PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT

Paragraphs are the building blocks of papers. Many students define paragraphs in terms of length: a paragraph is a group
of at least five sentences, a paragraph is half a page long, etc. In reality, though, the unity and coherence of ideas
among sentences is what constitutes a paragraph. A paragraph is defined as “a group of sentences or a single
sentence that forms a unit” (Lunsford and Connors 116). Length and appearance do not determine whether a section in a
paper is a paragraph. For instance, in some styles of writing, particularly journalistic styles, a paragraph can be just one
sentence long. Ultimately, a paragraph is a sentence or group of sentences that support one main idea. In this handout,
we will refer to this as the “controlling idea,” because it controls what happens in the rest of the paragraph.

Pre-Assessment

1. How do you decide what to put in your paragraph?

2. What methods can be used to make writing not only easy, but also effective in accomplishing one’s goals in
writing?

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

1. Familiarize with different methods used in writing effective paragraphs.

2. Apply these different methods in writing paragraphs.

CORE CONTENT

How do I decide what to put in a paragraph?

Before you can begin to determine what the composition of a particular paragraph will be, you must first decide on an
argument and a working thesis statement for your paper. What is the most important idea that you are trying to
convey to your reader? The information in each paragraph must be related to that idea. In other words, your paragraphs
should remind your reader that there is a recurrent relationship between your thesis and the information in each
paragraph. A working thesis functions like a seed from which your paper, and your ideas, will grow. The whole process is
an organic one—a natural progression from a seed to a full-blown paper where there are direct, familial relationships
between all of the ideas in the paper.

The decision about what to put into your paragraphs begins with the germination of a seed of ideas; this “germination
process” is better known as brainstorming. There are many techniques for brainstorming; whichever one you choose,
this stage of paragraph development cannot be skipped. Building paragraphs can be like building a skyscraper: there
must be a well-planned foundation that supports what you are building. Any cracks, inconsistencies, or other corruptions
of the foundation can cause your whole paper to crumble.

So, let’s suppose that you have done some brainstorming to develop your thesis. What else should you keep in mind as
you begin to create paragraphs?

Every paragraph in a paper should be:

Unified: All of the sentences in a single paragraph should be related to a single controlling idea (often expressed
in the topic sentence of the paragraph).

Clearly related to the thesis: The sentences should all refer to the central idea, or thesis, of the paper (Rosen
and Behrens 119).

Coherent: The sentences should be arranged in a logical manner and should follow a definite plan for
development (Rosen and Behrens 119).

Well-developed: Every idea discussed in the paragraph should be adequately explained and supported through
evidence and details that work together to explain the paragraph’s controlling idea (Rosen and Behrens 119).
How do I organize a paragraph?

There are many different ways to organize a paragraph. The organization you choose will depend on the controlling idea
of the paragraph. Below are a few possibilities for organization, with links to brief examples:

Narration: Tell a story. Go chronologically, from start to finish.

Description: Provide specific details about what something looks, smells, tastes, sounds, or feels like. Organize
spatially, in order of appearance, or by topic.

Process: Explain how something works, step by step. Perhaps follow a sequence— first, second, third.

Classification: Separate into groups or explain the various parts of a topic.

Illustration: Give examples and explain how those examples prove your point.

5-Step Process to Paragraph Development

Let’s walk through a 5-step process for building a paragraph. For each step there is an explanation and example.
Our example paragraph will be about slave spirituals, the original songs that African Americans created during slavery.
The model paragraph uses illustration (giving examples) to prove its point.

Step 1. Decide on a controlling idea and create a topic sentence

Paragraph development begins with the formulation of the controlling idea. This idea directs the paragraph’s
development. Often, the controlling idea of a paragraph will appear in the form of a topic sentence. In some cases, you
may need more than one sentence to express a paragraph’s controlling idea. Here is the controlling idea for our “model
paragraph,” expressed in a topic sentence:

Model Controlling Idea and Topic Sentence

“Slave spirituals often had hidden double meanings.”

Step 2. Explain the controlling idea

Paragraph development continues with an expression of the rationale or the explanation that the writer gives for
how the reader should interpret the information presented in the idea statement or topic sentence of the paragraph. The
writer explains his/her thinking about the main topic, idea, or focus of the paragraph. Here’s the sentence that would
follow the controlling idea about slave spirituals:

Model explanation

“On one level, spirituals referenced heaven, Jesus, and the soul; but on another level, the songs spoke about
slave resistance.”

