Canine Radiographs

© Royal Veterinary College 2009
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Canine Radiographs
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Frontal sinuses
The Head
Skull
Tympanic Bullae
Larynx
Nasal chambers Mandible

The Skull
Skull: Ventrodorsal (V-D) view
Young Skull: Lateral view
Skull: V-D view, Calvaria
Skull: Lateral view, Calvaria

Skull:
V-D view
For this ventrodorsal view the
endotracheal tube has been
removed to prevent
superimposition with anatomical
structures. Try to identify the
rami of the mandible, the
zygomatic arches, the external
auditory canals and the atlas.
Pot
Full screen Labels
Mandibular
symphysis
Mental
foramen
Mandible
Zygomatic
arch
Rostral alar Coronoid process
foramen
Foramen ovale
Angular process
Foramen lacerum
Condyloid Pot Comparison

process Tympanic bulla
Paracondylar process
Occipital condyle
Pot Comparison
Labels
Pot Full screen

Medial border of
Upper premolar 4 mandible
Vomer bone Nasal conchae
Frontal bone
Zygomatic arch Medial border of

orbit
Coronoid process of Ethmoidal conchae

mandible
Pterygoid bone
Angular process of
mandible Condyloid process
Zygomatic process of of mandible
temporal bone
Temporomandibular Air within external
joint acoustic meatus
Tympanic bulla
Jugular foramen Parcondylar process

of occipital bone
Occipital condyle
Pinna
Atlantoccipital joint Alantoaxial joint
Wing of atlas
2nd cervical vertebrae No Labels
(axis)
Young Skull: This radiograph shows a typical appearance of the

canine skull in a lateral radiograph. The dog was
Lateral view anaesthetised for radiography, hence the
endotracheal tube. Dorsal to the endotracheal tube
is a band of soft tissue separating the oropharynx
from the nasopharynx; this is the soft palate.
Pot 1
Pot 2
Full screen Labels
Pituitary gland
Hard palate Olfactory bulb Frontal sinus (hypophysis) Corpus callosum Interthalamic
adhesion
Pons
Nasal septum
(cartilage) Cerebellum
Fourth ventricle
Medulla
oblongata
Opening of
Genioglossal phargyngeal
m. tube
Ventral
straight
Geniohyoid m. muscle of the
head
Longus
Body of tongue colli m.
Soft palate Basihyoid bone Sternohyoid m. Epiglottis Oesophagus

©1 =
Royal Veterinary
Nasal bone College 2009
A=Atlas Zygomatic arch 2= Incisive bone
B=Axis Paracondylar process 3=Maxilla
Supraorbital process
4=Lacrimal bone
Orbit 5= Frontal bone
6=Parietal bone
7=Occipital bone
8= Temporal bone
5 6 9=Basisphenoid bone
7 10= Mandible
Infraorbital foramen 8
4 9
A B
1
3
2
10
Mental foramen Pterygopalantine Condyloid process Tympanic bulla

fossa External acoustic
Coronoid process Angular process meatus
Retroarticular process

Labels
Ethmoidal conchae Frontal sinus Frontal bone Coronoid Calveria
process of Sagittal
mandible crest
Nasal
bone
Hard
palate
Root of
canine
tooth
Incisive
bone
Oral
cavity
Endotracheal Hyoid apparatus Wings of atlas

Mandible Zygomatic Condyloid Tympanic bulla
tube process
arch
Cranial border of orbit Soft Palate No Labels
Skull:
V-D view,
This ventrodorsalCalvaria
radiograph of
the same dog, as in the
following lateral radiograph,
shows a distinct opaque,
slightly wiggly line on the mid-
line superimposed on the
calvaria, which represents the
thick mid-line crest that was
noted on the lateral view. This
ventrodorsal also provides a
clear view of the mandibular
condyles, the zygomatic
arches and the external ear
canals.
Full screen Labels Pot

Mandibular
symphysis
Mental
foramen
Mandible
Zygomatic arch
Rostral alar Coronoid process

foramen
Foramen ovale
Angular process
Foramen lacerum
Condyloid process Pot Comparison

Tympanic bulla
Occipital condyle
Pot Comparison
Labels
Pot Full screen

Lower premolar 4 Upper molar 1
Nasal conchae
Medial border
Mandible of orbit
Pterygoid bone
Coronoid process of Frontal bone
mandible
Zygomatic arch
Condyloid process
of mandible
Angular process Temporomandibular

of mandible joint
Tympanic bulla
Rostral & caudal
alar foramen Air within external
acoustic meatus
Suture line
Alar notch
Wing of atlas
Alantoaxial joint 2nd cervical

vertebrae (axis)
Endotracheal tube No Labels

Skull: In this dog the frontal sinuses are relatively large and the crest on the
dorsal aspect of the skull is relatively tall giving the impression that the
Lateral view, it is only the crest that is thick, the bones to either side will be relatively
calvaria (bones around the brain) are extremely thick in this dog. In reality
much thinner. Compared to humans in which the bones around the brain
calvaria are very thin and there is very minimal soft tissue coverage, the skull and
brain of the dog are well protected by large chewing muscles and is
therefore relatively infrequently injured compared to humans. This well-
positioned lateral view shows the temporomandibular joints and the
tympanic bullae which are almost perfectly superimposed. It also gives a
good view of the endotracheal tube in the oral cavity and extending down
through the larynx towards the trachea, the soft palate and the
nasopharynx.

©1 =
Royal Veterinary
Nasal bone College 2009
A=Atlas Zygomatic arch 2= Incisive bone
B=Axis Paracondylar process 3=Mandible
Supraorbital
process 4=Lacrimal bone
Orbit 5= Frontal bone
6= Frontal bone
7=Occipital bone
8=Temporal bone
5 6 9=Basisphenoid bone
7 10= Mandible
Infraorbital foramen 8
4 9
A B
1
3
2
10
Mental foramen Pterygopalantine Condyloid process Tympanic bulla

fossa
Angular process Jugular foramen
Coronoid process
Retroarticular process

Labels
Dorsal tubercle
Frontal bone Frontal sinus of atlas
Temporozygomatic
suture
Lateral vertebral
Zygomatic formen
arch
Axis
Coronoid process Atlas

Tympanic bulla
Wing of atlas
Hard palate
Tooth root Condyloid

Endotracheal tube process Hyoid External acoustic
apparatus meatus
Retroarticular
Soft palate process Angular process No Labels
The Frontal Sinuses
Frontal sinuses: R-Cd view

Frontal sinuses: This radiograph is made by placing the dog in dorsal

recumbency and angling the head so that the hard palate is
R-Cd view perpendicular. The x-ray beam is centred on the dog’s
external nares so that the diverging beam passes through
the frontal sinuses and projects them dorsal to the
remainder of the skull. This radiograph is sometimes
difficult to get straight, but is a very useful way of
examining the frontal sinuses which are frequently affected
in dogs with nasal disease or trauma. Notice that the
internal septation of the frontal sinuses is not perfectly
symmetrical; this is a typical normal variant.
Full screen Labels

Labels
Right frontal sinus Left frontal sinus

Supraorbital process (zygomatic
process of frontal bone)
No Labels
The Tympanic Bullae

Tympanic Bullae: R-Cd, open-mouth view
Tympanic Bullae: This is another radiograph made with the

dog in dorsal recumbency. This time the
R-Cd, open-mouth view mouth is held widely open and the x-ray
beam directed in such a way that it bisects
the angle formed by the maxilla and
mandible. The rounded thin-walled lucent
structures each side of mid-line are the
tympanic bullae. In this dog the thin bulla
wall gives the appearance of a soap bubble;
it has a similar appearance in cats. In many
small breeds of dog the tympanic bullae are
relatively smaller and flatter in shape. The
commonest abnormality affecting the
tympanic bullae is otitis media; this is visible
radiographically as an increased opacity in
the tympanic cavity as a result of exudate
and/or granulation tissue. Frequently the
bulla wall is thickened as a result of chronic
inflammation.
Full screen Labels

Labels
Nasal Cavity
Upper cheek
tooth
Jugular foramen
Nasopharynx Petrous part of
temporal bone
Tympanic bullae
Atlanto-occipital
joint
Atlantoaxial
joint
Mandible
2nd cervical
vertebrae (axis)
No Labels
The Larynx
Larynx: Lateral view
Larynx: Lateral view, brachycephali

c
Larynx: This radiograph of the larynx made in an

anaesthetised dog after the endotracheal tube has
Lateral view been removed shows the oropharynx, nasopharynx,
larynx and cranial part of the trachea, all outlined by
gas within the predominantly soft tissue
surroundings. The delicate hyoid bones and the
laryngeal cartilages and the tracheal rings (which
are partially calcified) are also visible. A radiograph
such as this requires a much lower exposure than a
radiograph of the cervical spine.
Pot
Full screen Labels
Stylohyoid bone
Masseter m.
Ceratohyoideus m.
Thyrohoid
bone
Thyroid
cartilage
Body of tongue
Thyrohyoideus m.
Trachea
Sternothyroideus m.
Geniohyoideus m. Styloglossus m. Hyoglossus m.
Cricothyroideus m.
Mylohyoideus m.
Sternohyoideus m.
Labels
Stylohoid bone Wing of atlas Cervical Cervical Cervical
Soft palate Tympanic bulla Atlas vertebrae 2 vertebrae 3 vertebrae 4
Epihyoid Ceratohyoid Arytenoid Cricoid Air in the Trachea Tracheal

bone bone cartilage cartilage oesophagus rings
Basihyoid Thyrohyoid
bone Thyroid cartilage
Epiglottis bone No Labels
Larynx: Radiographs of brachycephalic dogs such as the

Lateral view, Bulldog, Pug or cavalier King Charles spaniel show
why so many of these dogs are affected by
brachycephalic excessive respiratory noise or snoring or dysnoea.
In this instance, the trachea is narrow for the size of
the dog and the airway through the larynx and
nasopharynx is virtually obliterated by collapse of
the thick surrounding soft tissues. Brachycephalic
obstructive airway syndrome (BOAS) is the name
given to the problems associated with this extreme
conformation.
Pot 1
Pot 2
Full screen Labels
Nasopharynx Frontal sinus Pons Cerebellum
Hard palate
Nasal
septum;
cartilage
Body of
tongue
Mandible
Genioglossus m Geniohyoid m Soft palate Trachea

Thyroid cartilage
Hyoid apparatus
Epiglottis
1 = Nasal bone
2= Incisive bone
3=Maxilla
4=Lacrimal bone
Supraorbital
5= Frontal bone
process Zygomatic arch
6= Frontal bone
7=Occipital bone Coronoid process
8=Temporal bone
Orbit
9= Mandible External sagittal crest
5
Infraorbital foramen
6
1
2 4
3
8
7 Paracondylar
process
Tympanic bulla
Mental foramen External acoustic

meatus
Temporozygomatic
Pterygopalantine suture Retroarticular process
fossa Condyloid process Angular process
Labels
Atlas Axis
Soft Tissue Trachea Humerus

Shoulder joint
Hyoid apparatus
Spine of
the scapula No Labels
The Mandible
Mandible: IO view
Mandible:
IO view
By placing the dog in dorsal recumbency
and putting the radiographic film in the oral
cavity for a ventrodorsal projection, a view of
the rostral part of the mandible may be
obtained. Just as for the intraoral
dorsoventral, which is very useful for
examining the nasal cavity, this radiograph
provides a nice view of the mandible without
superimposition by other structures. Note
the variation in the size and shape of the
incisors which is typical and unimportant.
Similarly notice the rough appearance of the
bone on each side of the mandibular
symphesis; this is also normal.
Full screen Labels

Labels
Lower incisor 2
Lower incisor 3 Lower incisor 1
Lower canine
Mandibular symphysis
Lower premolar
1
Lower premolar 2
Lower premolar 3
Lower premolar 4
Lower molar 1
No Labels
The Nasal chambers

Nasal chambers: IO view, young adult
Nasal chambers: IO view
Nasal chambers: IO view, dolicocephalic
Nasal chambers: IO view, brachycephalic
Nasal chambers: Lateral view
Dacryorhinocystogram: Lateral view

Nasal chambers:
IO view, young adult
An excellent examination of the nasal cavity in a dog
or cat can be done by placing the film in the oral
cavity and making a dorsoventral radiograph so that
only the nasal cavity appears in the image. This view
enables detailed comparison of left and right sided
structures. Notice that the nasal cavity is filled with
numerous tiny linear structures oriented roughly
parallel to the mid-line in the rostral part of the nasal
cavity, and forming a more complicated pattern in the
middle of the nasal cavity. These small lines
represent the shadows cast by the nasal turbinates
and their mucosae. This is a young adult dog; it has
its permanent dentition (no deciduous teeth are
visible) but the adult teeth appear very hollow
because the pulp cavity is wide and the dentine is
thin. As a dog ages the pulp cavity steadily reduces
in size so the teeth become progressively more solid
in appearance.

