Significant ideas:

1)The laws of thermodynamics govern the flow of energy in

a system and the ability to do work

2) Systems can exist in alternative stable states or as

equilibria between which there are tipping points,

3) Destabilizing position feedback mechanisms will drive

systems toward these tipping points, whereas stabilizing
negative feedback mechanisms will resist such changes
 Big Questions
1. What strengths and weaknesses of the systems approach
and the use of models have been revealed through this topic

2. How are the issues addressed in this topic of relevance to

sustainability or sustainable development?

3. The principle of conservation of energy can be modeled by

the energy transformations along food chains and energy
production systems: what are the strengths and limitations for
such models?
 Big Questions
4. How do the delays involved in feedback loops make it difficult
to predict tipping points and add to the complexity of modeling
systems?

5. Do the benefits of the models used to predict tipping points

outweigh their limitations?

6. How does sustainability reduce the change that tipping points

will be reached?
 Statement
1.3.U1 The first law of thermodynamics is the principle of
conservation of energy, which states that energy in an
isolated system can be transformed but cannot be
created or destroyed
Guidance
The use of examples in this sub-topic is particularly
important so that the abstract concepts have a context in
which to be understood

1.3.U2 The principle of conservation of energy can be

modelled by the energy transformations along food
chains and energy production systems.

1.3.U3 The second law of thermodynamics states that the

entropy of a system increases over time. Entropy is a
measure of the amount of disorder in a system. An
increase in entropy arising from energy
transformations reduces the energy available to do
work.

1.3.U4 The second law of thermodynamics explains the

inefficiency and decrease in available energy along a
food chain and energy generation systems.
 Statement
1.3.U5 As an open system, an ecosystem will normally exist in a
stable equilibrium, either in a steady-state equilibrium or
in one developing over time (for example, succession),
and maintained by stabilizing negative feedback loops.
Guidance
1. A stable equilibrium is the condition of a system in which
there is a tendency for it to return to the previous equilibrium
following disturbance
2. A steady-state equilibrium is the condition of an open
system in which there are not changes over the longer term,
but in which there may be oscillations in the very short term

1.3.U6 Negative feedback loops (stabilizing) occur when the

output of a process inhibits or reverses the operation of
the same process in such a way as to reduce change—it
counteracts deviation.

1.3..U7 Positive feedback loops (destabilizing) will tend to amplify

changes and drive the system towards a tipping point
where a new equilibrium is adopted.

1.3.U8 The resilience of a system, ecological or social, refers to Emphasis should be placed on the relationships between
its tendency to avoid such tipping points and maintain resilience, stability, equilibria and diversity
stability
 Statement
1.3.U9 Diversity and the size of storages within systems
can contribute to their resilience and affect their
speed of response to change (time lags).
1.3.U10 Humans can affect the resilience of systems
through reducing these storages and diversity
1.3.U11 The delays involved in feedback loops make it
difficult to predict tipping points and add to the
complexity of modelling systems.
Guidance
Examples of human impacts and possible tipping
points should be explored
A tipping point is the minimum amount of change
within a system that will destabilize it, causing it to
reach a new equilibrium or stable state
A tipping point is the minimum amount of change
within a system that will destabilize it, causing it to
reach a new equilibrium or stable state
Application and skills
Statement Guidance
1.3.A1 Explain the implications of the laws of
thermodynamics to ecological systems.

1.3.A2 Discuss the resilience in a variety of systems

1.3.A3 Evaluate the possible consequences of tipping

points
1.3 U.1 : The first law of thermodynamics is the principle of conservation of energy, which states that energy in an
isolated system can be transformed but cannot be created or destroyed DEFINITION
1.3 U.1 : The first law of thermodynamics is the principle of conservation of energy, which states that energy in an
isolated system can be transformed but cannot be created or destroyed

• The simplest definition of an

ecosystem is that it is a community
or group of living organisms that live
in and interact with each other in a
specific environment.
• Ecosystems involve interrelationships
among climate, geology, soil,
vegetation and animals
1.3 U.1 : The first law of thermodynamics is the principle of conservation of energy, which states that energy in an
isolated system can be transformed but cannot be created or destroyed

• The flow of energy in ecosystems is vitally

important to the thriving of life on Earth. Nearly
all of the energy in Earth's ecosystems originates
within the sun.
• Once this solar energy reaches Earth, it is
distributed among ecosystems in an extremely
complex manner. A simple way to analyze this
distribution is through a food chain or food
web.