Step 3. Give an example (or multiple examples)

Paragraph development progresses with the expression of some type of support or evidence for the idea and the
explanation that came before it. The example serves as a sign or representation of the relationship established in the idea
and explanation portions of the paragraph. Here are two examples that we could use to illustrate the double meanings in
slave spirituals:

Model Example A

“For example, according to Frederick Douglass, the song “O Canaan, Sweet Canaan” spoke of slaves’ longing for
heaven, but it also expressed their desire to escape to the North. Careful listeners heard this second meaning in
 the following lyrics: “I don’t expect to stay / Much longer here. / Run to Jesus, shun the danger. / I don’t expect
to stay.”

Model Example B

“Slaves even used songs like “Steal Away to Jesus (at midnight)” to announce to other slaves the time and place
of secret, forbidden meetings.”

Step 4. Explain the example(s)

The next movement in paragraph development is an explanation of each example and its relevance to the topic
sentence and rationale that were stated at the beginning of the paragraph. This explanation shows readers why you
chose to use this/or these particular examples as evidence to support the major claim, or focus, in your paragraph.

Continue the pattern of giving examples and explaining them until all points/examples that the writer deems
necessary have been made and explained. NONE of your examples should be left unexplained. You might be able to
explain the relationship between the example and the topic sentence in the same sentence which introduced the
example. More often, however, you will need to explain that relationship in a separate sentence. Look at these
explanations for the two examples in the slave spirituals paragraph:

Model explanation for Example A

“When slaves sang this song, they could have been speaking of their departure from this life and their arrival in
heaven; however, they also could have been describing their plans to leave the South and run, not to Jesus, but
to the North.”

Model Explanation for Example B

“The relationship between example B and the main idea of the paragraph’s controlling idea is clear enough
without adding another sentence to explain it.”

Step 5. Complete the paragraph’s idea or transition into the next paragraph

The final movement in paragraph development involves tying up the loose ends of the paragraph and reminding
the reader of the relevance of the information in this paragraph to the main or controlling idea of the paper. At this point,
you can remind your reader about the relevance of the information that you just discussed in the paragraph. You might
feel more comfortable, however, simply transitioning your reader to the next development in the next paragraph. Here’s
an example of a sentence that completes the slave spirituals paragraph:

Model Sentence for Completing a Paragraph

“What whites heard as merely spiritual songs, slaves discerned as detailed messages. The hidden meanings in
spirituals allowed slaves to sing what they could not say.”

Notice that the example and explanation steps of this 5-step process (steps 3 and 4) can be repeated as needed. The
idea is that you continue to use this pattern until you have completely developed the main idea of the paragraph.

Here is a look at the completed “model” paragraph:

Slave spirituals often had hidden double meanings. On one level, spirituals referenced heaven, Jesus, and the
soul, but on another level, the songs spoke about slave resistance. For example, according to Frederick Douglass,
the song “O Canaan, Sweet Canaan” spoke of slaves’ longing for heaven, but it also expressed their desire to
escape to the North. Careful listeners heard this second meaning in the following lyrics: “I don’t expect to stay /
Much longer here. / Run to Jesus, shun the danger. / I don’t expect to stay.” When slaves sang this song, they
could have been speaking of their departure from this life and their arrival in heaven; however, they also could
have been describing their plans to leave the South and run, not to Jesus, but to the North. Slaves even used
songs like “Steal Away to Jesus (at midnight)” to announce to other slaves the time and place of secret, forbidden
meetings. What whites heard as merely spiritual songs, slaves discerned as detailed messages. The hidden
meanings in spirituals allowed slaves to sing what they could not say.
PERSUASIVE WRITING
In persuasive writing, a writer takes a position FOR or AGAINST an issue and writes to convince the reader to BELIEVE or
DO something. It is commonly found in:

o advertisements to get the reader to buy a product;

o newspapers, magazines, essays and other texts to get the reader to accept a point of view;
o speeches, petitions, and political cartoons to convince readers to believe a certain political viewpoint; and
o blogs, web pages, and social media sites to convince the reader to subscribe to or follow the author.

Some more specific examples are editorials, essays, advertisements, speeches, petitions, political cartoons, editorial
letters, blogs, tweets, facebook posts, and advice columns.

Pre-Assessment

1. What is your experience with writing persuasive essays?

2. If you have never written one, have you ever tried to convince someone to act a certain way or do something?
3. If so, what techniques did you use? What kind of argument did you make?

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Gather evidence in narrative, historical, or numerical form to strengthen claims made in a persuasive essay.
2. Create a short persuasive paragraph that addresses a specific audience and support a clearly stated thesis with
facts, statistics, and/or other forms

CORE CONTENT

Gathering Evidence to Support Claims

What are Primary and Secondary Sources?