Upper incisors 1-3 © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Palatine fissure
Canine
Upper premolar 1-4 Interincisive suture
Upper Molar 1 & 2
Zygomatic arch
Pterygoid bone Choanal region
Rostral alar Presphenoid bone
foramen
Foramen ovale Basisphenoid bone
Foramen lacerum
Tympanic bulla Jugular foramen

Hypoglossal canal
Pot Comparison
Occipital condyle
Pot Comparison
Labels
Pot Full screen

Upper incisors 1-3
Nostril
Interincisive suture
Palatine fissure
Canine tooth
Dental cavity
Upper premolar 1-4

Superimposed dorsal &
ventral nasal conchae
Maxillary recess
Upper Molar 1
Ethmoidal conchae
No Labels
Nasal chambers:
IO view
A similar radiograph to that described

previously comes from a dog of similar skull
conformation, that is mesaticephalic. This
dog is slightly older than the previous one as
evidenced by the relatively smaller pulp
cavities best seen in the canine teeth.

Palatine fissure
Canine
Upper Molar 1 & 2
Zygomatic arch
foramen
Foramen lacerum

Hypoglossal canal
Pot Comparison
Occipital condyle
Pot Comparison
Labels
Pot Full screen

Nostril
Canine tooth
Palatine fissure
Dental cavity
Superimposed dorsal &

Upper premolar 4
Maxillary recess
Ethmoidal conchae
No Labels
Nasal chambers:
IO view, dolicocephalic
In a long nosed dog the nasal cavity is relatively

elongated and a wide diastema is frequently present
between the first and third premolars.

Palatine fissure
Canine
Upper Molar 1 & 2
Zygomatic arch
foramen
Foramen lacerum

Hypoglossal canal
Pot Comparison
Occipital condyle
Pot Comparison
Labels
Pot Full screen

Nostril
Upper incisors 1-3
Canine tooth Palatine fissure
Upper premolar 1 Superimposed dorsal &

Large gap
between 1st &
3rd premolar
Upper premolar 4
Upper Molar 1 Ethmoidal conchae
Upper Molar 2
No Labels
Nasal chambers:
IO view,
brachycephalic
This radiograph of the nasal cavity of a
Bulldog clearly shows foreshortening
of the nasal cavity compared to that
seen in mesaticephalic or
dolicocephalic dogs. With this
foreshortening comes a relative
increase in opacity of the nasal
structures because the skull is
relatively thicker at this point and
because of the abundant, often folded,
skin over the face. Orientation of the
teeth in the maxillary arcade is often
abnormal in such dogs, with the third
premolar aligned roughly transverse to
the arcade in this example.

Palatine fissure
Canine
Upper Molar 1 & 2
Zygomatic arch
foramen
Foramen lacerum

Hypoglossal canal
Pot Comparison
Occipital condyle
Pot Comparison
Labels
Pot Full screen

Upper incisors 1-3
Nostril
Canine tooth
Palatine fissure
Upper premolar 1-4 Superimposed

dorsal & ventral
nasal conchae
Upper Molar 1
Upper Molar 2
Ethmoidal conchae
No Labels
Nasal chambers: The nasal cavity of the dog requires a lower

radiographic exposure than the thicker parts of the
Lateral view skull because it contains air and relatively delicate
bones, hence a separate lateral radiograph is
sometimes made specifically of the nasal region.
One problem with this radiograph is that it
superimposes the left and right sides. Many dogs
with nasal disease have a symmetrical or even
unilateral lesions which are difficult to recognise on
the lateral view in which they are superimposed by
the normal (unaffected) side. The same comment
applies to the frontal sinuses.
Full screen Labels

Labels
Ethmoidal Cranial Frontal bone

Incisive bone Hard palate conchae border of
orbit Frontal sinus
Root of
canine teeth Nasal bone
U. Incisor 1
U. Premolar 1 U. Premolar 3 Coronoid process

U. Canine Upper Oral cavity of mandible
U. Incisor 3 U. Premolar 2 Molar 1 Upper Molar 2 Zygomatic arch
U. Premolar 4
U. Incisor 2
No Labels
Dacryorhinocystogram: This lateral radiograph of the

nasolacrimal duct is made by infusion of
Lateral view a small volume of contrast medium
through a fine catheter inserted into a
lacrimal punctum. In a normal dog the
contrast flows down the nasolacrimal
duct and drains into the nasal cavity as
seen here.
Full screen Labels

Labels
Catheter in ventral
lacrimal punctum
Duct discharging into floor of vestibule Nasolacrimal

duct
No Labels
The Thoracic Limb
The Shoulder
The Elbow
The Radius and Ulna
The Carpus
The Manus
The Shoulder
Shoulder: lateral view
Shoulder: Cr-Cd view
Large Shoulder: lateral view
Immature Shoulder: lateral view
Immature shoulder arthrogram: lateral view

Shoulder:
lateral view
This radiograph is usually made with
the animal in lateral recumbency
with the shoulder of interest on the
down side. The limb is protracted to
move the humerus away from the
sternum for clearer visualisation.
The tip of an endotracheal tube is
superimposed on the scapula in this
dog. If the tube is inadvertently
superimposed over the shoulder
joint, it can interfere with
visualisation of the bones.

Canine Forelimb;
Left, lateral view Rhomboid m
Dorsal border of scapula
Infraspinatus m
Teres major m
Supraspinatus m
Latissimus dorsi m
Stump of trapezius m
Deltoid m
Triceps brachii m – long
head
Cleidobrachialis m Triceps brachii m – lateral

head
Brachioradialis m Pot Comparison

Extensor carpi radialis m Olecranon
Common digital extensor m.

Lateral digital extensor m
Ulnaris lateralis m Flexor carpi ulnaris
Pot Comparison
Labels
Pot
Full screen
Supraspinous
ET tube within the
fossa
trachea
Scapular spine
Infraspinous fossa
Supraglenoid
tubercle Acromion process
Greater tubercle Infraglenoid

tubercle
Shoulder joint
Intertubercular
groove
Head of humerus
Deltoid tuberosity
Humerus
© Royal Veterinary College 2009 No labels

Shoulder:
Cr-Cd view
This radiograph is usually made with the animal in
dorsal recumbency with the limb extended.
Notice that the medial aspect of the scapulohumeral

joint is wider on the medial aspect giving it a wedged-
shape; this is completely normal in the dog and cat.

Canine Forelimb; Dorsal border of the scapula
Left, cranial view.
Rhomboid m
Supraspinatous m Cut edge of trapezius pars cervicalis
Deltoid m
Triceps brachii m – lateral head
Cleidobrachialis m
Brachialis m
Lateral epicondyle of humerus

Medial epicondyle of humerus
Extensor carpi radialis m
Common digital extensor m

Pot Comparison
Pot Comparison
Labels
Pot
Full screen
Scapula spine
Acromion process
Glenoid cavity of scapula
Greater Tubercle
Supraglenoid tubercle
Tricipital line
Lesser tubercle of humerus
Teres major tuberosity

Deltoid Crest
No labels
Large Shoulder:
lateral view
An example of the shoulder in a larger
dog, which has a somewhat flatter
humeral head and wider glenoid fossa
than the other dog.
Pot
Full screen Labels
Canine Forelimb;
Infraspinatus m
Teres major m
Supraspinatus m
Latissimus dorsi m
Deltoid m
head

head
Brachioradialis m Pot Comparison


Pot Comparison
Labels
Pot
Full screen
Supraspinous
Scapula spine
fossa
Infraspinous fssa
Supraglenoid Infraglenoid tubercle

tubercle
Head of humerus
Greater tubercle
Intertubercular
groove
Deltoid tuberosity
No labels
Immature Shoulder:
lateral view
The proximal humeral physis is open.
This dog is 6-9m old.
Pot
Full screen Labels
Canine Forelimb;
Infraspinatus m
Teres major m
Supraspinatus m
Latissimus dorsi m
Deltoid m
head

head
Brachioradialis m
Pot Comparison

Pot Comparison
Labels
Pot
Full screen
Supraspinous
fossa Scapula spine
Infraspinous fossa
Supragleoid
tubercle
Greater tubercle Infraglenoid tubercle
Head of humerus
Intertubecular
groove Prox. Physis of
humerus
Deltoid tuberosity
No labels
Immature Shoulder
Arthrogram:
Lateral view
Compared to the previous radiograph,
5ml of radiographic contrast medium
(iohexol @100mgI/ml) was injected into
the scapulohumeral joint using a lateral
approach. The joint is quite well filled,
showing the caudal compartment and
the cranial compartment. The cranial
compartment surrounds the biceps
tendon, which appears as a curvilinear
filling defect within the contrast medium.
This appearance is normal.
Full screen Labels

Labels
Contrast media in
the intertubecular
groove, beneath the
biceps tendon. Contrast media
within the shoulder
joint.
No labels
The Elbow
Immature Elbow: lateral view
Immature Elbow: Cr-Med, Cd-Lat Oblique view
Immature Elbow: Cr-Lat, Cd-Med Oblique view
Immature Elbow: Cr-Cd view
Flexed Elbow: lateral view

Immature Elbow:
Lateral view
This joint belongs to a 6m
old Labrador. Notice the
open growth plates at the
distal humerus, proximal
radius and olecranon
process of the ulna.

Canine Elbow;
Lateral view
Humerus
Stump of triceps brachii m
Olecranon
Lateral humeral
Anconeus m epicondyle
Lateral collateral
ligament
Supinator m
Interosseus space
Ulna Radius
Pot Comparison
Pot Comparison
Labels
Pot Full screen

Humerus
Lat.
Epicondylar
crest
Craniolateral
Med. border of tuberosity of olecranon
supratrochlear Medial epicondyle
foramen of humerus
Anconeal
process Prox. Ulnar physis
Lat. Epicondyle
of humerus Prox. Ulnar epiphysis
Elbow (Olecranon)
(cubital)Joint
Prox. Radial
physis
Radius Ulna
No labels
Young Elbow:
Cr-Med, Cd-Lat
Oblique view
The elbow has been pronated, so the
articulation between the humerus and
the radius is emphasised. This
radiograph is rarely made in clinical
practice.

Canine elbow;
Medial view Stump of
triceps brachii –
long head
Craniolateral
Humerus tuberosity of
olecranon
Olecranon
Lat. Epicondyle of
humerus
Pronator teres m. Coronoid process
Flexor carpi radialis
m.
Ulnar
Radius
Pot Comparison
Pot Comparison
Labels
Pot
Full screen
Humerus
Supratrochlear
foramen
Anconeal process
Olecranon
Lateral condyle
Medial epicondyle
Coronoid process
Prox. Radial physis Medial condyle
Radius
Ulna
No labels
Immature Elbow:
Cr-Lat, Cd-Med
Oblique view
In this radiograph the elbow has been
supinated, producing a view of the
medial aspect of the humeral condyle
and the joint between the humerus
and medial coronoid process of the
ulna. This view might be useful if there
is fragmentation of the medial
coronoid process.

Canine Elbow;
Lateral view
Humerus
Olecranon
Lateral humeral
Lateral collateral
ligament
Supinator m
Interosseus space
Ulna Radius
Pot Comparison
Pot Comparison
Labels
Pot Full screen

Humerus
Supratrochlear foramen
Olecranon
Anconeal Process
Articulating surfaces:
Lateral Humeral
humerus and ulna
epicondyle
Articulating surfaces:
Medial coronoid Humerus and radius
process of ulna
Prox. radial epiphysis
Prox. radial physis
Radius
No labels
Immature Elbow:
Cr-Cd view
The same dog as the previous lateral. Notice
the angular shape of the humeral condyle,
which articulates on the lateral aspect with
the radius and on the medial aspect with the
medial coronoid process of the ulna. The
medial aspect of the elbow is a frequent site
of lesions in dogs with elbow arthritis.
Pot 1
Pot 2
Full screen Labels
Canine left Humerus

Brachialis m
Elbow;
Cranial view
Radial nerve
Lateral humeral
epicondyle
Supinator muscle
Radius
Canine right
elbow;
Cranial view
Humerus
Lateral humeral epicondyle
Medial humeral condyle

Coronoid process of ulna
Supinator m Pronator teres m
Radius
Pot Comparison
Pot Comparison
Labels
Pot Full screen

Body of Humerus
Olecranon
Lateral epicondyle
Medial Humeral
epicondyle
Elbow (cubital joint)

Prox. radial epiphysis Medial Coronoid
process of ulna
Prox. radial physis
Radius + ulna
superimposed
No labels
Flexed Elbow:
lateral view
This radiograph, with the elbow
maximally flexed, is done to
examine the anconeal process. This
is considered one of the first places
that osteophytes develop in dogs
with elbow arthritis and hence this
view is frequently used by clinicians
looking for signs of arthritis.
Suspected ununited anconeal
process is another indication for this
radiograph.

