
Activity 4
Instructions: Compute for the t-score of the problems below. Write your answers, with
your solutions, on a separate sheet of paper.
20
Name Test Score Gender
Dan 95 2
Mimi 100 1
Sam 78 2
Gene 68 2
Lena 100 1
Richard 95 2
Dorian 98 2
Ernest 79 2
John 98 2
Linda 95 1
Martha 90 1
Geta 95 1
Delia 98 1
Damian 86 2
Sylvia 100 1
Wynona 100 1
Steve 78 2
Gregory 89 2
Julian 89 2
Steve 94 2
Reflection
Instructions: Answer the question below and write your answer on a separate sheet
of paper.
Why do you need to have a better understanding on the variables that you
are going to use when writing your data collection and data analysis plan?
Answer Key
Activity 1 (Open Ended Questions)
Activity 2
1. Gender NOMINAL 11. Educational Attainment

2. Economic Status NOMINAL ORDINAL
3. Length of Service INTERVAL 12. Size of Shoes INTERVAL
4. Honor Roll ORDINAL 13. Level of Agreement RATIO
5. Religious Preference NOMINAL 14. Temperature RATIO
6. Time of the Day RATIO 15. Number of Children RATIO
7. Level of Happiness RATIO 16. Political Affiliation NOMINAL
8. Foot Size INTERVAL 17. Income for a Year RATIO
9. Eye Color NOMINAL 18. Pain Severity ORDINAL
10. Ethnicity NOMINAL 19. Grade Point Average RATIO
20. Pet Type NOMINAL
2
Activity 3 (Computation)
Activity 4 (Computation)

Blaikie, Norman. 2003. "Inferential Analysis: From Sample to Population ." Sage Research
Methods.
Goulden, C. H. 1956. Methods of Statistical Analysis. New York: Wiley.
Laerd Statistica. n.d. Measures of Central Tendency. Accessed 9 11, 2020.

https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/measures-central-tendency-mean-
mode-median.php.
McCombes, Shona. 2019. How to write a research methodology. 2 25. Accessed 9 11,
2020. https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/methodology/.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 2005. Sample Survey

Definition. 12 20. Accessed 9 11, 2020.
https://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=2374.
Patil, Prasad. 2018. What is Exploratory Data Analysis? 3 24. Accessed 9 11, 2020.
https://towardsdatascience.com/exploratory-data-analysis-8fc1cb20fd15.
Planning and Statistics Authority. 2010. What is Census? Accessed 9 11, 2020.
https://www.psa.gov.qa/en/statistics1/StatisticsSite/Census/census2010/pages/w
hatiscensus.aspx.
Prieto, Nelia G, Victoria C Naval, and Teresita G Carey. 2017. "Planning Data Analyses
Using Statistics." In Practical Research for Senior High School 2 Quantitative, by
Nelia G Prieto, Victoria C Naval and Teresita G Carey, 119-134. Quezon City:
Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
Prieto, Nelia G., Victoria C Naval, and Teresita G Carey. 2017. "Planning Data
Collecttion Procedure." In Practical Research for Senior High School 2
Quantitativve, by Nelia G. Prieto, Victoria C Naval and Teresita G Carey, 115-118.
Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
QuestionPro. n.d. Quantitative Observation: Definition, Characteristics and Examples.

Accessed 9 11, 2020. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/quantitative-
observation/.
Schmitz, Andy. 2012. "Interviews: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches." Creative

Commons. 12 29. Accessed 9 11, 2020.
https://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/sociological-inquiry-principles-
qualitative-and-quantitative-methods/s12-interviews-qualitative-and-
qua.html#:~:text=Unlike%20qualitative%20interviews%2C%20quantitative%20inter
views,numerical%20value%20to%20participa.
1
Schomburg, H. 2016. Carrying out tracer studies, Guide to anticipating and matching
skills and jobs.
teamscope. n.d. 8 Apps for Data Collection in Research. Accessed 9 11, 2020.
https://www.teamscopeapp.com/mobile-data-collection-guide/7-mobile-data-
collection-apps-for-field-research.
Toppr. n.d. Measures of Dispersion. Accessed 9 11, 2020.

https://www.toppr.com/guides/business-mathematics-and-statistics/measures-
of-central-tendency-and-dispersion/measure-of-dispersion/.
Trochim, William M.K. 2020. Levels of Measurement. 8 5. Accessed 9 11, 2020.

https://conjointly.com/kb/levels-of-measurement/.
Prepared by
VITO DOMINIC D. SESE
Secondary School Teacher II
Angeles City Senior High School
2
12
Quarter 2: Week 5 & 6

