Image Processing,

Retrieval, and Analysis (I)

Prof. Christian Bauckhage
Outline
Lecture 23

Color
Color in the eye of the beholder
Color behind the eye of the beholder

Summary
Color

so far:
I digital image ⇔ discrete function assigning brightness
or color values to coordinates in the image plane
Color

so far:
I digital image ⇔ discrete function assigning brightness
or color values to coordinates in the image plane

next:
I what are colors?
I physical, physiological, and psychological foundations
Color

so far:
I digital image ⇔ discrete function assigning brightness
or color values to coordinates in the image plane

next:
I what are colors?
I physical, physiological, and psychological foundations

I what are color spaces?

I CIE, RGB, CMYK, HSI, HSV, . . .
Color

so far:
I digital image ⇔ discrete function assigning brightness
or color values to coordinates in the image plane

next:
I what are colors?
I physical, physiological, and psychological foundations

I what are color spaces?

I CIE, RGB, CMYK, HSI, HSV, . . .

I what are applications in image processing?

Color

color perception
I is usually based on a stimulation of the retina by means
of light that is incident to the lens of the eye

note:

I there is an interesting perceptional phenomenon called

synesthesia

I some synesthetic people, for instance, are capable of

seeing sounds
Color

retina
I consists of rods and cones
Color

retina
I consists of rods and cones

rods
I about 120 million distributed all over the retina
(although there are more towards its center)
I first of all react to intensity stimuli (bright or dark light)
Color

cones
I about 6 million, mainly in the fovea centralis

I react to bright light

I allow for color perception

Color

cones
I about 6 million, mainly in the fovea centralis

I react to bright light

I allow for color perception

I 3 types of cones (with different photosensitive pigments)

I L-cones (rate varies) absorb yellow/green light
I M-cones (rate varies) absorb green light
I S-cones (12%) absorb blue light
Color

explanations for a couple of phenomena

I acuteness of vision is highest in the center of the field of
view because, in the fovea, the concentration of nerve cells
is highest
Color

explanations for a couple of phenomena

I acuteness of vision is highest in the center of the field of
view because, in the fovea, the concentration of nerve cells
is highest
I this also explains the permanent series of involuntary,
abrupt, rapid (5Hz), small, simultaneous movements or
jerks of both eyes to change the fixation point (saccades)
Color

explanations for a couple of phenomena

I acuteness of vision is highest in the center of the field of
view because, in the fovea, the concentration of nerve cells
is highest
I this also explains the permanent series of involuntary,
abrupt, rapid (5Hz), small, simultaneous movements or
jerks of both eyes to change the fixation point (saccades)
I at night, i.e. when there are hardly any stimuli due to bright
light, there is almost no color perception; the acuteness of
vision is diminished, too
Color

explanations for a couple of phenomena

I acuteness of vision is highest in the center of the field of
view because, in the fovea, the concentration of nerve cells
is highest
I this also explains the permanent series of involuntary,
abrupt, rapid (5Hz), small, simultaneous movements or
jerks of both eyes to change the fixation point (saccades)
I at night, i.e. when there are hardly any stimuli due to bright
light, there is almost no color perception; the acuteness of
vision is diminished, too
I peripheral vision basically only perceives black and with
impressions
Color

1m 1mm 1µm 1nm

100 10−1 10−2 10−3 10−4 10−5 10−6 10−7 10−8 10−9
wavelength [m]

108 109 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018
frequency [Hz]

VHF micro waves infrared ultraviolet X−rays

name
visible spectrum

visible light
I the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible
to the human eye
Color

1m 1mm 1µm 1nm

100 10−1 10−2 10−3 10−4 10−5 10−6 10−7 10−8 10−9
wavelength [m]

108 109 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018
frequency [Hz]

VHF micro waves infrared ultraviolet X−rays

name
visible spectrum

visible light
I the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible
to the human eye
I the electromagnetic spectrum comprises the whole range
of electromagnetic radiation
Color

1m 1mm 1µm 1nm

100 10−1 10−2 10−3 10−4 10−5 10−6 10−7 10−8 10−9
wavelength [m]