A note on terminology: many researchers distinguish between primary and secondary sources of evidence (in this case,
“primary” means “first” or “original,” NOT “most important”).

Primary Sources include original documents, photographs, interviews, and so forth.

Example: If you are writing a paper about the movie “The Matrix,” the movie itself, an interview with the director,
and production photos could serve as primary sources of evidence.

Secondary Sources present information that has already been processed or interpreted by someone else.

Example: A movie review from a magazine or a collection of essays about the film (The Matrix) would be
secondary source.

Where can I Find Evidence?

Print and Electronic Sources. Books, journals, websites, newspapers, magazines, and documentary films are
some of the most common sources of evidence for academic writing.
 Observation. Sometimes you can directly observe the thing you are interested in, by watching, listening to,
touching, tasting, or smelling it.

Interviews. An interview is a good way to collect information that you can’t find through any other type of
research. An interview can provide an expert’s opinion, biographical or first-hand experiences, and suggestions
for further research.

Personal Experience. Using your own experiences can be a powerful way to appeal to your readers. You
should, however, use personal experience only when it is appropriate to your topic, your writing goals, and your
audience. Personal experience should not be your only form of evidence in most papers, and some disciplines
frown on using personal experience at all.

Using Evidence in an Argument

Does evidence speak for itself? Absolutely not. After you introduce evidence into your writing, you must say why
and how this evidence supports your argument. In other words, you have to explain the significance of the evidence and
its function in your paper. What turns a fact or piece of information into evidence is the connection it has with a larger
claim or argument: evidence is always evidence for or against something, and you have to make that link clear.

Incorporating Evidence into my Paper

There are many ways to present your evidence. Often, your evidence will be included as text in the body of your
paper, as a quotation, paraphrase, or summary. Sometimes you might include graphs, charts, or tables; excerpts from an
interview; or photographs or illustrations with accompanying captions.

Referencing

Please see attached APA Poster from Purdue OWL.

To download the poster, click this link:

Writing the Persuasive Essay

Persuasive Arguments should have the following:

1. A claim
2. Evidence Supporting the claim (reasons)
3. An opposing viewpoint with counter-arguments
4. A conclusion

Making a Claim

A writer must express an opinion to turn a topic into a claim. For example, if your topic is “school start time,” then a
possible claim could be “school should start later in the day.” Remember that your claim has to be arguable, meaning it
needs to have at least two sides.

Thesis statements or claims avoid:

o the first person (I believe, In my opinion, etc.).

o unclear language (It seems, etc.).
o attempting two topics at once (even if they seem related). Pick one and stick with it.
o just stating a fact. A thesis is something you plan to make an argument about.
 Claim Opposing Viewpoints
Starting later will allow more sleep for students. Rested
FOR
School should start later in students are good students.
the day Starting later will take away time from after-school
AGAINST
activities.

After determining your claim, write a Thesis Statement.

Step 1: TOPIC

State the topic under consideration: dogs.

Step 2: ISSUE

State the specific issue in the form of a debating proposition (for something). The issue usually answers the question
“what?” What about dogs?

Dogs should be subject to leash laws.

Dogs make great pets.

Step 3: Position + Rationale (because-clause)

Your topic and issue = your position

Now, using a because-clause.

Dogs should be subject to leash laws because they are natural wanderers.

Writing the Introduction

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The introduction is the most general part of the paper. It helps provide a roadmap for further discussion or analysis. This
simplified formula offers components for a basic introduction:

Definition: Identify, define, and/or describe the topic, concept, or literary theme. What will you be talking
about?

Relevance: Show the importance of your topic, concept or theme. How does it relate to or impact society?

Thesis: Copy the thesis statement you generated in the previous step.

Writing the Body of the Essay

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The body of the essay is the most detailed part. It involves addressing each supporting detail in a separate fully
developed paragraph. Make sure to include the necessary evidence from your research. It is imperative that each
supporting detail be announced or introduced within the text. This introduction is called a topic sentence and it is found
at the beginning of a paragraph. The topic sentence is a statement you make about the supporting detail.
Counter Arguments

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There are two ways you can go with the counter-claim/rebuttal paragraph:

1. You can admit the other side has a point, but show how their logic is faulty.

Example:

Many people believe the answer to texting while driving is to use hand’s free devices. Admittedly, this is a feasible option
and may be better than traditional hands-on texting. However, the driver is still suffering from the cognitive distraction of
performing another task while driving.

2. You can shoot down the other side, and show how they are wrong.

Example:

Some may believe that texting while driving with hands free devices is the answer to a ban on texting. However, it has
been proven that it is not the actual process of texting while driving that distracts the driver. It is the cognitive
distraction, or the thinking required in order to complete the task that distracts drivers.