"Biological processes depend on energy flow

through the Earth system.“-US DOE
1.3 U.1 : The first law of thermodynamics is the principle of conservation of energy, which states that energy in an
isolated system can be transformed but cannot be created or destroyed
1.3 U.1 : The first law of thermodynamics is the principle of conservation of energy, which states that energy in an
isolated system can be transformed but cannot be created or destroyed

• Energy is transferred between

organisms in food webs
from producers to consumers.
• The energy is used by organisms to
carry out complex tasks. The vast
majority of energy that exists in
food webs originates from the sun
and is converted (transformed) into
chemical energy by the process of
photosynthesis in plants.
• Energy will take place in all system
chain.
• Thus, it will subject to laws of
thermodynamics.
1.3 U.1 : The first law of thermodynamics is the principle of conservation of energy, which states that energy in an
isolated system can be transformed but cannot be created or destroyed

The laws of thermodynamics govern the flow of

energy in a system and the ability to do work.

Thermodynamics- the study of energy transfer &

transformations within a system.
There are 2 laws of thermodynamics that will
take a look in this topics:
• 1st Law of thermodynamics
• 2nd Law of thermodynamics

Energy flows through systems, while matter

circulates around systems .
1.3 U.1 : The first law of thermodynamics is the principle of conservation of energy, which states that energy in an
isolated system can be transformed but cannot be created or destroyed

1st Law of
thermodynamics
• Energy is neither created nor
destroyed. DEFINITION
• Total energy is constant
• Energy can be transformed (change
state).
• In ecosystem, energy enters systems
in the form of sunlight, is converted
into biomas via photosynthesis,
passes along food chains as biomass,
is consumed and leaves ecosystem in
the form of heat.
1.3 U.2 : The principle of conservation of energy can be modelled by the energy transformations along food chains and
energy production systems.

Energy transformations along food chains

• Chemical energy passes along the
food chain (in the direction of the
arrow)
• As consumers eat producers or
other consumers, some chemical
energy is converted into
mechanical energy during
respiration so that it can be used to
fuel life processes.
1.3 U.2 : The principle of conservation of energy can be modelled by the energy transformations along food chains and
energy production systems.

Energy transformations along food chains

• In a food chain only around 10 per cent of the
energy is passed on to the next trophic level.
• The rest of the energy passes out of the food
chain in a number of ways:
a. it is used as heat energy
b. it is used for life processes (eg movement)
c. faeces and remains are passed
to decomposers
• Less energy is transferred at each level of the
food chain so the biomass gets smaller.
• As a result, there are usually fewer than five
trophic levels in food chains.
1.3 U.2 : The principle of conservation of energy can be modelled by the energy transformations along food chains and
energy production systems.

Energy transformations in production systems

• Coal is burnt to alter the chemical bonds and

release heat
• The heat turns water from a liquid to a gas
(steam),
• The steam spins a turbine (kinetic energy)
• Drives an electrical generator to produce
electricity (electrical energy)
1.3 U.3 : The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system increases over time. Entropy is a measure
of the amount of disorder in a system. An increase in entropy arising from energy transformations reduces the energy
available to do work.

2nd Law of thermodynamics

• Energy goes from a concentrated form (sun) into a
dispersed form (ultimately heat); the availability of
energy to do work therefore decrease and system
become increasingly disordered (entropy). DEFINITION
• Disorder in system increases over time and called as
entropy.
• Entropy is a measure of the amount disorder is a
system.
• An increase in entropy arising from energy
transformations reduces energy available to to do
work.
• Energy never 100% efficient.
• When energy is used to do work, some energy
always dissipated (lost into environment) as waste
heat.
1.3 U.3 : The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system increases over time. Entropy is a measure
of the amount of disorder in a system. An increase in entropy arising from energy transformations reduces the energy
available to do work.

Low entropy Which of the figure has order

and disorder?
High entropy
Figure A LOW ENTROPHY Figure B HIGH ENTROPHY
1.3 U.3 : The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system increases over time. Entropy is a measure
of the amount of disorder in a system. An increase in entropy arising from energy transformations reduces the energy
available to do work.
1.3 U.3 : The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a system increases over time. Entropy is a measure
of the amount of disorder in a system. An increase in entropy arising from energy transformations reduces the energy
available to do work.

• Available energy decreases with time

as order takes energy.
• Energy transfer is not 100%
effective.
• There is less and less available
energy in each successive level.
• On average, only about 10 percent of
energy stored as biomass in a
trophic level is passed from one level
to the next.
• This is known as “the 10 percent
rule” and it limits the number of
trophic levels an ecosystem can
support.
1.3 U.4 : The second law of thermodynamics explains the inefficiency and decrease in available energy along a food chain
and energy generation systems.