108 109 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018
frequency [Hz]

VHF micro waves infrared ultraviolet X−rays

name
visible spectrum

visible light
I electromagnetic radiation or light refers to energy
propagation in form of electromagnetic waves
with different wavelengths and frequencies
Color

1m 1mm 1µm 1nm

100 10−1 10−2 10−3 10−4 10−5 10−6 10−7 10−8 10−9
wavelength [m]

108 109 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018
frequency [Hz]

VHF micro waves infrared ultraviolet X−rays

name
visible spectrum

visible light
I we have c = νλ where c is the speed of light and ν and λ
are frequency and wavelength, respectively
Color

visible light
I in different media, the
speed of light waves
changes, but their
frequencies remain
constant
Color

visible light
I in different media, the
speed of light waves
changes, but their
frequencies remain
constant
I for the energy of light, we have

c
E = hν = h
λ
I h = 6.6260689633 × 10−34 Js is Plankck’s constant
Color

visible light
I in different media, the
speed of light waves
changes, but their
frequencies remain
constant
I for the energy of light, we have

c
E = hν = h
λ
I h = 6.6260689633 × 10−34 Js is Plankck’s constant
I i.e. high frequent light carries more energy
Color

visible light
I light waves with a frequency of ν ≈ 1015 Hz are categorized
according to their wavelengths
λ name type
410 nm violet short wave
470 nm blue
520 nm green
590 nm yellow
620 nm orange
700 nm red long-wave

magenta blue cyan green yellow red

Color

color
I superposition (spectrum) of several waves
Color

color
I superposition (spectrum) of several waves

I a color is characterized by
I brightness ⇔ total energy of the spectrum

I hue ⇔ dominant wavelength of the spectrum

I saturation ⇔ breadth−1 of the peak of the spectrum

Color

color
I rods are sensitive to a broader spectrum, mainly to green
and yellow

⇒ even at low illumination, green or yellow objects appear to

be brighter than red or blue ones
Color

color
I rods are sensitive to a broader spectrum, mainly to green
and yellow

⇒ even at low illumination, green or yellow objects appear to

be brighter than red or blue ones

I cones are sensitive to a considerably narrower spectral

range

⇒ they allow for color perception

Color

three stimuli theory (trichromatic color vision)

I due to Young, Grassmann, and Helmholtz

I the existence of 3 types of cones implies that

Color

three stimuli theory (trichromatic color vision)

I due to Young, Grassmann, and Helmholtz

I the existence of 3 types of cones implies that the

perception of any color is triggered by a mixture
of three basic colors
Color

three stimuli theory (trichromatic color vision)

I a color can thus be represented using 3 parameters

I i.e. colors reside in a 3D space

I characteristics of this space

Color

three stimuli theory (trichromatic color vision)

I a color can thus be represented using 3 parameters

I i.e. colors reside in a 3D space

I characteristics of this space

I basis vectors ⇔ 3 primary color stimulus specifications
Color

three stimuli theory (trichromatic color vision)

I a color can thus be represented using 3 parameters

I i.e. colors reside in a 3D space

I characteristics of this space

I basis vectors ⇔ 3 primary color stimulus specifications
I primary color stimuli are linearly independent,
i.e. a primary stimulus cannot be produced as
a mixture of the other two
Color

three stimuli theory (trichromatic color vision)

I a color can thus be represented using 3 parameters

I i.e. colors reside in a 3D space

I characteristics of this space

I basis vectors ⇔ 3 primary color stimulus specifications
I primary color stimuli are linearly independent,
i.e. a primary stimulus cannot be produced as
a mixture of the other two
I length of a color vector ⇔ luminance (brightness)
Color

three stimuli theory (trichromatic color vision)

I a color can thus be represented using 3 parameters

I i.e. colors reside in a 3D space

I characteristics of this space

I basis vectors ⇔ 3 primary color stimulus specifications
I primary color stimuli are linearly independent,
i.e. a primary stimulus cannot be produced as
a mixture of the other two
I length of a color vector ⇔ luminance (brightness)
I direction of a color vector ⇔ chromaticity (hue and
saturation)
Color