Name: _________________________ Grade Level: ________________
Section: ________________________ Date: ______________________
Week 5: PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
The concept of analyzing research data is graphically dependent on the

research design utilized in the study and the types of questions indicated in the
Statement of the Problem and the research hypotheses.
When the data are already available, they have to be sorted out and assessed
according to the types of questions asked before being analyzed and interpreted.
Through this proces of data analysis, the researchers can make a clear description
about the responses of the research participants, noting what is typical or extraordinary
about the data, observing differences or relationships, and finding answers to the
research questions or hypothesis.
Statistics must be applied effectively to organize, evaluate, and analyze the

research data to develop meaningful information that serves to answer the research
problems. There are two types of statistical techniques, the Descriptive Statistics, and
Inferential Statistics as a review.
Descriptive Statistics are used to explore the data collected and to summarize as
describe those data. Data can often be summarized in tables and charts to
communicate data visually. Creating tables, charts, or graphs is primarily to present the
data clearly and accurately that can be easily interpreted. An adequately drawn
table, chart, or graph can answer some questions in a minimal amount of space and
suggest questions not previously thought.
On the other hand, Inferential Statistics uses the sample data's information to
increase the researchers’ knowledge about the sampled population. A set of
hypotheses is usually used and tested in inferential statistics; the null hypothesis and the
alternative hypothesis. In analyzing data, it is also essential to specify the statistical
tool/s used to treat the data gathered (e.g. frequency count, percentage, mean,
weighted mean, t-test, ANOVA, chi-square Pearson r, etc.). Moreover, the guides
(range values and descriptions) for categorizing and interpreting data, including levels
of significance/correlation needed in testing the hypotheses, and software (with the
corresponding version) must be included. However, if unfamiliar statistical tests are used
in the study, the formula is displayed and explained appropriately.
Learning Competency with code
• Presents and interprets data in tabular or graphical forms.

(CS_RS12-11d-g-2)
• Uses statistical techniques to analyze data-study differences and
relationships limited for bivariate analysis (CS_RS12-11d-g-3).
Activity 1: Matching type. Match column A with the correct answer on Column B. Write
only the letter of answer on the blank provided before the number.
_____ 1. It displays data at different points in time, so it

is another kind of graph to be used for
certain kinds of paired data.
_____ 2. It displays data that is paired by using a

horizontal axis (the x-axis), and a vertical
axis (the y-axis).
_____ 3. It breaks each value of a quantitative data set into two pieces: a stem,
typically for the highest place value, and a leaf for the other place values.
_____ 4. It shows how a whole is divided into different parts.
_____ 5. This type of graph is used with quantitative data.

Ranges of values, called classes, are listed at the
bottom, and the classes with greater frequencies
have taller bars
A. Scatterplot D. Pie Chart

B. Line Graph E. Stem and Leaf Plot
C. Histogram F. Bar Graph
Activity 2: Use the following information to fill in the table and answer the two questions
below. A survey of a random sample of 100 nurses working at a large hospital
asked how many years they had been working in the profession. Their
answers are summarized in the following (incomplete) table.
No. of Years Frequency (f) Relative Frequency Cumulative Relative

Frequency
<5 25
5 -10 30
> 10 45
Questions:
1. What proportion of nurses have five or more years of experience? ___________

2. What proportion of nurses have ten or fewer years of experience? ___________
Activity 3: Data Analysis
A. A survey asked people how often they exceed speed limits. The data are then
categorized into the following contingency table of counts showing the relationship
between age group and response.
Age Exceed Limit if Possible

Always Not Always Total
Under 30 100 100 200
Over 30 40 160 200
Total 140 260 400
1. Among people with age over 30, what's the "risk" of always exceeding the speed
limit?
A. 0.20 B. 0.40 C. 0.33 D. 0.50
2. Among people with age under 30, what are the odds that they always exceed
the speed limit?
A. 1 to 2 B. 2 to 1 C. 1 to 1 D. 3 to 1
3. What is the relative risk of always exceeding the speed limit for people under 30
compared to people over 30?
A. 2.5 B. 0.4 C. 0.5 D. 0.3
B. The following histogram shows the distribution of the difference between the actual
and “ideal” weights for 119 female students. Notice that percent is given on the
vertical axis. Ideal weights are responses to the question, “What is your ideal
weight”? The difference = actual −ideal. (Source: ideal women dataset on CD.)
4. What is the approximate shape of the distribution?