• Additional loss of energy occurs during

respiration and movement.
• Hence, more and more energy is lost as
one moves up through trophic levels.
• This fact lends more credence to the
advantages of a vegetarian diet.
• For example, 1350 kilograms of corn
and soybeans is capable of supporting
one person if converted to beef.
• However, 1350 kilograms of soybeans
and corn utilized directly without
converting to beef will support 22
people!
1.3 U.4 : The second law of thermodynamics explains the inefficiency and decrease in available energy along a food chain
and energy generation systems.
1.3 U.4 : The second law of thermodynamics explains the inefficiency and decrease in available energy along a food chain
and energy generation systems.
1.3 U.4 : The second law of thermodynamics explains the inefficiency and decrease in available energy along a food chain
and energy generation systems.

Test Yourself!

1. Calculate the total energy that came

into the level of the food chain.

2. Identify how much energy is

transferred to the next level (Part A).

3. Calculate the efficiency of this transfer

using the equation(Part A)
1.3 A1 : Explain the implications of the laws of thermodynamics to ecological systems.

Implications of the First Law

1. In an open system such as an ecosystem, once energy has entered it will never
increase. Energy has to keep entering to keep the ecosystem functioning.

2. In a food chain, energy transforms from light to chemical to heat energy. This
increases entropy (second law) so there is less available to do work, therefore at
higher trophic levels there are fewer animals.
1.3 A1 : Explain the implications of the laws of thermodynamics to ecological systems.

Implications of the First Law

3. Animals at higher trophic levels must eat a large number of smaller animals, so
if there are non-biodegradeable toxins in the chain they will become
progressively more concentrated the higher up the food chain you go.
(Bioaccumulations)

4. We can never create energy for our use. We have to take what is available and
transform it into a form that is most useful to us.

5. No new energy is being created in the universe.

1.3 A1 : Explain the implications of the laws of thermodynamics to ecological systems.

Implications of the Second Law

1. Entropy will always increase, so in order to keep a body together

organisms must continually put in energy, such as food
and sunlight.

2. Increase in entropy is reduced by an input of food as a source of

energy. All living organisms respire, even at rest and energy stops
them disintegrating into a puddle of inorganic chemicals.
1.3 U.5 : As an open system, an ecosystem will normally exist in a stable equilibrium, either in a steady-state equilibrium
or in one developing over time (for example, succession), and maintained by stabilizing negative feedback loops.

• As we know, most systems are open

systems.
• All ecosystem are open systems
exchanging, matter and energy with
their environment.
• For example : Herbivors live in forest
may graze adjacent ecosystem but they
return they enrich soil with feces.
• Open system tends to have state of
balance among the components-we
called equilibrium (tendency of system
to return at its original state after
disturbances) DEFINITION
• Its means that is no sudden changes and
the fluctuations tend to be closely
defined limits.
1.3 U.5 : As an open system, an ecosystem will normally exist in a stable equilibrium, either in a steady-state equilibrium
or in one developing over time (for example, succession), and maintained by stabilizing negative feedback loops.

• There are 4 types of equilibrium :

1. Steady-state equilibrium
2. Static-Equilibrium
3. Stable
4. Unstable

Steady-state equilibrium
1. Continuous inputs and outputs of energy and matter but
the system as a whole remains constant by negative
feedback.
2. Negative feedback stabilizes steady-state equilibria.
3. It tends to damp down, neutralize or counteract reaction
any deviation and stabilizes systems or results in steady
state.
4. Remains more-or-less constant rate.
5. Eg a climax ecosystem.
1.3 U.5 : As an open system, an ecosystem will normally exist in a stable equilibrium, either in a steady-state equilibrium
or in one developing over time (for example, succession), and maintained by stabilizing negative feedback loops.

• In ecology, a climax community is

the highest stage of ecological
development in an area, which refers to
a relatively stable community that is
environmentally balanced.
• Stability is achieved through
succession: a process of ecological
change in which a series of natural
communities are established and then
replaced over long periods of time.
1.3 U.5 : As an open system, an ecosystem will normally exist in a stable equilibrium, either in a steady-state equilibrium
or in one developing over time (for example, succession), and maintained by stabilizing negative feedback loops.

Static equilibrium
• Doesn‘t’apply to natural systems as there are
no inputs or outputs so no change occurs.
• Always in balance
• For example : a pile of rocks,buildings
1.3 U.5 : As an open system, an ecosystem will normally exist in a stable equilibrium, either in a steady-state equilibrium
or in one developing over time (for example, succession), and maintained by stabilizing negative feedback loops.