Canine Elbow;
Lateral view
Humerus
Olecranon
Lateral humeral
Lateral collateral
ligament
Supinator m
Interosseus space
Ulna Radius
Pot Comparison
Pot Comparison
Labels
Pot Full screen

Anconeal process
Olecranon
Lateral epicondyle of
humerus
Condyle of humerus Medial border of

humeral condyle
Body of humerus
Coronoid process
Head of radius
Radius Ulna
No labels
The Radius and Ulna
Immature Radius and Ulna: Lateral view
Immature Radius and Ulna: Cr-Cd view

Immature Radius and Ulna:

Lateral view
This radiograph of a young cross bred dog shows the
normal curved shape of the radius and the straighter ulna.
Open growth plates are visible at the proximal and distal
radius and ulna. The distal ulnar physis is shaped like a
cone, hence has a V-shape in the radiograph. The
accessory carpal bone projects on the palmar aspect of the
carpus.
Full screen Labels

Labels
Distal physis of humerus © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Body of humerus Caudal border of lateral epicondyle of humerus

Prox. Ulnar epiphysis
Humeral condyle
Prox. Ulnar physis
Prox. radial physis
Anconeal process
Proximal radial epiphysis
Radius
Ulna
Nutrient foramen of radius
Distal radial physis Distal ulnar physis
Distal ulnar epiphysis

Distal radius epiphysis
Accessory carpal bone
Intermedioradial carpal bone
Distal row of carpal bones
Metacarpal bones Metacarpal bone 1

Prox phalanx of digit 1 No labels
© RVC 2009
Immature Radius and Ulna:

Cr-Cd view
This radiograph is of the same limb as the previous. The limb is
relatively straight with some lateral deviation of the paw. This
degree of mild lateral deviation is normal and must be
distinguished from a valgus deformity, which can occur in dogs
following premature closure of the distal ulna growth plate. This
view is useful when examining dogs with signs of angular limb
deformity.
Full screen Labels

Labels
Distal humeral physis Humerus
Lateral humeral epicondyle Olecranon
Distal humeral epiphysis Medial humeral epicondyle
Prox. Radial physis Prox. Radial epiphysis
Radius
Ulna
Distal radial physis

Distal ulna physis

Distal ulna epiphysis
Distal radial epiphysis
Ulna carpal bone
Carpal bone 4
Carpal bone 3 2nd Carpal bone
Metacarpal 5 1st Carpal bone

Metacarpal 1
Metacarpal 4
Proximal phalanx of digit 1
Metacarpal 3
Distal phalanx of digit 2
Distal metacarpal physis Metacarpal 2 No labels
The Carpus
Immature Carpus: D-P view
Immature Carpus: Lateral view

Immature Carpus:
Lateral view
Radiograph of the same dog as in the dorsopalmar
view. An open growth plate is visible in the accessory
carpal bone.

Common digital extensor m
Lateral digital extensor
Distal limb;
m Lateral view
Ulnaris lateralis m
Flexor carpi ulnaris m
Accessory Carpal bone

Carpus
Metacarpus
Pot Comparison
Pot Comparison Labels

Pot
Full screen
Radius
Ulna
Distal ulna physis

Distal radial physis
Distal ulna epiphysis
Ulna carpal bone Accessory carpal bone

Carpal bone 3
Carpal bone 4
1st Carpal bone
Metacarpal 1
Metacarpal 2 Proximal phalanx of digit 1
Metacarpals Distal phalanx of digit 2

No labels
Immature Carpus:
D-P view
This radiograph of the carpus of a 3m old puppy
shows the growth plates at the distal radius, ulna
and metacarpals. Notice that in each instance the
metaphysis adjacent to the open physis appears
more opaque and wider than the diaphysis of the
bone. This is a normal appearance and should not
be misinterpreted as a sign of metabolic bone
disease.
Full screen Labels Pot 1 Pot 2

Distal limb; Distal limb; © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Dorsal view Palmer view
Deep digital flexor
Flexor carpi Common digital Flexor carpi m
radialis m. extensor m. ulnaris
Lateral digital
extensor m.
Adductor Ulnaris lateralis m.
pollicis
longus m.
Flexor retinaculum
Extensor Accessory carpal bone
retinaculum
Extensor
carpi Tendon of deep
Tendon of digital flexor
radialis m.
common tendon
digital
extensor m.
Digit 1
Metacarpal
pad
Digital
pad
Pot Comparison
Superficial digital flexor m
Flexor carpi ulnaris
m Superficial digital
Distal forelimb; flexor m
Palmer view
Carpus Carpal tunnel
Adductor m digit 5
Metacarpal 1
Adductor m digit 4
Interosseus m Metacarpal 3
Metacarpal 4
Paired sesamoids of
digit 5
Pot Comparison
Labels
Pot
Full screen
Ulna
Radius
Distal ulnar physis Distal radial physis
Distal ulnar epiphysis


Ulna carpal bone
Carpal bone 3
Carpal bone 4 2 Carpal bone
nd
Sesamoid bone of adductor pollicis

longus m.
Metacarpal 5 1st Carpal bone
Metacarpal 4 Metacarpal 1

Metacarpal 2
Distal phalanx of digit 2
Distal metacarpal physis
Distal Metacarpal epiphysis Distal Metacarpal 2 physis
Distal Metacarpal 2 epiphysis
Prox. Physis of prox. phalanx
No labels
Prox. Phalanx
The Manus
Manus: D-P view
Manus: D-P view

In this radiograph of the manus you should be able to identify the distal radius
and ulna, the proximal and distal rows of carpal bones, the metacarpals and
phalanges of each digit plus a number of sesamoid bones. For example, there is
a small rounded bone on the medial aspect of the carpus, which is a sesamoid in
the tendon of insertion of the abductor pollicis longus and there are paired,
somewhat elongated palmar sesamoids superimposed on each of the distal
metacarpals of digits 2-5. The very small rounded dorsal sesamoids that exist at
the metacarpal phalangeal joints are not clearly visible in this radiograph.
The carpus includes two rows of bones: adjacent to the distal radius is the wide
radial carpal bone, adjacent to the distal ulna is the relatively square ulna carpal,
and superimposed on the joint between these bones is a rounded, opaque
structure, which represents the accessory carpal bone. The distal row of carpal
bones includes numbers 1,2,3 and 4, each of which is found at the proximal end
of the relevant metacarpal, although note that carpal bone 4 articulates both with
the fourth and the fifth metacarpal.
Also note that the first digit (the dew claw) has a very reduced metacarpal and
only two phalanges. Another feature worth mentioning is the large pad on the
palmar aspect of the paw, which creates a lucent line across the distal part of the
proximal phalanges that could occasionally be mistaken for a phalangeal fracture.
Full screen Labels Pot 1 Pot 2

Distal limb; Distal limb; © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Dorsal view Palmer view
Deep digital flexor
Flexor carpi Common digital Flexor carpi m
radialis m. extensor m. ulnaris
Lateral digital
extensor m.
Adductor Ulnaris lateralis m.
pollicis
longus m.
Flexor retinaculum
Extensor Accessory carpal bone
retinaculum
Extensor
carpi Tendon of deep
Tendon of digital flexor
radialis m.
common tendon
digital
extensor m.
Digit 1
Metacarpal
pad
Digital
pad
Pot Comparison
Superficial digital flexor m
Flexor carpi ulnaris
m Superficial digital
Distal forelimb; flexor m
Palmer view
Carpus Carpal tunnel
Adductor m digit 5
Metacarpal 1
Adductor m digit 4
Interosseus m Metacarpal 3
Metacarpal 4
Paired sesamoids of
digit 5
Pot Comparison
Labels
Pot
Full screen
Distal radius © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Styloid process of radius

Distal ulna – styloid process Carpal bone 2
Accessory carpal bone Sesamoid bone of adductor
Ulna carpal bone pollicis longus m.
Carpal bone 4 Carpal bone 3
1st Carpal bone
Proximal phalanx
Middle Phalanx
Distal phalanx of digit
No labels
The Pelvic Limb
The Hip
(covered in “The Pelvis”)
The Femur
The Stifle
The Tarsu
s
The Femur
Femur: Lateral view
Femur: Cr-Cd view
Femoral Arteriogram: Lateral view

Femur:
Lateral view
This radiograph is made with the animal in lateral
recumbency with the femur to be radiographed on
the table and the upper limb rotated out of the
primary x-ray beam. The thigh of the dog is much
thicker proximally than distally, which means that
making the radiograph of the femur is compromise
between adequately exposing the proximal part and
not over-exposing the distal part. Note that in a
typical dog the femur has a gentle curve. This
means that an intramedullary pin cannot normally be
inserted all the way down the medullary cavity. Note
that this patient is a male.

Sacrotuberous © Royal Veterinary College 2009
ligament
Ilium Medial gluteal m
Gemelli mm
Deep gluteal m
Stump of Piriform m
External obturator m
Rectus femoris m Quadratus femoris m
Semitendinous m
Adductor magnus m
Vastus lateralis m
Semimembranous m Abductor cruris

caudalis m
Gastrocenemius m
Labels
Body of ilium
Acetabula incisura
Head of femur Ischiatic tuber
Intertrochanteric crest
Lesser trochanter of femur
Os Penis
Body of femur
Medial & lateral sesamoid bones of

gastrocnemius muscle
Wall of intercondylar fossa of femur

Superimposed medial and lateral
Patella condyles of femur
Sesamoid bone of popliteus m

No Labels
Tibia Fibula
Femur:
Cr-Cd view
A corresponding cranial caudal view of the same femur as
in the Lateral Femur radiograph shows that in the sagittal
plane the bone is almost perfectly straight. In this well
positioned radiograph the patella is superimposed over
the mid-line of the femur.
Full screen Labels

Labels
Head of femur © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Neck of femur
Hip joint
Greater trochanter of femur
Trichanteric fossa and
intertrochanteric crest
Obturator foramen
Lateral border of tuber ischiadicum
Lesser trochanter
Ischiatic tuber
Body of femur
Patella Lateral sesamoid of

Medial sesamoid of gastrocnemius m
gastrocnemius m
Medial condyle of femur Lateral condyle of femur
No Labels
Femoral Arteriogram:
Lateral view
Injection of radiopaque contrast medium into
the abdominal aorta has opacified the arteries
of the pelvis and pelvic limb. In this radiograph
the femoral artery and its branches are clearly
seen, mainly on the caudal aspect of the
femur.