A. Nearly symmetric C. Skewed to the left
B. Skewed to the right D. Bimodal (has more than one peak)
5. The median of the distribution is approximately

A. – 10 pounds B. 10 pounds C. 30 pounds D. 50 pounds
6. Most of the women in this sample felt that their actual weight was
A. about the same as their ideal weight.
B. less than their ideal weight.
C. greater than their ideal weight.
D. no more than 2 pounds different from their ideal weight.
C. Study the bar graph below and answer the following questions.
7. What does the scale on the left beginning with 0 and ending with 7 represent?
A. Number of students selling candy
B. Number of cases of candy sold
C. Number of candy in each case
D. Number of days each month that candy was sold
8. Which two MONTHS had approximately the same amount of candy sold?
A. September & February
B. October & March
C. November & March
D. September & December
9. The amount of candy sold in December is twice the amount of candy sold in
which other month?
A. October
B. March
C. January
D. September
10. What was the total amount of candy sold during the school year shown in the
graph?
A. 27.5 Cases
B. 43 Cases
C. 35.5 Cases
D. 23 Cases
Activity 4: Data Calculation
I. Test of Difference
𝑥𝑥̿ −𝜇𝜇
A. One Sample t-test ( Use the formula 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑠𝑠 and critical value of t = 1.699 for one-
� 𝑛𝑛
√
tailed)
1. A manufacturer of running shoes knows that the average lifetime for a particular
model of shoes is 15 months. Someone in the research and development division of
the shoe company claims to have developed a longer lasting product. This new
product was worn by 30 individuals and lasted on average for 17 months. The
variability of the original shoe is estimated based on the standard deviation of the
new group which is 5.5 months. Is the designer's claim of a better shoe supported
by the trial results? Please base your decision on a two tailed testing using a level of
significance of p < .05.
Control Relaxation
Mean = 30 Mean = 26
S= 6.63 S = 6.20
n=15 n=15
�𝑥𝑥��−𝑥𝑥
1 ��
B. Independent sample t- test (Use the formula 𝑡𝑡 = 2
and the t-critical value of 2.28
𝑠𝑠2 𝑠𝑠2
� 1+ 2
𝑛𝑛1 𝑛𝑛2
with degree of freedom = 28)
1. A research team wants to investigate the usefulness of relaxation training for

reducing levels of anxiety in individuals experiencing stress. They identify 30 people at
random from a group of 100 who have "high stress" jobs. The 30 people are divided
into two groups. One group acts as the control group - they receive no training. The
second group of 15 receive the relaxation training. The subjects in each group are
then given an anxiety inventory. The summarized results appear below where higher
scores indicate greater anxiety
II. Test o fRelationship/ Correlation
Use the formula below and critical value 𝑟𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐= ±0.811 with degree of freedom of 4.
1. Below are the data for six participants giving their number of years in college (X) and
their subsequent monthly income (Y). Income here is in thousands of pesos. Test
whether there is a relationship with Alpha = .05. (Complete the table)
No. of years of Income X2 Y2 XY

college Y
X
0 15
1 15
3 20
4 25
4 30
6 35
� 𝑋𝑋 = � 𝑌𝑌 = � 𝑋𝑋 2 = � 𝑌𝑌 2 = � 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 =
References:
Adelaida, Almeida, Gaerlan Amelita, and Manly Norita. n.d. Research Fundamentals
from Concept to Output. Manila: Adriana Publishing Co. Inc.
“Guide in Writing Thesis, Dissertation, and Capstone Project”. Don Mariano Marcos
Memorial Stat University Research Manual
Raenkel, Jack, Wallen Norman, and Hyun Helen. 2012. How to Design and Evaluate
Research in Education. New York: Mc Graw Hill Education.
Ragma, Feljone. 2016. Research 1 & 2 Qualitative and Quantitative Resarch for Senior
High School. Intramuros, Manila: Mindshapers Co., Inc. p. 17
Taylor, Courtney. 2019. “7 Graphs Commonly Used in Statistics” Accessed on September

29, 2020. https://www.thoughtco.com/frequently-used-statistics-graphs-4158380
Answer Key:
Activity 1:
1. B; 2. A; 3. E; 4. D; 5. C
Activity 2:
No. of Years Frequency (f) Relative Frequency Cumulative Relative

Frequency
<5 25 0.25 0.25
5 -10 30 0.30 0.55
> 10 45 0.45 1.00
1. 0.75
2. 0.55
Activity 3:
1. A (40/200); 2. C (100:100); 3. A (100/40); 4. B; 5. B; 6. C; 7. B; 8. C; 9. A; 10. A
Activity 4:
I-A-1. t= 2.00. Reject the null hypothesis. There is a sufficient evidence to support the
claim that the shoe company developed a longer lasting product.
I-B-1. t= 1.71. Accept the null hypothesis. The outcome is not statistically significant.
II-1.
r=0.95. Reject the null hypothesis. There is a relationship between years spent in college
and income. The more years of school, the more the subsequent income.
Prepared:
CRISTIAN F. DAVID, EdD.