Here is an example of counter-claim and rebuttal paragraph:

Some may believe that texting while driving with hands free devices is the answer to a ban on texting. However,
it has been proven that it is not the actual process of texting while driving that distracts the driver. It is the
cognitive distraction, or the thinking required in order to complete the task that distracts drivers. The majority of
drivers will still be distracted no matter if they are using a hands free device or the traditional form of texting.
Therefore, the only answer to texting and driving problem is for states to create laws completely banning texting
while driving.

Writing the Conclusion

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Conclusion brings the paper to a close. It should be similar to the introduction, but worded differently. It allows you to
reiterate and summarize the main points of the essay.

The following components comprise a conclusion:

Relevance: Repeat the importance of your topic.

Review: Reiterate the points you discussed.

Summary: Summarize your conclusions.

Other Considerations...

Audience and Author’s Purpose

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When writing persuasively, always remember the interaction between the writer and the reader. The writer is trying to
persuade a reader who may be enthusiastic or resistant or simply disinterested. Persuasive writing must be well
organized, but it must also hook the reader, and then keep him or her engaged with creative and authentic word choice.
Persuasive Techniques

People aren’t always logical. Emotion can play a key role in decision- making. That’s why writers and speakers use
persuasive techniques, or methods that are intended to sway people’s feelings and actions.

Appeals by Association

Emotional Appeals

Loaded Appeals

Appeals by Association

Link an idea or a product to something or someone positive or influential

Bandwagon Appeal - Taps into people’s desire to belong

Testimonial - Uses celebrities or satisfied customers to persuade

Transfer - Connects a product, a candidate, or a cause with a positive image or idea

Emotional Appeals

Use strong feelings, rather than facts, to persuade

Appeal to Pity - Taps into people’s compassion for others

Appeal to Fear - Preys upon people’s fear for their safety

Appeal to Vanity - Uses flattery to win people over

Loaded Language

Uses words with strongly positive or negative associations

Words with Positive Associations - Call up favorable images, feelings, or experiences

Words with Negative Associations - May bring to mind unpleasant images, feelings,

or experiences; often create a sense of distrust or unease

Persuasive Essay Sample # 1

Do dogs make perfect pets?

Cats or dogs are a much-debated topic, and most pet lovers and owners differ when it comes to the question of the best
pet. Dogs might be faithful, but cats make the perfect pets. A cat snuggling to gain affection can be the best touch for
any human.

The kneading behavior of the cat is considered the best form of display of the bonding between the owner and the pet.
The soft furry touch is soothing and can make one feel wanted, loved, and cared. Cats are the best companions.

No worries about grooming a cat, one can save the visits to the grooming centers for cats take care of themselves. They
are one of the few rare species that are particular about hygiene—no lice infections or litters. Cats are well behaved and
use the litter box. Thus they are worried about free pets.

A few exciting and intriguing toys for the pet is all that is required to keep it busy and engaged. They can be alone for
hours without chewing the rug or that odd bathroom slipper. They don’t need chains and collars to keep them behaved.
One can be at peace even with the furry friend locked inside, alone.

A pet that snuggles up to you to be loved, grooms itself, uses the litter box without supervision, and can be left alone for
hours is no doubt the best pet one can have.

Persuasive Essay Sample # 2

Why Should People Avoid Too Much Television?

Television, the most powerful tool of mass media, has entertained the world for decades and is a trusted source of
information and family entertainment. However, excessive use of television in every household has earned it the
notorious nickname of ‘The Idiot box.’ It cannot be denied that like all things, too much television affects our lives
adversely.

The twenty-four hours broadcast of programs, is one of the significant causes of sleeplessness, in most adults in the age
group of 40-50 years in the U.S. The habit of switching on the television after a hard day’s work can be appealing.
However, when it takes up your essential sleep time, it causes serious lifestyle issues.

Most people who watch television for long hours are prone to health complications. 80% of people who watch T.V. for
more than 8 hours a day are obese, have high blood pressure, and suffer from heart ailments. Lack of physical activity
and exercise and sitting for long hours in from of the T.V. sets are causes of these health complications.

Television is a powerful mass media tool that affects our daily lives. Too much information and lack of adequate means of
expression often make one anxious and affect mental health. In a survey, 87% of respondents in the age group of 18-28
years agreed that repeated telecasts of any T.V. news involving violence had affected their mental and emotional health.
Television can be a source of knowledge and entertainment when used wisely. One must avoid being a ‘couch potato’
with physical, mental, and emotional disorders sitting in front of the ‘idiot box’ for long hours.