Sacrotuberous © Royal Veterinary College 2009
ligament
Ilium Medial gluteal m
Gemelli mm
Deep gluteal m
Stump of Piriform m
External obturator m
Rectus femoris m Quadratus femoris m
Semitendinous m
Adductor magnus m
Vastus lateralis m
Semimembranous m Abductor cruris

caudalis m
Gastrocenemius m
Labels
Lateral circumflex © Royal Veterinary College 2009
from external iliac a
Femoral artery from
external iliac artery
Proximal caudal
femoral artery
Saphenous artery
Descending genicular
artery Middle caudal artery
Distal caudal femoral

artery
Popliteal artery
No Labels
The Stifle
Stifle: Lateral view
Stifle: Cd-Cr view
Immature Stifle: Lateral view
Immature Stifle: Lateral view
Immature Stifle: Cd-Cr view
Stifle: Lateral view, tibial tuberosity fusion

Stifle:
Lateral view
The stifle is one of the most commonly
radiographed joints of the dog and it is well
worth being familiar with its radiographic
anatomy. Note the patella and the two
fabellae, sesamoid bones embedded in the
gastrocnemius tendon. Note also a lucent
space on the cranial aspect of the joint that
is formed by a fat pad between the patellar
tendon and the joint. This is a useful
anatomical feature because any joint
effusion will tend to impinge upon the fat
pad from the caudal aspect and reduce its
size in a lateral radiograph.
Pot
Full screen Labels
Femoropatella
Patella ligament
Patella ligament
Patella Menisci
ligament Patella
Fibula ligament
Medial &
lateral
Tibia collateral
ligament
Femur
Trochlea
Medial & lateral

condyles of femur
Caudal cruciate
ligament
Labels
Femoropatella Femur
joint
Lateral supracondylar
Patella tuberosity
Lateral sesamoid bone of

Trochlea of femur gasrocnemius m
Medial sesamoid bone of
gastrocnemius m
Medial and lateral
condyles of femur
Infrapatella fat body
Femorotibial joint
Sesamoid bone within
Cranial intercondylar area tendon of popliteus m.
of tibia
Fibula
Tibial tuberosity Tibia
No Labels
Stifle:
Cd-Cr view
Although it is possible to extend the stifle with a
dog in dorsal recumbency for a craniocaudal
radiograph, it is often easier to place the dog in
sternal recumbency and extend the limb
caudally for a caudocranial radiograph, using the
dog’s body weight to better extend the joint.
Again note the position of the patella, which is
projected some distance proximal to the joint
when the stifle is properly extended. Note also
the medial and lateral fabellae, which are
unequal in size and shape. The fibula lies on
the lateral aspect of the tibia.

Femoropatella
Patella ligament
Patella ligament
Patella Menisci
ligament Patella
Fibula ligament
Medial &
lateral
Tibia collateral
ligament
Femur
Trochlea
Medial & lateral

condyles of femur
Caudal cruciate
ligament
Labels
Femur
Intercondylar fossa of femur
Patella
Lateral sesamoid bone

of gastrocnemius m
Medial sesamoid bone of
gastrocnemius
Medial condyle of femur Lateral condyle of femur
Medial condyle of tibia
Medial & lateral intercondylar

tubercle of tibia
Tibial tuberosity
Cranial border of tibia Fibula
No Labels
Immature Stifle:
Lateral view
This radiograph of a five month old
Labrador shows open growth plates at
the distal femur, proximal tibia and
proximal fibula. Note the separate centre
of ossification at the tibial tuberosity and
the wide and irregular physis between it
and the tibial crest. This is considered to
be a normal appearance. In this dog the
medial fabella is positioned slightly distal
compared to the lateral; this is
considered normal variant.

Femoropatella
Patella ligament
Patella ligament
Patella Menisci
ligament Patella
Fibula ligament
Medial &
lateral
Tibia collateral
ligament
Femur
Trochlea
Medial & lateral

condyles of femur
Caudal cruciate
ligament
Labels
Distal femoral physis Femur
Patella
Medial fabella of
gastrocnemius muscle.
Lateral & medial condyle

of femur
Prox. Tibial physis
Head of fibula (epiphysis)
Prox. Tibial epiphysis

Prox. fibula physis
Tibial tuberosity
Tibial tuberosity Fibula

physis
Interossoeus space
No Labels
Immature Stifle:
Lateral view
This radiograph of a slightly younger dog
than in the other lateral immature stifle
example shows a roughened appearance of
the femoral condyles, which could be
mistaken for some form of joint disease;
however, this is a normal appearance in a
skeletally immature animal in which the
subchondral bone has not completely
ossified and has an uneven interface with
the overlying articular cartilage. Within a
few weeks this rough appearance will be
replaced by a perfectly regular distinct
curve.

Femoropatella
Patella ligament
Patella ligament
Patella Menisci
ligament Patella
Fibula ligament
Medial &
lateral
Tibia collateral
ligament
Femur
Trochlea
Medial & lateral

condyles of femur
Caudal cruciate
ligament
Labels
Distal femoral physis Femur
Patella
Sesamoid bone of
Distal femoral epiphysis gastrocnemius
Prox. Tibial epiphysis

Lateral & medial condyle
of femur
Prox. Tibial physis
Tibial tuberosity Head of fibula (epiphysis)
Prox. fibula physis
Fibula
No Labels
Immature Stifle:
Cd-Cr view
This is a caudo-cranial view of a stifle.
As in the lateral immature stifle
radiograph, it shows open growth
plates in the distal femur, proximal tibia
and proximal fibula and the position of
the medial fabella.

Femoropatella
Patella ligament
Patella ligament
Patella Menisci
ligament Patella
Fibula ligament
Medial &
lateral
Tibia collateral
ligament
Femur
Trochlea
Medial & lateral

condyles of femur
Caudal cruciate
ligament
Labels
Femur
Intercondylar fossa of femur
Patella
Distal femoral physis

Lateral sesamoid bone
of gastrocnemius m Medial sesamoid bone of
gastrocnemius
Medial condyle of femur

Lateral condyle of femur
Medial condyle of tibia
Medial & lateral intercondylar

tubercle of tibia Prox. Tibial
physis
Head of fibula (epiphysis)

Prox. fibula physis Tibial tuberosity
Cranial border of tibia
Fibula
No Labels
Stifle:
Lateral view, tibial
tuberosity fusion
This radiograph is of a nine month
old dog in which the growth plates
are almost closed. The growth plate
of the tibial tuberosity has an
interesting pointed shape. This is a
normal anatomical variant.

Femoropatella
Patella ligament
Patella ligament
Patella Menisci
ligament Patella
Fibula ligament
Medial &
lateral
Tibia collateral
ligament
Femur
Trochlea
Medial & lateral

condyles of femur
Caudal cruciate
ligament
Labels
Femur
Patella
Distal femoral physis
Sesamoid bones of
gastrocnemius
Infrapatellar fat pad
Femoral condyles
Patellar ligament
Prox. Tibial
physis
Tibial tuberosity
Tibial tuberosity
growth plate
Cranial border of tibia Fibula
No Labels
The Tarsus
Immature Tarsus: Lateral view
Immature Tarsus: D-P view

Immature Tarsus:
Lateral view
This radiograph of a four month old dog
shows open growth plates at the distal tibia
and at the tip of the tuber calcis. The
proximal intertarsal and tarsometatarsal joint
appear wide, which is a normal appearance
at this age; these joints will gradually
become narrower with skeletal maturity.
Note the linear soft tissue structure that runs
from the tuber calcis proximally, roughly
parallel to the distal tibia; this is the Achilles
tendon.

Peroneus longus m.
Extensor digitorum lateralis m
Peroneus brevis m Common calcanean tendon
Proximal extensor Deep Digital Flexor tendon

retinaculum
Cut end of Superficial Flexor tendon.
Tarsus Abductor digit V muscle

Reflected tendon of Deep Digital
Flexor m.
Interosseus m. (Digit V)
Proximal digital annular ligaments

(Distal is missing).
Superficial Digital Flexor tendon

Labels
Tibia
Tibia Achilles tendon
Calcanean tuber
Calcanean physis
Distal tibial physis

Distal tibial epiphysis Calcaneus
Trochlea of
talus
Central tarsal bone
Tarsal bone 4
2nd & 3rd Tarsal
bone
Metatarsal bone 1
Superimposed
metatarsals 2-5
No Labels
Immature Tarsus:
D-P view
The dorsoplantar radiograph of the same dog as
in the previous radiograph again shows the
relatively wide proximal intertarsal and
tarsometatarsal joints and open growth plates at
the distal tibia and distal fibula. The tuber calcis is
a relatively substantial piece of bone that is
superimposed on the tibiotarsal joint and tends to
obscure it in the DP view.

Proximal extensor retinaculum
Tibialis cranialis muscle
Distal extensor retinaculum

Long digital extensor m.
Labels
Gastrocnemius m
superimposed on the tibia.
Body of fibula
Calcaneus
Lateral malleolus of fibula

Tarsocrural joint
Sustentaculum tali
of calcaneus
Talus
Central tarsal bone
Tarsal bone 4
Tarsal bone 2
Tarsal bone 3
Metatarsels 2-5 No Labels

The Pelvis
The Pelvic bones

The Hip joint
The Pelvic Bones

Pelvis: Lateral view
Pelvis: V-D view
Pelvis: V-D view

Pelvis: This lateral radiograph shows the pelvis, the lumbosacral joint and the first
few caudal vertebrae. The end of the tail is relatively thin and therefore is
Lateral view over-exposed in this radiograph and cannot be seen. Note that the two
halves of the pelvis and the coxofemoral joints are almost perfectly
superimposed in this well positioned radiograph, which makes them difficult
to examine because a structure on one side effectively hides that on the
other side. For this reason, it is usual to position one of the femurs more
cranial than the other and to place a left or right marker adjacent to it so that
at least the femurs can be distinguished in a lateral radiograph.
Full screen Labels

Labels
Vertebral Left & right dorsal © Royal Veterinary College 2009
canal at L7 iliac crest Sacrum Caudal vertebrae 1
Intervertebral
disc space
between L7 & Body of
S1 ilium
Hip joint
(right)
Caudal
extremity of
L6 Superimposed
Hip joint ischiatic tuber
(right)
Head of
femur Superimposed
(right) obturator
foramina
Right femur Left femur Pelvic symphysis

No Labels
Pelvis:
VD view
This ventrodorsal shows clearly the bones forming the
pelvis and the coxofemoral joints. For this radiograph
the dog has been positioned in dorsal recumbency and
the pelvic limbs have been extended fully. The femurs
are parallel and the patella is superimposed over the
distal femur. It is usually necessary to use sticky tape
or a Velcro band to keep the femurs in this position,
which is very unnatural for a dog. Note the shape of
the proximal femur which has a distinct neck and
rounded head that is well seated in the acetabulum.
The sacroiliac joints may also be examined in a
ventrodorsal view, although they are not clearly visible
because they are slightly oblique to the primary x-ray
beam and because the rough surface of the bones
forming the joint means there is no clearly discernible
joint space. The sacroiliac joint is prone to luxation
following trauma such as hit by car.
Full screen Labels

Labels
Intervertebral disc space © Royal Veterinary College 2009
between L7 &S1
Left transverse process of L7
Right sacroiliac joint
Wing of ilium
Body of ilium
Sacrum
Iliopubic eminence
Right hip joint Head of femur
Neck of femur
Greater trochanter
Lesser trochanter Trichanteric fossa &

Pubis Obturator
Ischiatic table foramen
Ischiatic tuber
Femur
Lateral fabella of Patella

gastrocnemius m
No Labels
Pelvis:
V-D view
Compared to the other VD Pelvic radiograph this
film has a higher contrast, a slightly speckly
appearance and improved definition of the
borders of the bones. It is an example of a
computed radiograph whereas the previous was a
radiographic film. Vets are increasingly using
computed (digital) radiography to produce images
such as this, which are viewed on a monitor
rather than as a piece of film placed on a light
box. As in the previous dog, the coxofemoral
joints are clearly visible with a normal relationship
between the femoral head and the acetabulum.
The radiographic joint space forms a narrow
curve of uniform width on the cranial aspect of the
coxofemoral joint. The subchondral plate of the
acetabulum is quite broad and very opaque
radiographically whereas the convex surface of
the adjacent femoral head is less opaque. The
narrow lucent space between them represents
the articular cartilage on each side of the joint
plus a film of interposed synovial fluid.
Full screen Labels

Labels
between L7 &S1 Wing of ilium
Faeces in descending
colon
Sacrum
Body of ilium
Iliopubic eminence
Head of femur
Right hip joint Neck of femur
Greater trochanter
Trichanteric fossa &

Obturator
Pubis foramen
Ischiatic tuber
Ischiatic table Lesser trochanter
Femur
No Labels
The Hip joint
Pelvis: V-D view, Hip dysplasia

Pelvis:
V-D view, Hip dysplasia
This radiograph of a young dog shows
subluxation of the left coxofemoral joint,
which is a typical appearance for hip
dysplasia. Note the scrotum on the
midline; some vets will routinely cover it
with a lead sheet to protect the testicles
from x-rays.
Full screen Labels

Labels
between L7 &S1
Wing of ilium
Faeces in descending colon
Sacrum
Body of ilium Iliopubic eminence
Right hip joint Head of femur
Neck of femur
Fovea capitis
Pubis Greater trochanter
Obturator foramen
Lesser trochanter
Ischiatic tuber
Ischiatic table
Scrotum
Femur
Patella
Lateral sesamoid bone of
gastrocnemius m
No Labels
The Thorax
The Oesophagus
The Lungs
The Ribs
The Thymus The Heart
General Thorax views

General Thorax views

Thorax: Overweight, DV view
Thorax: Overweight, lateral view
Thorax: Lateral view
Thorax: Left lateral view
Thorax: Right lateral view
Thorax: VD view
Thorax:
Overweight,
DV view
This radiograph shows that
although there is air within both
the left and right lung the
cardiac border is indistinct. The
cranial mediastinum is wide as
a result of fat deposition.
Full screen Labels

Labels
Rib 1
Cranial vena cava Aortic arch
Trachea
Left ventricle
Apex of Heart
Ribs
Diaphragm
No Labels
Thorax: In this radiograph of an obese Terrier the

presence of intrathoracic and intra abdominal
Overweight, Lateral fat means that the lung is less well inflated
than in the other radiographs. For this reason
view intrathoracic structures are more difficult to
see, for example the heart has a much less
well defined border than in the other
radiographs.

