Variables

• Any quality or characteristic that has two or

more possible values (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005)
- a phenomenon whose values or
categories cannot be predicted (Mendoza et al.,
2000)
- any trait, characteristic, or attribute that
can change from observation to observation
Ex. age of gestation; smoking habit; weight;
educational attainment
 Types of Variables
1. Qualitative variable –
categories are simply used as labels to
distinguish one group from another (does not
say if one group is greater or less, higher or
lower, etc.)

Ex. Sex; Urban-Rural classification; Religion

 Types of Variables
2. Quantitative variable –
categories can be measured and ordered
according to quantity or amount; values can be
expressed numerically

Ex. birth weight; hospital bed capacity;

population size
 Categories of Variable
1. Independent Variable
a variable assumed to influence or predict
another variable (the dependent variable)
-input, manipulated, treatment, or stimulus
variable
-it is presumed to cause, effect, or influence,
or stimulate the outcome
 Categories of Variable
2. Dependent Variable
a variable assumed to be influenced or
predicted by another variable (the independent
variable)
-output, outcome or the response variable
-“dependent” on the independent variable
-the outcome presumably depends on how
these input variables are managed or
manipulated
 Categories of Variable
2. Control Variable
a variable which by itself may produce changes
which may be mistaken to be the effect of the
independent variables being considered
(potential confounders)
- it needs to be controlled, held constant,
randomized so that their effects are neutralized,
cancelled out, or equated for all conditions
Ex. age; sex; IQ; SES; educational level
Example:
To determine the relationship among obesity,
hypertension, and the age of a person

Control variable – related to both the

independent variable (IV) & dependent variable
(DV)
Example

To determine the relationship among obesity, hypertension, and the

age of a person

OBESITY HYPERTENSION
(IV) (DV)

AGE
(CV)

Age is related to both IV & DV. An older person has a greater tendency
to be hypertensive; the older the person, the greater his tendency to
be obese.
 Hypothesis
• Hypothesis are tentative, intelligent guesses as
to the solution of the problem.

• Hypothesis is important in experimental

research whereas research questions are more
common in qualitative research.
• Both hypothesis and question help determine
the nature of the research and the methods
applied
 Function of hypothesis
• Helps in research design
• Serve as basis for determining
assumptions, relevance of data gathered
and analyzed
• Helps in consolidation of findings
 Hypothesis testing
• A null hypothesis (Ho) postulates that there
will be no observed effect or changes in the
outcome
• An alternative hypothesis (Ha) or the research
hypothesis postulates that there will be an
observed change or effect in the outcome.
• Null hypothesis (Ho) is a denial of an existence of
a trait, characteristic, value, difference of
correlation of the results.

• Stated in the negative form

• When the null is rejected, it means there was
sufficient evidence against it (the p-value is lower
than the significance level).
• If our p-value is greater than the significance
level, then we fail to reject the null hypothesis.
• Example: A study which aims to investigate
the effects of L-carnitine supplementation on
the body weight of overfat Filipino young
adults.
• Ho- There is no significant difference in the
body weight of overfat adults who consumed
the L-carnitine juice drink compared with the
placebo drink.
• Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) is an affirmation
of the existence of a phenomena.

• Stated in the affirmative form

• If the null hypothesis is rejected, then it
means we accept the alternative hypothesis.
• If we fail to reject the null hypothesis, it
means the alternative hypothesis was not
accepted.
• Example: A study which aims to investigate the
effects of L-carnitine supplementation on the
body weight of overfat Filipino young adults.
• Ho- There is no significant difference in the body
weight of overfat adults who consumed the L-
carnitine juice drink compared with the placebo
drink.
• Ha- There is a significant difference in the body
weight and body composition of overfat adults
who consumed the L-carnitine isotonic drinks and
L-carnitine juice drink compared with the placebo
drink.
• The level of statistical significance is often expressed as
the so-called p-value.
• By convention, we set the p-value at 0.05; it means
that is a 5% chance that the difference you found is
due to chance or error. The lower the p-value, the
stronger the evidence against the null hypothesis.

• Reject – when we find a relationship (or difference) in

the data that exists, then we reject the null and accept
the alternative.
• Fail to reject – if we do not find that a relationship (or
difference) exists, we fail to reject the null hypothesis.
Change in weight of the experimental group compared to the control

Treatment Groups Final Difference between Significant at <0.05

means

Group A 66.4
Placebo drinks
Group B 64.40 -2.04 **
Isotonic drink with
LC
Group C 70.14 +3.70 **
Juice drink with LC

**p<0.05 Table 6. Changes in weight relative to the control group

• “Because there was a significant difference in
the body weight of adults who consumed the
L-carnitine juice drink and L-carnitine isotonic
drink compared to the placebo, we,
therefore, reject the null hypothesis”.
• An experiment conclusion always refers to the
null hypothesis, rejecting or failing to reject
the Ho rather than the Ha.
• “We must let the chips fall where they may”
- To deliberately prove a hypothesis defeats the
purpose of doing research.
- If you discover your data does not support your
hypothesis, it merely means that your educated
guess about the outcome was incorrect.
 Errors in Hypothesis Testing
• Hypothesis testing is a matter of probabilities,
hence there is a chance of committing Type I or
Type II error.
• Type 1 (false positive) – the result calls for
rejection of the null hypothesis which is factually
true.
• Type 2 (false negative) - the result does not give
enough evidence to reject a null hypothesis even
when the null hypothesis should be factually
rejected.
Never confuse Type I and II errors again:
Just remember that the Boy Who Cried Wolf caused
both Type I & II errors, in that order.