2 types of mixtures
1. additive color model
2. subtractive color model
Color

additive color model

I spectral colors emitted from a
light source superimpose to
form achromatic colors (white,
grey) or colors such as pink or
magenta
Color

additive color model

I spectral colors emitted from a
light source superimpose to
form achromatic colors (white,
grey) or colors such as pink or
magenta
I usually, one chooses red,
green, and blue as the primary
colors
Color

subtractive color model

I explains the mixing of paints,
inks, etc.
I surface colors of a body result
from absorbing complementary
colors and reflecting the
remaining spectrum
Color

subtractive color model

I explains the mixing of paints,
inks, etc.
I surface colors of a body result
from absorbing complementary
colors and reflecting the
remaining spectrum
I primary surface colors are
hence chosen to be cyan,
magenta, and yellow
Color

problem
I a color impression (e.g. “redness” or “violetness”) is not a
physical property of electromagnetic spectra
Color

problem
I a color impression (e.g. “redness” or “violetness”) is not a
physical property of electromagnetic spectra

consequences
I different spectra may produce the same color impression
Color

problem
I a color impression (e.g. “redness” or “violetness”) is not a
physical property of electromagnetic spectra

consequences
I different spectra may produce the same color impression
I there is no objective way to physically measure color
Color

problem
I a color impression (e.g. “redness” or “violetness”) is not a
physical property of electromagnetic spectra

consequences
I different spectra may produce the same color impression
I there is no objective way to physically measure color
I on the contrary, the mapping from wave spectra to color
names is of statistical nature
Color

problem
I a color impression (e.g. “redness” or “violetness”) is not a
physical property of electromagnetic spectra

consequences
I different spectra may produce the same color impression
I there is no objective way to physically measure color
I on the contrary, the mapping from wave spectra to color
names is of statistical nature
I different people perceive colors differently (consider, for
instance, color blindness etc.)
Color

solution
I consider the color system according to CIE
(Commission International de l’Eclairage)
Color

solution
I consider the color system according to CIE
(Commission International de l’Eclairage)

I in 1931, 17 subjects without vision deficiencies participated

in in experiments to determine the perceivable color space
Color

solution
I consider the color system according to CIE
(Commission International de l’Eclairage)

I in 1931, 17 subjects without vision deficiencies participated

in in experiments to determine the perceivable color space

I the subjects saw different colors through a hole allowing for

a 2◦ field of view
Color

solution
I consider the color system according to CIE
(Commission International de l’Eclairage)

I in 1931, 17 subjects without vision deficiencies participated

in in experiments to determine the perceivable color space

I the subjects saw different colors through a hole allowing for

a 2◦ field of view

I at that time, it was believed that the cones were located

within a 2◦ arc of the fovea; in 1964 the calibration was
repeated with a 10◦ field of view because by then it had
been realized that the cones covered a larger area
Color

2 −
x(λ)
−
y(λ)
−
z(λ)
1.5

CIE 1931 standard observer 1

I the CIE then defined three 0.5

color-matching functions
called 0
350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750
λ[nm]

x(λ), y(λ), and z(λ)

which model the spectral sensitivity curves of three linear

light detectors of a standard observer
Color

CIE 1931 standard observer

I given these 3 primary colors (i.e. wave spectra), the
tristimulus values of an arbitrary color (i.e. wave spectrum)
I(λ) can be computed as
Z∞
X= I(λ) x(λ) dλ
0
Z∞
Y= I(λ) y(λ) dλ
0
Z∞
Z= I(λ) z(λ) dλ
0
Color

note:

I the primary colors themselves are not visible; they were

chosen such that X, Y, and Z are always positive

I other observers (e.g. for other color spaces) consider

different sets of three color-matching functions and
therefore lead to different tristimulus values
Color

CIE 1931 standard observer

I typically, one considers an intensity normalization
X
x=
X+Y +Z
Y
y=
X+Y +Z
Z
z=
X+Y +Z
Color