Labels
Thoracic Tracheal Pulmonary vessels to

aorta bifurcation caudal lobes of lungs
Right crus
Left crus
Trachea
Left ventricle
Cr. lobar
Pulmonary
artery.
Cr. lobar Stomach
Pulmonary
vein
Liver
Spleen
Right ventricle Heart apex
No Labels
Cervicothoracic © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Middle cervical ganglion Dorsal Thoracic Vagus n.: dorsal &
ganglion Sympathetic trunk intercostal a.v. aorta ventral branches
(sympathetic)
Subclavian a. Oesophagus
Vago-
sympathetic
trunk
Internal
thoracic a.v.
Diaphragm
Phrenic n.
Mediastinum: over the
Left ventricle right accesssory lung
Right auricle Mediastiinum:over right
Left auricle Right ventricle Left principal middle lung lobe
Right cranial lung lobe bronchus
Paraclonal a.v.
Thorax: This radiograph shows a relatively

deep chested dog. The heart, aorta
Lateral view and pulmonary vessels are clearly
visible, although (unusually) the
caudal vena cava is not. Note that
the trachea, the lungs and other
intrathoracic structures are visible
because of the air contained in the
thorax. When we make thoracic
radiographs, we try to expose the
film at peak inspiration in order to
maximise the amount of air in the
lung and hence maximise the
visibility of intrathoracic structures. In
animals with relatively little air in the
lungs (e.g. because of pneumonia) it
can be difficult to see anything
radiographically.
Pot
Full screen Labels
Labels

Trachea Left crus
Right crus
Cranial vena cava

Cr. Lobar Caudal vena cava
Pulmonary
artery
Cr. Lobar
Pulmonary Liver
vein Left ventricle
Right ventricle
Heart apex
No Labels
(sympathetic)
Vago-
sympathetic
trunk
Internal
thoracic a.v.
Diaphragm
Phrenic n.
Paraclonal a.v.
Thorax: This radiograph is of the same dog as the

right lateral and shows the difference in
Left lateral view the appearance of the diaphragm with the
animal laying on its left: now the
diaphragmatic crura diverge. This
difference between left and right is often
observed in dogs.
Pot
Full screen Labels
Labels

Left crus
Right crus
Trachea
Caudal vena cava
Right cr. Lobar
Pulmonary artery
Right cr. Lobar

Pulmonary vein Liver
Left ventricle
Right ventricle
Heart apex
No Labels
(sympathetic)
Vago-
sympathetic
trunk
Internal
thoracic a.v.
Diaphragm
Phrenic n.
Paraclonal a.v.
Thorax: This radiograph is made with the animal

in lateral recumbency with its right side
Right lateral view down. Note that the diaphragm has a
smooth continuous curved shape and
that the diaphragmatic crura are parallel,
almost superimposed. Contrast this
appearance with that of the left lateral
radiograph.
Pot
Full screen Labels
Labels
Pulmonary vessels to
Thoracic caudal lobes of lungs
aorta
Right crus
Left crus
Caudal vena
Trachea cava
Cr. Lobar
Pulmonary
artery
Cr. Lobar
Pulmonary Liver
vein Left ventricle
Right ventricle Heart apex
No Labels
(sympathetic)
Vago-
sympathetic
trunk
Internal
thoracic a.v.
Diaphragm
Phrenic n.
Paraclonal a.v.
Thorax:
VD view
A ventrodorsal radiograph that

shows the normal position of
the heart, slightly to the left of
mid-line, and the caudal vena
cava to the right of mid-line.
Pot
Full screen Labels
Labels
Cr Vena Cava
Pulmonary artery
Rt. atrium Lt. atrium
Aorta
Rt. Ventricle
Lt. Ventricle
Ca. Vena cava Caudoventral

mediastinum
No Labels
Aorta
Pulmonary trunk
Left
L. Subclavian artery subclavian
L. auricle Brachiocephalic
L. pulmonary artery
trunk
artery
L. atrium
L. pulmonary
veins
Brachiocephalic
trunk
Cranial
R. auricle vena cava
Caudal
vena cava Azygous vein
L. ventricle R. pulmonary
artery
R. pulmonary
R. ventricle veins
Apex
The Heart
Angiogram: LV injection, lateral view
Angiogram: RV injection, lateral view

Angiogram: The heart normally has a uniform soft tissue opacity in

radiographs and the internal structures (e.g. chambers,
LV injection, lateral valves) are not visible. These structures can be outlined
by injecting contrast medium which mixes with the blood.
view In this instance, a catheter has been passed up the aorta

(where was it inserted into the dog?) until its tip is in the
left ventricle. Injection of contrast outlines the left
ventricle, aorta, coronary arteries, brachiocephalic trunk
and left subclavian artery. This appearance is normal.
(Ignore the catheter cranial to the heart; it is relevant for
the next radiograph.)
Full screen Labels

©©Royal
RoyalVeterinary
VeterinaryCollege
College2009
2009
Labels
Left subclavian a Thoracic aorta
Left crus of
diaphragm
Right crus of
diaphragm
Common
carotids
Brachiocephalic
trunk
R + L internal Gas in pylorus

thoracic of stomach
arteries
Left ventricle
No Labels
Aorta
Pulmonary trunk
Left
L. pulmonary artery
trunk
artery
L. atrium
L. pulmonary
veins
Brachiocephalic
trunk
Cranial
Caudal
artery
R. pulmonary
R. ventricle veins
Apex
Angiogram: In this instance, a catheter has been passed down a

jugular vein. Injection of contrast outlines the right
RV injection, atrium, right ventricle and pulmonary arteries. This
appearance is normal.
lateral view (The thin black line crossing the caudal part of the lungs
is an artefact that occurred because the film was
inadvertently folded before processing.)
Pot
Full screen Labels
Labels
Left pulmonary
artery
Pulmonary Right pulmonary

trunk artery
Pulmonary
arterial supply to
Cranial lobar the right middle
pulmonary lobe
artery
Right ventricle
No Labels
Aorta
Pulmonary trunk
Left
L. pulmonary artery
trunk
artery
L. atrium
L. pulmonary
veins
Brachiocephalic
trunk
Cranial
Caudal
artery
R. pulmonary
R. ventricle veins
Apex
The Lungs
Bronchogram: Lateral view
Pulmonary Vasculature: Bulldog, DV view
Pulmonary Vasculature: Close-up, Lateral view

Bronchogram: In the days before flexible endoscopy, vets sometimes did

bronchography to examine the airways. In this radiograph a
Lateral view small volume of barium sulphate suspension has been infused
into the trachea and the lung inflated to spread it along the
bronchial mucosa. It is amazing how clearly the bronchi are
seen isn’t it? Notice that they have straight or gently curved
walls and gently tapering lumen. This appearance is normal.
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Full screen Labels
Labels
Bronchi of caudal
lobes
Bronchus–
end on
Tracheal
bifurcation
Trachea
Right
principle
bronchus to
cranial lobe
No Labels
Caudal lobe
Obtuse margin of left lung
Trachea
Cranial part of
cranial lobe of
left lung
Interlobular fissure Caudal interlobular

of cranial lobe of fissure of left lung
left lung
Cardiac notch
Right Accute margin

ventricle of
heart Left ventricle
of heart Caudal part of cranial
lobe of left lung
Trachea
Right cranial lobes
Left cranial lobe

Bifurcation of
the trachea
Primary bronchii
Bronchioles
Caudal lobes
Pulmonary Vasculature: This radiograph shows the

right and left caudal lobar
Bulldog, DV view arteries and veins
superimposed over the cranial
part of the abdomen. It is
useful to examine these
vessels in dogs or cats with
suspected cardiac failure.
Pulmonary congestion is often
visible as enlargement of the
veins relative to the arteries.
The dorsoventral view gives a
better depiction of these
vessels than a ventrodorsal.
Pot
Full screen Labels
Labels
Heart
Left caudal
lobar vessels
Right caudal
lobar vessels
Diaphragm
Air in the fundus of

stomach
No Labels
Trachea
Right cranial lobes
Left cranial lobe

Bifurcation of
the trachea
Primary bronchii
Bronchioles
Caudal lobes
Pulmonary Vasculature: This radiograph shows the right cranial

lobar artery and vein. They are roughly
Close-up, Lateral view parallel, similar in size and gradually
taper as they extend towards the
periphery of the lung.
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Full screen Labels
Labels
Trachea Tracheal bifurcation
Cr. Lobar bronchus
Cr. Lobar
Pulmonary artery
Cr. Lobar Pulmonary

vein
Right ventricle
No Labels
Caudal lobe
Obtuse margin of left lung
Trachea
Cranial part of
cranial lobe of
left lung
Interlobular fissure Caudal interlobular

of cranial lobe of fissure of left lung
left lung
Cardiac notch
Right Accute margin

ventricle of
heart Left ventricle
of heart Caudal part of cranial
lobe of left lung
Trachea
Right cranial lobes
Left cranial lobe

Bifurcation of
the trachea
Primary bronchii
Bronchioles
Caudal lobes
The Ribs
Crusty Ribs: Lateral view

Crusty Ribs: It is common to observe large irregular

exostosis at the costochondral junctions of
Lateral view old dogs. This appearance is considered
an age-related change and should not be
confused with disease.
Pot
Full screen Labels
Labels
Caudal vena
cava
Left ventricle
Exotoses at
costochondral Liver
junctions
Heart apex
Right ventricle
No Labels
(sympathetic)
Vago-
sympathetic
trunk
Internal
thoracic a.v.
Diaphragm
Phrenic n.
Paraclonal a.v.
The Oesophagus
Oesophagram: lateral view

Oesophagram:
lateral view
The oesophagus is not normally visible
radiographically, although it might be if it is dilated or
has abnormal contents. To make the oesophagus
visible and to assess its function, we perform contrast
radiography. This series of radiographs made at 1
second intervals shows a bolus of food/barium mixture
passing through the thoracic oesophagus, leaving a
slight mucosal coating behind. This is a normal
appearance.
View in sequence Pot

Finish Sequence Labels

Superimposed caudal lobar branches of
Oesophageal bolus Thoracic aorta
pulmonary arteries & veins
Bronchiole Caudal Vena Cava

Finish Sequence No Labels
Labels
Oesophageal
Thoracic aorta bolus
Bronchiole Caudal Vena Cava

No Labels
Labels
Oesophageal
Thoracic aorta bolus
Caudal Vena Cava

No Labels
Labels Finish Sequence

Oesophagus Superimposed caudal lobar branches of
Thoracic aorta pulmonary arteries & veins
Caudal Vena Cava

No Labels Finish Sequence
(sympathetic)
Vago-
sympathetic
trunk
Internal
thoracic a.v.
Diaphragm
Phrenic n.
Paraclonal a.v.
The Thymus
Thymus: DV view
Thymus: Lateral view

Thymus:
DV view
A dorsoventral radiograph of a
3-month-old pup shows a broad
curved soft tissue structure on
the left cranial aspect of the
heart. This is the thymus,
which will shortly involute and
cease to be visible
radiographically.
Full screen Labels

Labels
Thymus
Lt. atrium
Rt. atrium Lt. Ventricle
Rt. Ventricle
No Labels
Thymus: This radiograph of a 3-month-old pup shows a lack of