First, everyone believed there was a wolf when

there wasn’t. Next, they believed there was no wolf,
when there was.

Substitute “effect” for “wolf” and you’re done.

 Other types of Hypothesis
Simple: relationship between variables

Examples:
High SFA intake leads to increased LDL
Inadequate dietary intake leads to lower
BMI
 Other types of Hypothesis
Complex: relationship among
variables (more than two exists).
B
Examples
High SFA leads to increased LDL,
TG, and risks for CVD
A C
Inadequate dietary intake leads to
weight loss, and complications
D
 Other types of Hypothesis
Directional: specifies whether the true value of the
parameter is greater than or less than the reference value.

Example:
As SFA intake increases, LDL levels will increase
An increase in nutrition knowledge will lead to higher dietary
adequacy

H+
A B
 Other types of Hypothesis
Non-Directional: does not predict whether the
parameter of interest

Example:
Increased SFA intake and LDL levels are
significantly related
 Significance of the study
• Statement of the importance of the study
• Many research problems have a “theoretical”
feel
“What practical value does my study have?”
• Without justification, it will be difficult to
convince others that the study is worth doing.
 Scope and Limitations
• All research has limitations and this certain
work that will not be performed.
• The work that will not be undertaken is
described as the delimitations of the research.
• Only a researcher who thinks carefully about
the problem and its focus can distinguish what
is relevant and what is not relevant to the
problem.
 Scope and Limitations
• Includes:
- Coverage of the study area, the subjects
- The research apparatus, equipment, or
instrument
- The research issues and concerns
- The duration of the study
- The constraints that may affect the results of
the study
 Assumptions
• Assumptions are basic things that the
researcher is taking for granted.

• Ex. A certain cause-effect relationships can

account for the patterns observed in the
phenomenon
 Definition of Terms
• Two ways of defining terms:

• Conceptual – based on general concepts taken

from the dictionary, encyclopedia, and
textbooks
• Operational – based on how it is used in the
study
 Definition of Terms
• Each term must be defined operationally to
the definition must be interpreted as it is used
on the researcher’s project.
• Example from a study:
The effect of L-carnitine supplementation on the
body composition of young adult Filipinos ages
20-35 years old.
Anthropometry
General definition:
• Anthropometric assessment – is the measurement of
physical dimensions such as height or weight, as well as
the fat composition of the human body to provide
information about a person’s nutritional status.
Operational definition:
• Anthropometric assessment – refers to the
measurement of variations in the body size, physical
dimensions, and gross composition of the human body.
In this study, anthropometric measurements pertain to
height, weight, body fat, waist and hip circumference,
and lean body mass.
The Research Proposal
Research proposals are documents that intend to
describe the research project. It usually includes the
following:
• Title
• Introduction and background
• Problem and its subproblems
• Hypothesis
• Delimitations
• Assumptions
• Significance
• Literature Review
 Uses

• Guides the investigators in the execution of

the project
• Serves as basis for evaluating the merits and
feasibility of the project
 Characteristics of a Well-Prepared
Research Proposal
• Persuasive

• Should be presented as a significant

undertaking
• Reflects mastery of the background
knowledge
• An inquiry that has a logical basis
 Characteristics of a Well-Prepared
Research Proposal
• Clear and balanced presentation

• Intelligible concise language (not too wordy)

• Describes the methods adequately
 Characteristics of a Well-Prepared
Research Proposal
• Complete
• All information required by the granting
institution are incorporated
• Attractive
• Should match the priorities of the funding
institution
• Should demonstrate how a project may help
achieve the agency’s mission and vision
 Stages in Planning the Research
Proposal

1. Initial technical planning

2. Administrative planning
3. Writing the research proposal
 1. Initial technical planning
• Problem identification
• Objectives writing
• Hypothesis formulation
• Research strategy designing
• Planning for data collection
• Method of data analysis
 2. Administrative Planning
• Scheduling the various phrases of the study
• Determine the personnel requirements
• Listing the resources needed
• Budget preparation
 3. Writing the Research Proposal
• As thesis/dissertation
• Should follow the format of the educational
institution
• As research project proposal
• Should follow the form of the funding
institution
WRITING THE INTRODUCTION
 Conceptualization phase:
Topic/Problem Identification:

T – rends
I – ssues
O – bjectives
C - ontribution