Master Teacher II
Angeles City Science High School
Name: _________________________ Grade Level: ________________
Section: ________________________ Date: ______________________
Week 6: DRAWS CONCLUSIONS FROM RESEARCH FINDINGS

FORMULATES RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusions
The conclusion is intentional to help the research readers understand why the
research should matter after reading the paper. It is not a summary neither a re-
statement of the research, but it is a synthesis of key points (Sacred Heart Library 2020).
Conclusions represent inferences drawn from the findings of the study. The
number of conclusions coincides with the number of findings. It should be formulated
concisely and briefly. It should not contain any number of measurements. Lastly, the
tested hypothesis is rejected or accepted under it. (Prieto, Naval and Carey 2017, 27).
Conclusion is the final result, so it is just proper that it contains a good and
summarized learning from the study. It should also leave the reader assurance that you
have answered your questions posted in the paper.
Recommendations
Recommendation play a vital portion of a research study. It is where a

researcher suggests specific measures or guidelines that is based on the findings and
conclusions. They should not be to broad to lose its relevance to the research topic.
Research Findings Leads to a Strong Conclusion
Conclusion is a wrap-up of the entire project and its completeness. It also

summarizes thoughts conveying a larger implication of the study. While
recommendations are suggestions based on the conclusions.
Learning Competency with code
Designs research used in daily life (CS_RS12-IIh-j-1).
Formulates recommendations (CS_RS12-IIh-j-2).
Exercise 1. Determine whether the statement below is a conclusion or

recommendation. Check the corresponding column of your answer.
Topic/Situations Conclusion Recommendation

1. Should be brief, clearly stated and
concise.
2. It should follow a logical
reasoning.
3. Sentences should be original and
accurately came from the
findings.
4. It should not contain apologetic
statements for unresolved
problems in the study.
5. Statements are feasible and
attainable.
6. It should be straightforward no
more presentation of findings by
including statistics.
7. It should follow logical reasoning.
8. It should be measurable so that it
will be evident when changes
have been made.
9. It should leave with an interesting
final impression.
10. It should be sensitive and positive,
avoid negativity.
Exercises 2. Create a Conclusion and a Recommendation to address the issue and

problems identified by the following areas:
The canteen owner of a big private school conducted a research study on possible
reasons on the decline in the number of students entering and buying in his
establishment.
Price of food
Conclusion:
Recommendation:
Food and Service Quality
Conclusion:
Recommendation:
Competition
Conclusion:
Recommendation:
Cleanliness and Ambiance
Conclusion:
Recommendation:
Rubric for Essay
An insightful, logical, The response to the

A logical response to
and compelling ideas presented in the
Response and the ideas presented
response to the article lacks depth
exploration of in the article. The
content of the article. and/or substance.
the content of the writer’s thoughts are
The writer’s insights The presentation is
article fairly well supported.
are clear and well- weak or non-existent.
(4-5 pts)
supported. (6-7 pts) (1-3 pts)
A well-focused and
coherent discussion A discussion that is
that articulates generally focused on
A discussion that lacks
complex ideas some organization
coherency and/or
Discussion clearly and and structure. The
lacks the presentation
effectively. writer presents some
of complex ideas. (1-2
The writer presents complex ideas. (3-4
pts)
many complex ideas. pts)
(5-6 pts)
Key points present in Several key points at
Most of the key points
the article are the heart of the article
present in the article
Key Points identified and are not identified or
are identified and
summarized summarized poorly. (1-
summarized. (3-4 pts)
adequately. (5 pts) 2 pts)
Vocabulary choices Vocabulary selected
Vocabulary and
are precise, and lacks precision, and
sentence structure
Vocabulary and sentence structure is clarity and/or
are appropriate and
Sentence Structure varied in a way that is sentence structure
conveys meaning
both effective and may detract from the
clearly. (3-4 pts)
interesting. (4 pts) meaning. (1-2 pts)
Some minor
The response reflects
mechanical errors,
effective control of all Mechanical errors are
such as spelling or
elements of serious and interfere
Mechanics grammar, are
mechanics, including significantly with the
demonstrated, but
grammar and writer’s meaning. (1pt)
they do not interfere
spelling. (3 pts)
with meaning. (2 pts)
Reflection
Put a checkmark on the blank, which corresponds to how well you learned the lesson.
Statement Always Sometimes Never

1. I can easily write conclusion and
recommendations.
2. I can identify topics that are easy to conclude and
recommend.
3. I can easily write sensible conclusions and
recommendations.
4. I know the importance of research in daily lives.
5. I can enumerate different research disciplines.
"Organizing Academic Research Papers: 9. The Conclusion." Research Guides.