Lateral view ossification of the distal part of the rib which is
therefore not visible radiographically. Notice how the
thymus is virtually invisible on a lateral view.
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Full screen Labels
Common
carotid a.
Lung (left)
Oesophagus
Thymus Diaphragm
Heart
Labels
Thoracic
aorta
Right crus
Left crus
Trachea
Liver
Left ventricle
Non-ossified Right ventricle Heart apex

costochondral
junction
No Labels
The Abdomen General Abdomen views
The Gastrointestinal System
The Spleen
The Liver
The Bladder
The Kidneys and Ureters and Urethra
The Reproductive System

The Gastrointestinal System

Caecum detail: VD view
Gastric Antrum: Left lateral view
Gastric Antrum: Right lateral view
Gastric Rugae: Lateral view
Pneumogastrogram: VD view
Pneumogastrogram: Lateral view

Caecum detail:
VD view
This close up view of part of the
ventrodorsal abdominal radiograph
of the dog shows gas filling the
caecum, which lies just right of the
mid-line at the level of L3 to L5.
This is a normal appearance.
Full Screen Labels

Labels
L3
Gas filled caecum

L4
L5
No Labels
Gastric Antrum: This lateral radiograph of a large dog was made

with the dog lying in right recumbency. Gas is
Right lateral view visible in the gastric fundus, but the antrum and
body of the stomach are predominantly fluid-filled
and appear as a regular rounded structure in the
cranioventral part of the abdomen. This
appearance can be mistaken for a ball in the
stomach.
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Full Screen Labels
Enlarged spleen Descending colon
Reflected
abdominal
muscles & skin
Left lateral lobe Greater

of liver omentum
Longissimus © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Caudal division of Caudal lobe thoracic m Diaphragm
cranial lobe of left of left lung Iliocostalis m
lung
Left kidney
Stomach;
fundus
Pericaridal
fat
Left auricle Left Left medial Left lateral lobe Stomach; body
ventricle lobe
Labels
Right kidney Gas filled colon
Gas filled
gastric
fundus
Fluid filled gastirc Small intestines

Liver body and antrum
No Labels
Gastric Antrum: By repositioning the dog into left recumbency, gas

can be redistributed in the stomach and now fills the
Left lateral view gastric antrum. The fluid that was in the antrum and
body has now moved into the fundus, so the
appearance of the stomach is now the opposite of
what it was in right lateral recumbency. The
presence of gas in the antrum makes gastric foreign
body unlikely.
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Full Screen Labels
Descending
duodenum
Greater omentum
Caudate lobe Right lateral lobe
Right kidney of liver Caudal, middle & cranial
of liver
lobes of the right lung
Stomach; antrum
Diaphragm
Left lateral lobe Right medial lobe Quadrate

lobe
Labels
Fluid filled
gastric
fundus
Gas filled gastirc Small intestines

Liver
body and antrum
No Labels
Gastric Rugae:
Lateral view
This close-up view of part of the lateral
abdominal radiograph of a dog shows
the appearance of the gastric rugae,
which in this instance are well outlined by
gas. They have fairly uniform thickness
and an undulating course. As the
stomach distends, gastric rugae are
stretched out and flattened and are less
visible radiographically.
Full Screen Labels

Labels
Gastric rugae
No Labels
Pneumogastrogram: This ventrodorsal radiograph of a

dog with an air filled stomach shows
VD view the relatively large rounded fundus
of the stomach, which lies to the left
of midline, and the more oblong
gastric body extending across the
mid-line to the right where the pyloric
canal connects the gastric antrum
with the duodenum. The duodenum
is the most lateral of the gas-filled
intestinal loops visible in this
radiograph.
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Full Screen Labels
Right medial Left lateral lobe

lobe of liver
Stomach;
antrum
Cranial duodenal
flexure
Stomach; fundus
Right lobe of
pancreas
Left lobe of
Descending pancreas
duodenum
Caudal duodenal
flexure
Sternum
Left medial lobe

Diaphragm
Quadrate
lobe Left lateral lobe
Xiphoid process
Right medial
lobe
Stomach; fundus
Left kidney
Right
kidney Caudal
vena cava
Stomach
Greater
omentum
Descending Enlarged
duodenum spleen
Labels
Caudal lobar
branches of
pulmonary
vessels
superimposed on
Liver the liver
Gas in gastric
fundus
Gas in duodenum
Gas in gastric
antrum
No Labels
Pneumogastrogram:
Lateral view
For this radiograph a large bore
gastric tube has been passed
and the stomach inflated to
more clearly demonstrate its
size, position and shape.
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Full Screen Labels
Serratus © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Serratus dorsalis pars
dorsalis pars caudalis Cut edge of internal
cranialis Perirenal fat abdominal oblique
External intercostal m Stomach; fundus Left lobe of pancreas


cranialis
Right lobe of
pancreas
Descending duodenum
Stomach; Left lateral lobe

antrum
Labels
Large bore
gastric tube
Air filled gastric

body and fundus
Liver
No Labels
The Kidneys and Ureters

Intra-venous Ureterogram (IVU): VD view
Nephrogram: VD view, DSA
Renal non-selective angiogram: VD view

Intra-venous
Ureterogram (IVU):
VD view
This ventrodorsal radiograph was made several
minutes after injection of contrast medium into a
peripheral vein. Circulation of the contrast through
the heart and lungs is followed by systemic
distribution to all organs, including the kidneys.
The kidneys filter contrast and excrete it into the
renal pelvis and ureters which are visible clearly in
this instance. This procedure is called an
intravenous urogram (IVU). Opacification of the
renal collecting system, pelvis and ureters is also
known as a pyelogram. Note that the urinary
bladder has been filled with air
(pneumocystogram) to help identify it and to
improve visualisation of the ureters as they pass
over the urinary bladder in this view. Each ureter in
this dog passes in a caudal direction and then
makes an approximately 180º turn before draining
into the bladder. This is a completely normal
appearance.
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Full Screen Labels
Medulla
Cortex
Renal artery
Arcuate aa
Renal vein
Renal sinus
Ureter
Interlobular artery
Pelvis recess
Impression of renal crest
Interlobar artery
Ureter
Renal artery
Vena cava
Aorta
Oesophagus
Quadrate lobe of
liver
Left medial
lobe of liver
Gall bladder Left lateral

lobe of liver
Right medial lobe
Adrenal gland
Right kidney
Left kidney
Renal a&v
Caudal vena
Labels
Renal pelvis
Ureter
Bladder
No Labels
Nephrogram:
VD view, DSA
This radiograph was made in a similar
way to the renal non-selective
angiogram, but the technique of digital
subtraction has enabled other
abdominal structures not containing
contrast medium to be removed from
the image, leaving a particularly clear
depiction of the contrast within the
aorta and its various branches.
Contrast medium arriving in the
kidneys is quickly distributed evenly
through the cortex where it is filtered
by the glomerulus. Opacification of the
renal parenchyma is known as a
nephrogram.
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Full Screen Labels
Medulla
Cortex
Renal artery
Arcuate aa
Renal vein
Renal sinus
Ureter
Interlobular artery
Pelvis recess
Interlobar artery
Ureter
Renal artery
Vena cava
Aorta
Oesophagus
Quadrate lobe of
liver
Left medial
lobe of liver

lobe of liver
Right medial lobe
Adrenal gland
Right kidney
Left kidney
Renal a&v
Caudal vena
Labels
Celiac a
Cr. Mesenteric a
Interlobar aa
Renal aa
External iliac a
Internal iliac a
Median sacral a
No Labels
Renal non-selective
angiogram:
VD view
This radiograph was made
during injection of contrast
medium into the mid-abdominal
aorta via a catheter and shows
contrast predominantly filling the
renal arteries and the interlobar
arteries of the kidneys. In many
dogs, each kidney has two renal
arteries.
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Full Screen Labels
Medulla
Cortex
Renal artery
Arcuate aa
Renal vein
Renal sinus
Ureter
Interlobular artery
Pelvis recess
Interlobar artery
Ureter
Renal artery
Vena cava
Aorta
Oesophagus
Quadrate lobe of
liver
Left medial
lobe of liver

lobe of liver
Right medial lobe
Adrenal gland
Right kidney
Left kidney
Renal a&v
Caudal vena
Labels
Interlobar aa
Renal aa
Deep circumflex a
External iliac a
Internal iliac a
Median sacral a
No Labels
The Bladder and Urethra

Male Urethrogram: Lateral view
Bladder: Lateral view, Pelvic

Male Urethrogram: This radiograph was made during injection of contrast

medium into a urethral catheter and shows the contrast
Lateral view within the penile and pelvic urethra, the bladder and a
small amount of contrast refluxing up one of the
ureters. Note the uniform calibre of the urethra as it
bends around the caudal aspect of the ischium before
becoming wider within the pelvis. An elongated gas
bubble is present in the caudal part of the pelvic
urethra and could be confused with a lesion.
Full Screen Labels

Labels
Slight dorsal dip Isthmus

Bladder Ureter Preprostatic marks the Penile (narrowing of No Labels
urethra seminal colliclus urethra lumen)
Bladder: This radiograph of a small breed female dog shows

contrast medium (and a large air bubble) in the
Lateral view, Pelvic vagina and uterus. The oblique filling defect in the
uterus dorsal to the bladder represents the site of
the cervix. In this dog the urinary bladder has a very
wide neck, which is located within the pelvis. Dogs
(male or female) with this conformation often have
urinary incontinence.
Note: Male dog used for photo,

female in radiograph!
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Full Screen Labels
Spinal cord Sacrum

Rectum Urethra
7 Lumbar vertebra
th Vestibule
Anus
Rectus abdominis m.
Bladder Adductor m. Lips of vulva
Intervertebral disc
Symphyseal surface
of os coxae
Labels
Vagina
Uterine horns Bladder Cervix Urethra Pubis Vestibule

Bladder neck
No Labels
The Reproductive System

Vaginogram: Lateral view, Oestrus
Uterus: Lateral view, Metoestrus
Prostate: Lateral view

Vaginogram: This radiograph was made by injection of

contrast medium into the vagina and urethra
Lateral view, Oestrus of an entire female dog. Contrast opacifies
the urethra, bladder, vagina and the two
horns of the uterus, which are visible as
narrow coiled structures superimposed on
the craniodorsal aspect of the bladder. The
large diameter of the vagina and the open
cervix are compatible with oestrus.

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Full Screen Labels
Right ovary
Broad ligament Right uterine horn
Cervix Bladder
Dorsomedian fold
continuing the cervix
Vagina
External urethral orifice

Vestibule
Clitoris
Labels
L5
Uterine horns Bladder Cervix Urethra Pubis Vagina Vestibule

Vaginal fornix
No Labels
Uterus: In this lateral abdominal radiograph

the uterus can be faintly seen as a
Lateral view, Metoestrus curved elongated, faintly lumpy-
appearing structure superimposed
over the bladder. This appearance is
normal, although the uterus in many
dogs is too small to be seen
radiographically.