If a system , Disturbances
1. Stable Equilibrium : Returns to
original equilibrium after
disturbance
-Rubber
2. Unstable equilibrium : Achieves
new equilibrium after disturbance Disturbances
▪ Positive feedback may lead a
system moving away
-Car Crash
1.3 U.5 : As an open system, an ecosystem will normally exist in a stable equilibrium, either in a steady-state equilibrium
or in one developing over time (for example, succession), and maintained by stabilizing negative feedback loops.

Steady-state and unstable

• Continuous inputs and outputs of energy and matter but the system as a whole
remains constant. However after the disturbance, the system not return to
stable-state;
• form new equilibrium
• caused by positive feedback mechanism
• Ex. Over eating sugary food that lead to diabetes mellitus
1.3 U.6 :Negative feedback loops (stabilizing) occur when the output of a process inhibits or reverses the operation of the
same process in such a way as to reduce change—it counteracts deviation.

• Ecosystems are said to be

“Self-regulating”
• Each contain feedback loop
mechanisms which function
to maintain the system in its
equilibrium state
more-or-less.
• Homeostatic systems in
animals require feedback
mechanisms to return them
to their original steady
state.This also true of all
other systems
1.3 U.6 :Negative feedback loops (stabilizing) occur when the output of a process inhibits or reverses the operation of the
same process in such a way as to reduce change—it counteracts deviation.

• These feedback loops form

the basic dynamics for
regulating the state of the
ecosystem.
• In order for a system to
maintain a steady state or
average condition the system
must possess the capacity
for self-regulation
1. Positive feedback loop
2. Negative feedback loop
1.3 U.6 :Negative feedback loops (stabilizing) occur when the output of a process inhibits or reverses the operation of the
same process in such a way as to reduce change—it counteracts deviation.

Negative Feedback
• Counteracts any change away from equilibrium,
contributing to stability(away from tipping point)
• Its method of control that regulates its self
• For example:
1. Predator-prey relationships
2. Human body temperatures
1.3 U.7 : Positive feedback loops (destabilizing) will tend to amplify changes and drive the system towards a tipping point
where a new equilibrium is adopted.

Positive Feedback
• Amplifies change and drive the system outside of its equilibrium .
• Alters the state of a system away from its original towards instability.
For example :
1. Climate change
2. Human population

Increase temperature,leading to decrease in Earth’s

albedo.
which is a measure of how much radiation from the sun is reflected by
surfaces on earth.
1.3 U.7 : Positive feedback loops (destabilizing) will tend to amplify changes and drive the system towards a tipping point
where a new equilibrium is adopted.

Growing at a slower pace, world population is expected to reach 9.7 billion in 2050 and could peak at nearly 11 billion around 2100. (2019, 17
June). United Nation.https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/world-population-prospects-2019.html
 Principals of Positive and Negative Feedback

• The self-regulation of
natural systems is
achieved by the
attainment of
equilibrium through
feedback systems.
• Feedback links
involve time lags.
Principals of Positive and Negative Feedback
Principals of Positive and Negative Feedback
1.3 U.8 : The resilience of a system, ecological or social, refers to its tendency to avoid such tipping points and maintain
stability. DEFINITION
1.3 U.8 : The resilience of a system, ecological or social, refers to its tendency to avoid such tipping points and maintain
stability.

• In that situation, we should refer to a system called resilience.

• Resilience is the ability of a system to return to its initial state after a disturbance
High resilience = return to equilibrium
Low resilience = enter a new state/equilibrium
Resilience is usually good but can be bad
• It can be happen either in ecological or social as it refer to its tendency to avoid tipping point and maintain
stability through steady-state equilibrium.
• It is also can be refer as a capacity of an ecosystem to respond to a disturbance.
• More complex, more feedback looks more resilient
• Absorb disturbance without shifting to an alternative state and losing function and services. conditions
1.3 U.8 : The resilience of a system, ecological or social, refers to its tendency to avoid such tipping points and maintain
stability.

• Complex ecosystem have complex food webs which allow animals and plants
respond disturbance of the ecosystem and maintain stability.
• Long-lived species and dormant seeds and seedlings promote steady-state
equilibrium.
1.3 U.8 : The resilience of a system, ecological or social, refers to its tendency to avoid such tipping points and maintain
stability.
1.3 U.8 : The resilience of a system, ecological or social, refers to its tendency to avoid such tipping points and maintain
stability.

Which system has slower

response to disturbance?

Which system has faster

recovery?
1.3 U.8 : The resilience of a system, ecological or social, refers to its tendency to avoid such tipping points and maintain
stability.

Which system has slower

response to
disturbance?
Which system has faster
recovery?