CIE 1931 standard observer

I the primary stimulus y(λ) was deliberately designed to
correspond to the response function of rod cells
Color

CIE 1931 standard observer

I the primary stimulus y(λ) was deliberately designed to
correspond to the response function of rod cells

I accordingly, Y does not contribute to the chrominance

of a color but measures luminance
Color

CIE 1931 standard observer

I the primary stimulus y(λ) was deliberately designed to
correspond to the response function of rod cells

I accordingly, Y does not contribute to the chrominance

of a color but measures luminance

I since x + y + z = 1 so that z = 1 − x − y, the coordinates

(x, y, Y) uniquely determine a color
Color

CIE 1931 standard observer

I the primary stimulus y(λ) was deliberately designed to
correspond to the response function of rod cells

I accordingly, Y does not contribute to the chrominance

of a color but measures luminance

I since x + y + z = 1 so that z = 1 − x − y, the coordinates

(x, y, Y) uniquely determine a color

I the coordinates x and y represent chromaticity and the

coordinate Y determines luminance
Color

CIE 1931 standard observer

I the X and Z tristimulus values can be obtained from x, y,
and Y by using
Y Y
X= x and Z= (1 − x − y)
y y
Color

CIE 1931 standard observer

I the X and Z tristimulus values can be obtained from x, y,
and Y by using
Y Y
X= x and Z= (1 − x − y)
y y

I mathematically, x and y are projective coordinates

I chromaticity values thus reside in a certain area of
the real projective plane
Color

CIE 1931 standard observer

I the X and Z tristimulus values can be obtained from x, y,
and Y by using
Y Y
X= x and Z= (1 − x − y)
y y

I mathematically, x and y are projective coordinates

I chromaticity values thus reside in a certain area of
the real projective plane
I this color space is known as the CIExyY color space
and is widely used to technically specify colors
Color

CIE 1931 standard observer

I the figure shows the xy
plane for a given Y

I usually, Y is chosen such

that the white point
corresponds to daylight

I the figure displays all

chromaticities visible to the
average person

I the colored region is called

the gamut of human vision
Color

CIE 1931 standard observer

I the curved edge is called
the spectral locus

I it corresponds to
monochromatic light
(λ listed in nm)

I the straight edge is the line

of purples

I its colors do not have

monochromatic
counterparts
Color

CIE 1931 standard observer

I less saturated colors are in
the interior of the gamut
with white at the center

I colors on a line segment

inside the gamut can be
expressed as a mixture of
the colors at the endpoints

I this also holds for larger

convex combinations
Color

note:
I apparently, three sources
cannot completely cover
the gamut of human vision

I i.e. there are no three

points within the gamut
that form a triangle that
includes the entire gamut

I the gamut of human vision

is not a triangle
Color

note:
I the CIE 1931 gamut is
non-linear

I the distance between any

two points a and b in the
gamut differs from the
degree of difference
between the two colors
found at a and b
Color

further problems
I the CIE system suggests a form of objectivity that simply is
not there
Color

further problems
I the CIE system suggests a form of objectivity that simply is
not there

I an object may be viewed under various conditions but

the human visual system perceives the object as having
the same color
Color

further problems
I the CIE system suggests a form of objectivity that simply is
not there

I an object may be viewed under various conditions but

the human visual system perceives the object as having
the same color

I this feature of the human visual system is called chromatic

adaptation or color constancy
Color

further problems
I the CIE system suggests a form of objectivity that simply is
not there

I an object may be viewed under various conditions but

the human visual system perceives the object as having
the same color

I this feature of the human visual system is called chromatic

adaptation or color constancy

I chromatic adaptation is one aspect of vision that may fool

us into observing a color-based optical illusion
Color

color-based optical illusion

I checker shadow due to Adelson
Color

color-based optical illusion

I A and B are indeed of the same color
Summary

we now know about

I the physical basis of color perception
(wavelengths of light!)

I the physiological basis of color perception

(rods and cones!)

I three stimuli theory

I the CIE standarnd observer, the gamut of human vision,

and its properties