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Full Screen Labels
Right ovary
Broad ligament Right uterine horn
Cervix Bladder
Dorsomedian fold
continuing the cervix
Vagina
External urethral orifice

Vestibule
Clitoris

Labels
L5 © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Left kidney
Faeces in
descending
colon
Uterus
Bladder Ventral abdominal wall

Small
intestines
No Labels
Prostate: In this radiograph of a male dog a rounded soft tissue structure is visible just
caudal to the bladder and ventral to the faeces-filled colon at the pelvic inlet.
Lateral view This is the prostate. It is often difficult to see the prostate because it is usually
within the pelvis, so is obscured by the surrounding bones. In entire male dogs
the prostate gradually enlarges with increasing age and moves cranially so
that it becomes visible cranial to the pelvic inlet, as in this instance. Note the
triangular lucency that occupies the angle formed by the ventral abdominal
wall, the ventral wall of the bladder and the cranioventral aspect of the
prostate; this is abdominal fat and it is the fact that it is less opaque than soft
tissues that enables visualisation of the prostate.
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Full Screen Labels
Rectum
Anus
Deferent
duct
Pelvic
urethra
Bladder Prostate
gland Retractor
penis m.
Bulbospongiosus
Body of penis m.
Ischiocavernosus m.
over left crus
Anus
Urethra
Bulbospongiosus
m. Descending
colon
Ureter (right)
Bladder
Right crus Kidney (left)
Deferent duct
(right) Testicular
vessels
Retractor
penis m.
Dorsal a. and v.
of penis Bulbus
glandis
Spermatic cord
Pars longa
Testis (right) glandis
Prepuce
Labels
L5
Ilium
Hip joint
Femoral
head
Prostate
Fat
between
bladder
neck &
abdominal
wall
Bladder Ventral abdominal wall

No Labels
General Abdomen views

Abdominal Aortogram: Lateral view
Abdomen: Lateral view
Abdomen: VD view
Pup Abdomen: Lateral view

Abdominal Aortogram: This lateral radiograph was made

Lateral view immediately after injection of
positive contrast medium into the
left ventricle and shows
opacification of the abdominal aorta
and its major branches.
Muscle layers
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Full Screen Labels
Reflected
abdominal
muscles & skin

of liver omentum
Caudal division of cranial Longissimus thoracic m © Royal Veterinary College 2009
lobe of left lung Caudal lobe Diaphragm
of left lung Iliocostalis m
Left kidney
Stomach; fundus
Pericaridal fat
Left ventricle
Left auricle Left medial lobe Left lateral lobe Stomach; body
Serratus dorsalis Serratus dorsalis pars caudalis
Cut edge of internal
pars cranialis Perirenal fat abdominal oblique

Transverse abdominal m
Internal abdominal oblique m
External abdominal oblique m External abdominal oblique m

Internal abdominal oblique m
Labels
Right kidney Left kidney L4
Renal aa
Celiac a Internal iliac aa

Aorta Cr. Mesenteric a
External iliac aa
Deep femoral aa
Small Bladder
intestines No Labels
Abdomen: This is a typical lateral abdominal radiograph of a dog, in which the abdominal
Lateral
viscera are visible but are difficult to discern because of superimposition and
because of the similar opacity of the organs and surrounding tissues. The liver is
present on the cranioventral aspect of the abdomen between the stomach, which is
view gas-filled, and the diaphragm. In this instance the caudal port of the liver extends
several centimetres caudal to the last ribs and some would interpret this as
enlarged. Just caudal to the liver is an oblong soft tissue structure that
corresponds to the tail of the spleen. Dorsal to this there are numerous loops of
small intestine, some containing gas which makes them easier to see, and others
containing a small amount of fluid. Dorsal to the small intestinal loops and bladder
is the colon. This is recognisable because of its speckled content, which represents
faeces. The kidneys are relatively difficult to see in many dogs and this is no
exception. The left kidney is present in the mid-dorsal abdomen from the level of L2
to L4. The right kidney overlaps with the left and occupies the region from
approximately T13 to L2.
Pot 1 Muscle layers

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Full Screen Labels
Reflected
abdominal
muscles & skin

of liver omentum
Longissimus © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Caudal division of Caudal lobe thoracic m
cranial lobe of left of left lung Diaphragm
Iliocostalis m
lung
Left kidney
Stomach;
fundus
Pericaridal
fat
Left auricle Left Left medial Left lateral lobe Stomach; body
ventricle lobe
Serratus © Royal Veterinary College 2009
dorsalis pars caudalis Cut edge of internal
cranialis Perirenal fat abdominal oblique

Internal abdominal Transverse abdominal m

oblique m
External External
abdominal Internal abdominal abdominal
oblique m oblique m oblique m
Labels
Gas in body of Faeces in
stomach Right kidney Left kidney L4 descending colon
Caudal Tail Small Bladder

extremity of liver end of intestines No Labels
spleen
Abdomen:
VD view
This is the corresponding ventrodorsal view to the
previous lateral. Again it is difficult to discern the
individual abdominal organs in this typical dog. The
left kidney is visible from approximately L1 to L3 with
the elongated curvilinear spleen lateral to it and
overlapping its caudal pole. The right kidney is
virtually invisible. In this dog most of the small
intestine appears to lie to the right of midline; this is
not abnormal. The stomach is gas-filled, as it was in
the lateral view, and has a rounded fundus to the left
of midline and a narrower, more elongated body that
crosses the midline towards the antrum, which lies on
the right. The gas-filled piece of small intestine seen
superimposed over the right 12 th and 13th ribs is
probably the duodenum, although its connection to
the stomach is not visible. An incidental finding in this
dog is the unusual left rib at T13, which is shorter and
thicker than the other ribs. This represents transitional
anatomy, having some of the features of a normal rib
and some of the features of a normal lumbar
transverse process. Transitional thoracolumbar
vertebrae or lumbosacral vertebrae are commonly
seen in dogs but are usually of no clinical significance.
Pot 1 Pot 2
Pot 3 Pot 4
Full Screen Labels
Vena cava
Aorta
Oesophagus
Quadrate lobe of
liver
Left medial
lobe of liver

lobe of liver
Right medial lobe
Adrenal gland
Right kidney
Left kidney
Renal a&v
Caudal vena
Right medial Left lateral lobe

lobe of liver
Stomach;
antrum
Cranial duodenal
flexure
Stomach; fundus
Right lobe of
pancreas
Left lobe of
Descending pancreas
duodenum
Caudal duodenal
flexure
Sternum
Left medial lobe

Diaphragm
Quadrate
lobe Left lateral lobe
Xiphoid process
Right medial
lobe
Stomach; fundus
Left kidney
Right
kidney Caudal
vena cava
Stomach
Greater
omentum
Descending Enlarged
duodenum spleen
Labels
Gas filled antrum of Gas within fundus of

stomach stomach
Duodenum Transitional left rib

of T13
Body of spleen
Left kidney
Faeces within
descending colon
Vertebrae L5
No Labels
Pup Abdomen: This lateral abdominal radiograph of a very young puppy shows
open growth plates in the vertebrae, the pelvis and distal femurs.
Lateral view The abdomen has a virtually featureless, uniform opacity except for
a few gas shadows in the stomach and parts of the intestine. Other
abdominal organs are invisible. This is a normal appearance that
occurs because in neonatal puppies and kittens there is very little
abdominal fat, and in the absence of fat there is no contrast
(difference) between the opacity of the different abdominal
structures which therefore merge into one uniform grey.
Full Screen Labels

Labels
Physes © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Ilium Pubis
Ischium
Liver No Labels
The Spleen
Spleen: Lateral view

Spleen: A lateral abdominal radiograph shows the spleen having a more

elongated and shapely demarcated appearance than in the ‘
Lateral view Abdomen: Lateral View’ radiograph. The appearance of the spleen
depends greatly on its position in the abdomen and as it is somewhat
mobile it can vary from dog to dog and even from minute to minute. It is
very easy to over-interpret the appearance of the spleen because of these
variations. Dorsal to the spleen in the mid-abdomen there are a few small
intestinal loops which are non-dilated and dorsal to that there is gas
outlining the large intestine and caecum. The bladder occupies the
caudoventral part of the abdomen and has the large intestine and rectum
draped over its dorsal aspect.
Pot
Full Screen Labels
Reflected
abdominal
muscles & skin

of liver omentum
Labels
Faeces within © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Ascending colon
descending colon Lumbar vertebrae 5
Ventral extremity Caecum Bladder

Non dilated No Labels
of spleen
small intestine
The Liver
Liver: Portogram
Liver: This ventrodorsal radiograph is made

immediately following injection of contrast
Portogram medium into a mesenteric vein at laparotomy.
Contrast within the vein flows cranially into the
hepatic portal vein and into the intrahepatic
branches of the portal vein. This is a normal
study.
In this image, the blood vessels appear as
black structures, which is the opposite of what
you might have been expecting based on
experience of other angiograms. This is a digital
subtraction angiogram in which the other parts
of the body such as the bones and the other
abdominal organs do not contribute to the
image, and the contrast medium appears as
black on a uniform grey background. This
technique makes it possible to see clearly the
tiny portal branches extending out into the
periphery of the liver.
Full Screen Labels

Labels
Intrahepatic
portalveins
Splenic vein
Hepatic Portal
vein
No Labels
The Spine
Cervical region Lumbar region
Thoracic region Sacral region
Coccygeal vertebrae
The Vertebrae;
Atlas Axis Cervical, thoracic & lumbar
1= Dorsal Tubercle
2= Cranial articular fovea 1
3= Transverse process
4= Body 5
5= Dorsal arch Cranial aspect
3
6= Arch
7= Caudal articular fovea 4
8= Odontoid process (fovea for dens) 2
9= Ventral tubercle
10= Lateral vertebral foramen
11= Transverse foramen
1
6
10 11
Lateral aspect
ATLAS
9
7
3 Caudal aspect
8
9
1= Transverse process
2= Body 3
3= Spinous process 4
4= Caudal articular process
5= Cranial articular process 7 Cranial aspect
6= Dens (Odontoid process)
7= Transverse canal 1
8= Body of axis 6 5
9= Arch 2
4 9 Lateral aspect
AXIS
10 6 6
5
1
4
Caudal aspect
7
8 1
1
Cranial Lateral Caudal

1 1
5 1
6
Cervical v. 3
4
2
3
7
2
6
3
2
1 1
1
Thoracic v. 7 8 6
1= Spinous process 6
2= Body 2 4 5
3= Transverse process 3 9 11
4= Vertebral foramen 2 10
9
5= Lamina 2
6= Cranial articular surface 2
7= Caudal articular surface
8= Mamillary process 1
6 12
9= Caudal costal fovea 1 1
10= Cranial costal fovea 8 8
11= Cranial articular process 12 8
12= Caudal articular process 4 11 12
4
2 3 3 2
2
Lumbar v.
Cervical region
Yorkshire Terrier cervical spine: Lateral view, neutral position
Yorkshire Terrier cervical spine: Lateral view, flexed position
Puppy cervical spine: Lateral view
Cervical spine survey: Lateral view
Cervical myelogram: Lateral view

Yorkshire Terrier cervical spine:

Lateral view, neutral position
In small and toy breeds of dogs the vertebral canal is relatively wider than in large
breeds. This lateral radiograph of a Yorkshire terrier shows the wide gap between
the vertebral bodies and the corresponding dorsal laminae, which are projected
dorsal to the articular facets. C1 looks tall and narrow compared with its
appearance in large breed dogs.
Pot
Full Screen Labels
Atlas
Axis
1 3
6
3 3rd Ce
4 3 4th Ce
2 8
7
5th Ce
4 3
2= Wing of atlas 4 3
3= Spinous processes
4= Transverse processes
5= Extended plate of 4
transverse process of Ce 6
6= Vertebral foramen
7= Cranial articular process 4
8= Caudal articular process 5
Labels
Spinous Dorsal & © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Dorsal Caudal
process of ventral borders articular
tubercle of axis (C2) of vertebral Cranial articular process
atlas (C1) process of C3 of C4
canal
Intervertebral Extended plate of

Intervertebral disc space transverse process of
Tympanic Ventral foramen between between C4
Transvese process C6
bulla tubercle of C4 &C5 &C5
(wings) of atlas Endotracheal tube
atlas No Labels
within trachea
Yorkshire Terrier cervical spine:

Lateral view, flexed position
Another radiograph of the same
Yorkshire terrier made with the head
ventroflexed shows that flexion
occurs at the occipitoatlantal joint
(“yes” joint) but not at the
atlantoaxial joint (“no” joint). This
appearance is normal. In dogs
suspected of having atlantoaxial
subluxation, abnormal displacement
of C1 may occur when the neck is
manipulated, typically producing a
widened gap between C1 and C2 in
a ventroflexed lateral radiograph like
this.
Full Screen Labels Pot

Atlas
Axis
1 3
6
3 3rd Ce
4 3 4th Ce
2 8
7
5th Ce
4 3
Labels
External © Royal Veterinary College 2009
occiptal
protruberanc
e
Spinous
Dorsal
process of
tubercle of
axis (C2)
atlas (C1)
Atlanto -
occipital
condyle
Transverse
Tympanic process
bullae (wings) of
atlas
Endotracheal
tube within
trachea
No Labels
Puppy cervical spine:

Lateral view
Just as in the limb bones, open physes are normally visible in the vertebral bodies
in dogs less than 9 months old. Each vertebral body (except C1) has two physes.
Pot
Full Screen Labels
Atlas
Axis
1 3
6
3 3rd Ce
4 3 4th Ce
2 8
7
5th Ce
4 3
Labels
Atlas Spinous © Royal Veterinary College 2009
(cervical process of Dorsal &
vertebrae axis (C2) ventral borders
1) of vertebral Dorsal spinous
canal process of C7
Endotracheal tube Intervertebral

within trachea Open physes disc space
of C3 between C4
&C5 No Labels
Cervical spine survey:

Lateral view
This lateral radiograph of the cervical spine shows the normal features of the 7
cervical vertebrae. C2 (axis) is the easiest to recognise because of its large dorsal
spine. Immediately cranial to it is the spineless dorsal lamina of C1 (atlas). The
wings of the atlas are superimposed over the cranial aspect of the body of C2. The
cervical vertebrae are well aligned and the intervertebral spaces are regular in width.
C6 is recognisable because of the large bent transverse processes, which project
ventral to the vertebral body in a lateral radiograph.
Pot
Full Screen Labels
Atlas
Axis
1 3
6
3 3rd Ce
4 3 4th Ce
2 8
7
5th Ce
4 3
Labels
Dorsal & © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Dorsal ventral borders
tubercle of vertebral
Lateral Cranial
vertebral canal Caudal
articular articular
foramen Spinous process of C4 Dorsal spinous
process of process of C3 process of C7
axis (C2)
Atlas
(cervical
vertebrae
1)
Ventral
tubercle of Transvese Intervertebral Intervertebral Extended plate of
atlas process axis foramina disc space transverse process of
Occipital condyle (C2) between C4 between C4 C6
Tympanic bulla Cr. & Cd. &C5 &C5
Transvese process Transverse
(wings) of atlas processes Endotracheal tube within No Labels
Stylohyoid bone trachea
Cervical myelogram:
Lateral view
Injection of contrast medium into the subarachnoid space of the same dog as in the
cervical spine survey image outlines the spinal cord, which is now visible as a lucent
space between the two thin contrast lines. The ventral contrast line bends slightly
dorsal above the intervertebral spaces, most noticeable at C2-3 and C6-7; this
appearance is normal.
Pot
Full Screen Labels
Atlas
Axis
1 3
6
3 3rd Ce
4 3 4th Ce
2 8
7
5th Ce
4 3
Labels
Dorsal & © Royal Veterinary College 2009
ventral borders
of vertebral
canal
Spinous Dorsal spinous
process of Contrast media within
Atlas subarachnoid space process of C7
(cervical axis (C2)
vertebrae
1)
Transvese Intervertebral Extended plate of

process axis disc space transverse process of
(C2) between C4 C6
Transvese process &C5
Endotracheal tube (wings) of atlas No Labels
within trachea
Thoracic region
Thoraco-lumbar myelogram: Lateral view, large dog
Thoraco-lumbar spondylosis: Lateral view

Thoraco-lumbar myelogram:
Lateral view, large dog
The thoracolumbar region (T11-L2) is a frequent site of disc prolapse in dogs. This
radiograph show the normal appearance of a thoracolumbar myelogram in a large
breed dog. The contrast lines are regular and gently curved, with no sign of
deviation over the intervertebral spaces. It is normal for the dorsal contrast line to be
thicker than the ventral. This radiograph is slightly oblique - as you can see from the
lack of superimposition of the ribs (ribs on one side projected dorsal to contralateral
ribs) - but this is not a major problem; in a perfect lateral both sets of ribs may be
superimposed over the myelogram, making it hard to see clearly. It is sometimes
easier to see the myelogram in a slightly oblique radiograph like this.
Pot
Full Screen Labels
Caudal articular
Tubercle process
Spinous process
Head Neck Angle Body Vertebral

body
Labels
Caudal articular Cranial articular Dorsal spinous © Royal Veterinary College 2009
process process process
Intervertebral
foramina
Dorsal & ventral Thoracic Contrast medium within Transverse

borders of vertebral vertebrae 13 the subarachnoid space process of L3
foramen No Labels
Thoraco-lumbar spondylosis:
Lateral view
In middle aged or old dogs (and cats), exostoses are frequently observed arising
from the ventral and lateral aspects of the vertebral bodies adjacent to the end-
plates. These exostoses can be quite large and pointed and extend ventral to the
intervertebral space, sometimes bridging the space with solid bone. This condition is
called spondylosis deformans. It is not a cause of clinical signs.
Full Screen Labels

Labels
Caudal articular Cranial articular Dorsal spinous © Royal Veterinary College 2009
process process process Intervertebral
foramina
Dorsal & ventral

Thoracic Exostoses Transverse borders of vertebral
vertebrae 13 process of L3 foramen No Labels
Lumbar region
Lumbar spine: Lateral view
Lumbar myelogram: Lateral view
Lumbar epidurogram: Lateral view

Lumbar spine:
Lateral view
This lateral radiograph of the lumbar spine shows the normal features of the 7
lumbar vertebrae, which are well aligned and the intervertebral spaces are
regular in width. L7 is often a bit shorter than the others, although that is not very
noticeable in this dog.
Pot
Full Screen Labels
Mamillary Accessory Spinous process

process process
Transverse process Vertebral body

Labels
Caudal articular Cranial articular Dorsal spinous Intervertebral Wings of the

process process process foramina ilium
1st Lumbar Vertebral body Transverse Dorsal & ventral

vertebrae process of L4 L7 Sacrum
borders of
vertebral
foramen
No Labels
Lumbar myelogram:
Lateral view
This lumbar myelogram shows the very regular, almost straight, contrast
lines that we see in large breed dogs. Note that the ventral contrast line
goes over each intervertebral space (i.e. over each disc) without any dorsal
deviation. Also note the gradually tapered thecal sac, which contains the
cauda equina. In this dog it terminates at the cranial aspect of the sacrum.
Pot
Full Screen Labels

process process

Labels
Caudal articular Cranial articular Dorsal spinous Contrast medium within Wings of the
process process process the subarachnoid space ilium
1st Lumbar Vertebral body Transverse Dorsal & ventral

vertebrae process of L4 Sacrum
borders of
vertebral
foramen
No Labels
Lumbar epidurogram:
Lateral view
A myelogram is a radiograph made after contrast medium has been injected into the
subarachnoid space. To do this a needle is inserted through the dura, the thick outer layer of
the meninges. Sometimes it is difficult to place the needle accurately, and if the tip fails to
penetrate the dura there is the possibility that injected contrast will be deposited in the tissues
around the dura instead (i.e. in the epidural space). This lateral radiograph of the lumbar spine
shows epidural deposition of contrast medium. Compared to a myelogram, the contrast has
an uneven wavy appearance with focal accumulations at each of the intervertebral foramina
because epidural contrast ends to spread along the spinal nerves. An epidurogram is not as
satisfactory for diagnosis as a myelogram.
Pot
Full Screen Labels

process process

Labels
Caudal articular Cranial articular Dorsal spinous Intervertebral

process process process foramina
1st Lumbar Vertebral body Transverse Dorsal & ventral Contrast medium within
vertebrae process borders of the epidural space
vertebral
foramen
No Labels
Sacral region
Thecal sac myelogram: VD view, normal appearance
Thecal sac myelogram: Lateral view, normal appearance
Lumbosacral joint: Lateral view

Thecal sac myelogram:

VD view,
normal appearance
This is a ventrodorsal radiograph of the
lumbosacral region of a dog. What surgical
procedure has been performed on this dog?
Full Screen Labels

Labels
Lumbar
vertebrae 7
Cranial ventral
iliac spine
Lumbosacral
joint
Body of ilium Faeces in rectum

1st caudal
vertebrae
Hip joints
Hip prosthesis Hip prosthesis
No Labels
Thecal sac myelogram:

Lateral view, normal appearance
In large breed dogs, the thecal sac is frequently wide in the lumbosacral region period. In this
instance it has a blunted termination well within the sacrum. This is a normal anatomical
variation.
Full Screen Labels

Labels
Dura mater & arachnoid mater: Iliac crest Cranial dorsal

iliac spine 1st caudal
the thecal sac.
vertebrae
Lumbar Body of ilium

vertebrae 7
No Labels
Lumbosacral joint: This lateral radiograph shows the lumbosacral joint

in a large dog. Note that in a lateral radiograph the
Lateral view lumbosacral joint and L7 must be viewed through
the wings of the ilium This is a common site of disc
disease. This dog has spondylosis at the
lumbosacral joint.
Full Screen Labels

Labels
Cranial dorsal
iliac spine
Iliac crest Sacrum
Lumbar
vertebrae 7 End plates of L7 and sacrum
No Labels
Coccygeal vertebrae
“Screw-tail”: Lateral view
Tail: Lateral view

“Screw-tail”:
Lateral view
Congenital anomalies affecting the vertebrae are common in brachycephalic breeds such as
the bulldog and pug. This lateral radiograph shows a short, bent tail in an English bulldog.
This malformation is known as a screw tail.
Full Screen Labels

Labels
Short, bent
screw tail
Body of ilium Hip joint

No Labels
Tail: This lateral radiograph of the pelvis includes the

Lateral view sacrum and first few caudal vertebrae. The remainder
of the tail is thin and hence overexposed in this
radiograph. The vertebral canal through the lumbar
vertebrae, sacrum and tail is fairly straight.
Full Screen Labels

Labels
Cranial dorsal Caudal dorsal © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Iliac crest iliac spine iliac spine 1st caudal

vertebrae
Lumbar
vertebrae 7 Faeces in rectum
Cranial ventral Lesser ischiatic
iliac spine notch
Ischiatic
Body of ilium tuberosity
Obturator
Hip joints foramen
Head of femur
Femur Pubis
No Labels
What do I need to
know?
Pre-clinical students:
This is a reference resource for you to use to improve your gross anatomical
knowledge whilst becoming familiar with normal radiographic anatomy.
Each image is labelled in great detail; each detail is NOT ESSENTIAL knowledge.
This resource is designed as a comprehensible reference tool.
Clinical students:
This programme is designed to allow you to familiarise yourself with normal

radiographic anatomy whilst providing you with a chance to revise and integrate
your anatomical knowledge. Each radiograph is accompanied by informative
text and an image of the animal in position for that radiograph to help you
understand how the picture was taken. It is designed for you to use throughout
your IMR, EMS and revision.
Useful resources
1. Useful background knowledge for pre-clinical students.

2. Clinical skills – Digital imaging skill sheets and videos.
BLE > Clinical skills centre > further resources
Credits
Created by: C Lamb, L White, C Trace, S Frean and D Kilroy

eMedia Unit
Royal Veterinary College
Royal College Street
London
UK
NW1 0TU
Last update 9/12/09

Canine Radiographs

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Canine Radiographs

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Nasal chambers Mandible

Skull: Ventrodorsal (V-D) view

Young Skull: Lateral view

Skull: V-D view, Calvaria

Skull: Lateral view, Calvaria

Condyloid Pot Comparison

Pot Full screen

Zygomatic arch Medial border of

Coronoid process of Ethmoidal conchae

Jugular foramen Parcondylar process

Young Skull: This radiograph shows a typical appearance of the

Soft palate Basihyoid bone Sternohyoid m. Epiglottis Oesophagus

Mental foramen Pterygopalantine Condyloid process Tympanic bulla

© Royal Veterinary College 2009

Endotracheal Hyoid apparatus Wings of atlas

Full screen Labels Pot

Rostral alar Coronoid process

Condyloid process Pot Comparison

Pot Full screen

Lower premolar 4 Upper molar 1

Angular process Temporomandibular

Alantoaxial joint 2nd cervical

Endotracheal tube No Labels

Full screen Labels Pot

Mental foramen Pterygopalantine Condyloid process Tympanic bulla

© Royal Veterinary College 2009

Coronoid process Atlas

Tooth root Condyloid

The Frontal Sinuses

Frontal sinuses: R-Cd view

Frontal sinuses: This radiograph is made by placing the dog in dorsal

Full screen Labels

Right frontal sinus Left frontal sinus

The Tympanic Bullae

Tympanic Bullae: This is another radiograph made with the

Full screen Labels

Larynx: Lateral view

Larynx: Lateral view, brachycephali

Larynx: This radiograph of the larynx made in an

Epihyoid Ceratohyoid Arytenoid Cricoid Air in the Trachea Tracheal

Larynx: Radiographs of brachycephalic dogs such as the

Nasopharynx Frontal sinus Pons Cerebellum

Genioglossus m Geniohyoid m Soft palate Trachea

Mental foramen External acoustic

Soft Tissue Trachea Humerus

Full screen Labels

The Nasal chambers

Nasal chambers: IO view

Nasal chambers: IO view, dolicocephalic

Nasal chambers: IO view, brachycephalic

Nasal chambers: Lateral view

Dacryorhinocystogram: Lateral view

Full screen Labels Pot

Upper premolar 1-4 Interincisive suture

Upper Molar 1 & 2

Tympanic bulla Jugular foramen