√ higher diversity,more stable & resistant

√ nutrient-rich soil
√ bigger size of storage
1.3 U.8 : The resilience of a system, ecological or social, refers to its tendency to avoid such tipping points and maintain
stability.

• Disturbances can include

– Fires
– Flooding
– Windstorms
– Insect population explosions
– Deforestation
– Fracking
– Pesticide
1.3 U.8 : The resilience of a system, ecological or social, refers to its tendency to avoid such tipping points and maintain
stability.

What is tipping point ?

• When these changes to the equilibrium over
threshold, the system may transform into a
very different one. DEFINITION

• Characteristics of tipping point

1. Involve positive feedback (involve
destabilizing to a new ecosystem)
2. Beyond threshold which is a fast shift
3. Threshold cannot precisely predicted
4. Long-lasting changes
5. Hard to reverse
6. Significant time lag between the pressures
driving change and the appereances of
impacts, creating great difficulties in
Neumann.,(2016).Marine governance to avoid
ecological management. tipping points: Can we adapt the adaptability
envelope?
1.3 U.8 : The resilience of a system, ecological or social, refers to its tendency to avoid such tipping points and maintain
stability.

• Most projected tipping points are linked to climate

change and represent points beyond which irreversible
change or damage occurs.
• Increases in CO2 levels that would lead to increased
global mean temperature, causing melting of the ice
sheets and permafrost.
• Reaching such a tipping would, for example, cause
long-term damage to societies, the melting
of Himalayan mountain glaciers, and a lack of
freshwater in many Asian societies.

Water covers 70% of our

planet, and it is easy to think
that it will always be plentiful.
However, freshwater—the
stuff we drink, bathe in,
irrigate our farm fields
with—is incredibly rare. Only
3% of the world’s water is
fresh water, and two-thirds of
that is tucked away in frozen
glaciers or otherwise
unavailable for our use
1.3 U.8 : The resilience of a system, ecological or social, refers to its tendency to avoid such tipping points and maintain
stability.

Which one has tipping point? Why?

TIPPING POINT
1.3 U.9 : Diversity and the size of storages within systems can contribute to their resilience and affect their speed of
response to change (time lags).

• Discuss the relative size of storages in these two system diagrams

• Describe how named storage contributes to resilience of the systems
shown
1.3 U.9 : Diversity and the size of storages within systems can contribute to their resilience and affect their speed of
response to change (time lags).

• Resilience of a system will depend on its structure

1. The more diverse/complex
The more resilient it tends to be (more interactions between species). The greater the species
biodiversity of an ecosystem, the greater the likelihood there is a species that can replace another if
it dies (to maintain equilibrium).
2. The greater the genetic diversity within a species.
A monoculture of wheat or rice can be wiped out by disease if none of the plants have genetic
resistance.
3. The climate affects resilience.
In the Arctic, regeneration/growth of plants is slow (low temps slow down photosynthesis/cell
respiration). In tropical rain forests, growth rates are fast (light, temp, water are not limiting
factors).
The faster the rate at which a species can reproduce means recovery is faster. r-strategists (fast
reproductive rate) can recolonize the system better than K-strategists (slow reproducers).
1.3 U.10 : Humans can affect the resilience of systems through reducing these storages and diversity

• Positive Feedback tends to amplify and drive a

system toward a tipping point
• Minimum amount of change within a system
that will destabilize it, causing it to reach a new
equilibrium or stable state.
1.3 U.10 : Humans can affect the resilience of systems through reducing these storages and diversity

• At a particular moment in
time, a small change within a
global climate system can
transform a relatively stable
system to a very different
state of the climate
1.3 U.10 : Humans can affect the resilience of systems through reducing these storages and diversity

“Tipping elements” is used to describe large-scale

components of the Earth System which may be
subject to tipping points.
• Arctic Sea Ice
• Ice Sheets
• El Nino
• Amazon Rain Forest
1.3 U.11 : The delays involved in feedback loops make it difficult to predict tipping points and add to the complexity of
modelling systems.

• With reference to one of

the 6 positive climate
feedback loops shown,
identify two delays in
the feedback loop

• Describe the permanent

change from equilibrium
resulting from a tipping
point being passed in
one of the feedback
loops
1.3 A.2 : Discuss the resilience in a variety of systems
1.3 A.3 : Evaluate the possible consequences of tipping points
International-mindedness:
• The use of energy in one part of the globe may lead to a
tipping point or time lag that influences the entire planet’s
ecological equilibrium.

Theory of knowledge:
• The laws of thermodynamics are examples of scientific
laws—in which ways do scientific laws differ from the laws of
human science subjects, such as economics?
 Thank
s!
Next Topic 2.3 : Flow of Energy and Matter