Accessed September 09, 2020.
https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185935#:~:text=Definition,a
synthesis of key points.
Prieto, Nelia G., Victoria C. Naval, and Teresita G. Carey. Practical Research 2 for Senior
High School. Quezon City: LORIMAR Publishing, 2017.
“Rubric for Graduate Admissions Writing Sample,” n.d. Retrieved from

https://washburn.edu/academics/college-schools/arts-
sciences/departments/education/resources/resources-files/rubric-graduate-
admissions-writing-sample.pdf
Answer Key
1. Conclusion
2. Recommendation
3. Conclusion
4. Conclusion
5. Recommendation
6. Conclusion
7. Recommendations
8. Recommendations
9. Conclusion
10.
Prepared:
PERCIVAL Y. CAPITULO, PhD

SHS Master Teacher II
ACNTS

Practical Research 2.Q2.W1 W6.V.10 25 2021

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12

Week 1: Lesson 1 - Choosing Appropriate Research Design

Chooses appropriate quantitative research design (CS_RS12-IIa-c-1)

Excellent (15-20 Good Poor

• Sample (derived from the population)

Participants of the Study

𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 + [( 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆)2 𝑥𝑥 (1−𝑝𝑝)]

For example, the population of students in one school is

For example, the population to be sampled is the senior

It is a design that uses a group as a sample rather than

For example, the population may be the parents in one

Some Formula Used in Computing for Sample Size

How to determine the sample size using Slovin’s Formula?

Criticism of Slovin’s Formula

𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵 + [( 𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺)𝟐𝟐 𝒙𝒙 (𝟏𝟏−𝒑𝒑)]

1. Determine the total population (N) assumed to be studied.

The sample size is computed as follows:

𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 + [( 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆)2 𝑥𝑥 (1−𝑝𝑝)]

(843)(2.58) + [( 0.05)2 𝑥𝑥 (1−0.5)]

2 174.94 + [(0.0025) 𝑥𝑥 (0.5)]

Advantages and Disadvantages in Sampling as Discussed by Nuqui (n.d.)

Describes sampling procedure and sample (CS_RS12-IIa-c-2)

a. Slovin’s formula: ________

Excellent (15-20 Good Poor

Reflection: Answer the question below on a separate sheet of paper.

Lesson 1. Activity 1: Answer may vary.

Lesson 2. Activity 1: Activity 2: Activity 3:

1. True a. 392 Answer may vary

Nuqui, Roger. n.d. “Sampling Designs.” Angeles.

Yamane, Taro. 1967. Statistics: An introductory analysis. No. HA29 Y2

Learning Competency with code:

Exercise 1: Essay. Discuss briefly what is asked below.

1. How do you know if you have chosen the correct instrument?

4. What do you think are the characteristics of an acceptable research instrument?

SUBTYPES OF VARIOUS FORMS OF VALIDITY TESTS (Taherdoost 2016)

Validity is the ability of an instrument to measure what it intends to measure.

Reliability is essentially concerned with ‘measurement error,’ i.e., how consistently

Methods in Establishing Reliability (Cristobal and Cristobal 2017)

Weaknesses Identified in Using the Test-Retest Method

Where: Rtt – reliability coefficient of the whole test

PLANNING THE COLLECTION OF DATA

Rubric for Essay

MARK ANTHONY N. LISING, RN, CRN, MAN

Cristobal, Amadeo Pangilinan, and Maura Consolacion Pangilinan Cristobal. 2017.

“Rubric for Graduate Admissions Writing Sample,” n.d. Retrieved from

Taherdoost, Hamed. 2016. "Validity and Reliability of the Research Instrument."

Quarter 2: Week 3 & 4

Week 3: Collecting Data Using Appropriate Instruments

One of the unique features of quantitative research is the employment of

Types of Quantitative Data Collection

Data Collection Method Description

Types of Research Instruments

Research Instrument Description

1. Task-list. This instrument was formulated by adapting the

2. Mavis Beacon Teaches Typing. It is a typing tutorial computer

3. Writing Task. The students accomplished this instrument in

4. Rubric. The ESL Composition Profile: Essay Rubric (Jacobs,

Data Gathering Procedure

A task-list and a writing task were developed, and the

As soon as the proposed paper was approved for

Prior to the data gathering, the researcher sent a

After which, the participants of the study were

Based on the agreed schedule between the

Name: ___________________ Grade Level: