Sensors and Process Control Instrumentation (Compatibility Mode)

SenSorS and
process control
instrumentation
Prepared By:
Dessie Fentaw
Lecturer(Electronics Engineering.)
Bishoftu (Ethiopia)
4/2/2018 Dessie Fentaw 1

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION OF TRANSDUCERS
 A transducer is a device that convert one form of energy
to other form. It converts the measured to a usable
electrical signal.
 In other word it is a device that is capable of converting
the physical quantity into a proportional electrical
quantity such as voltage or current.
Pressure, Transducer Voltage or

Force, current
e.t.c
Variables of Energy Domains
Thermal: temperature, heat, heat flux, entropy, heat capacity
Mechanical: displacement (linear and angular),velocity,
acceleration, force, torque, pressure, mas flow, acoustics, touch,
flow velocity, etc
Magnetic: magnetic field, flux, magnetic moment, magnetic
permeability
Chemical: humidity, pH level, concentration of molecules
Biological: cell size, conditions, concentration.
Radiation: optical, UV, IR, x-ray, microwave, millimeter wave
Intensity, reflectivity, refractive index, polarization
Electrical: charge, field strength, voltage, current, duty cycle.

Typical Measurement System Architecture

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TRANSDUCERS
• Transducer contains two parts that are closely related to

each other i.e. the sensing element and transduction
element.
• The sensing element is called as the sensor. It is device
producing measurable response to change in physical
conditions.
• The transduction element convert the sensor output to
suitable electrical form. Transducer
Parameter
Sensing Transduction Electrical
Eg. Pressure, Temperature,
element element signal
force, e.t.c.

Why Electrical Transducer?
Main advantages of Electrical Transducer are:
 The signal can be converted into digital form and can be stored for further
reference.
 Reading of analog data with the help of electrical transducers has less losses
involved as compared to the mechanical transducers.
 Output is easily amplified to any desired level.
 The mass-inertia effects are minimized.
 The effects of friction are minimized.

CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSDUCERS
Accuracy: error between the result of a measurement and the true
value being measured.
Resolution: the smallest increment of measure that a device can
make.
Sensitivity: the ratio between the change in the output signal to a
small change in input physical signal. Slope of the input-output fit
line.
Repeatability/Precision: the ability of the sensor to output the
same value for the same input over a number of trials
Ruggedness: ability to withstand overload, with safety stops for
overload protection.

Accuracy vs. Resolution
True value
measurement

Accuracy vs. Precision
Precision without Accuracy without Precision and

accuracy precision accuracy

CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSDUCERS
Dynamic Range: the ratio of maximum recordable input amplitude to minimum
input amplitude, i.e. D.R. = 20 log (Max. Input Ampl./Min. Input Ampl.) dB
Linearity: the deviation of the output from a best-fit straight line for a given range
of the sensor
Transfer Function (Frequency Response): The relationship between physical input
signal and electrical output signal, which may constitute a complete description of
the sensor characteristics.
Bandwidth: the frequency range between the lower and upper cutoff frequencies,
within which the sensor transfer function is constant gain or linear.
Noise: random fluctuation in the value of input that causes random fluctuation in the
output value

TRANSDUCERS SELECTION FACTORS
1. Operating Principle: The transducer are many times selected on
the basis of operating principle used by them. The operating principle
used may be resistive, inductive, capacitive , optoelectronic, piezo
electric etc.
2. Sensitivity: The transducer must be sensitive enough to produce
detectable output.
3. Operating Range: The transducer should maintain the range
requirement and have a good resolution over the entire range.
4. Accuracy: High accuracy is assured.
5. Cross sensitivity: It has to be taken into account when measuring
mechanical quantities. There are situation where the actual quantity is
being measured is in one plane and the transducer is subjected to
variation in another plan.
6. Errors: The transducer should maintain the expected input-output
relationship as described by the transfer function so as to avoid errors.

Contd.
7. Transient and frequency response : The transducer should meet
the desired time domain specification like peak overshoot, rise
time, setting time and small dynamic error.
8. Loading Effects: The transducer should have a high input
impedance and low output impedance to avoid loading effects.
9. Environmental Compatibility: It should be assured that the
transducer selected to work under specified environmental
conditions maintains its input- output relationship and does not
break down.
10. Insensitivity to unwanted signals: The transducer should be
minimally sensitive to unwanted signals and highly sensitive to
desired signals.

CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
The transducers can be classified as

I. Active and passive transducers.
II. Analog and digital transducers.
III. On the basis of transduction principle used.
IV. Primary and secondary transducer
V. Transducers and inverse transducers.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
Active transducers :
These transducers do not need any external source of power for

their operation. Therefore they are also called as self generating
type transducers.
I. The active transducer are self generating devices which

operate under the energy conversion principle.
II. As the output of active transducers we get an equivalent

electrical output signal e.g. temperature or strain to electric
potential, without any external source of energy being used.
PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER

CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVE TRANSDUCERS

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
• Passive Transducers :
I. These transducers need external source
of power for their operation. So they are
not self generating type transducers.
II. A DC power supply or an audio
frequency generator is used as an
external power source.
III. These transducers produce the output
signal in the form of variation in
resistance, capacitance, inductance or
some other electrical parameter in
response to the quantity to be measured.
CLASSIFICATION OF PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY TRANSDUCERS
 Some transducers contain the mechanical as well as electrical

device. The mechanical device converts the physical quantity
to be measured into a mechanical signal. Such mechanical
device are called as the primary transducers, because they deal
with the physical quantity to be measured.
 The electrical device then convert this mechanical signal into
a corresponding electrical signal. Such electrical device are
known as secondary transducers.

CONTD
•Ref fig in which the diaphragm act as primary

transducer. It convert pressure (the quantity to be
measured) into displacement(the mechanical signal).
•The displacement is then converted into change in
resistance using strain gauge. Hence strain gauge acts as
the secondary transducer.

According to Transduction Principle

CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER:
•In capacitive transduction transducers the measurand is converted to
a change in the capacitance.
• A typical capacitor is comprised of two parallel plates of
d
conducting material separated by an electrical insulating material
called a dielectric. The plates and the dielectric may be either
flattened or rolled. Area=A
• The purpose of the dielectric is to help the two parallel plates
maintain their stored electrical charges.
• The relationship between the capacitance and the size of capacitor
plate, amount of plate separation, and the dielectric is given by
C = ε0 εr A / d
d is the separation distance of plates (m) Either A, d or ε can be varied.
C is the capacitance (F, Farad)
ε0 : absolute permittivity of vacuum
εr : relative permittivity
A is the effective (overlapping) area of capacitor plates (m2)
ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSDUCTION:
•In electromagnetic transduction, the measurand is
converted to voltage induced in conductor by change in
the magnetic flux, in absence of excitation.
•The electromagnetic transducer are self generating active
transducers
•The motion between a piece of magnet and an
electromagnet is responsible for the change in flux

INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCER
•In inductive transduction, the measurand is converted

into a change in the self inductance of a single coil. It is
achieved by displacing the core of the coil that is
attached to a mechanical sensing element

PIEZO ELECTRIC INDUCTION
•In piezoelectric induction the measurand is converted

into a change in electrostatic charge q or voltage V
generated by crystals when mechanically it is stressed
as shown in fig.

PHOTOVOLTAIC TRANSDUCTION :
•In photovoltaic transduction the measurand is converted to

voltage generated when the junction between dissimilar material
is illuminated as shown in fig.

Physics of Photovoltaic Generation
n-type
semiconductor
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + Depletion Zone
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
p-type
semiconductor

PHOTO CONDUCTIVE TRANSDUCTION :
•In photoconductive transduction the measurand is

converted to change in resistance of semiconductor
material by the change in light incident on the material.

Transducer and Inverse Transducer
TRANSDUCER:
•Transducers convert non electrical quantity to

electrical quantity.
INVERSE TRANSDUCER:
• Inverse transducers convert electrical quantity to a

non electrical quantity

PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
• Resistive transducers :
– Resistive transducers are those transducers in which the
resistance change due to the change in some physical
phenomenon.
– The resistance of a metal conductor is expressed by a simple
equation.
– R = ρL/A
– Where R = resistance of conductor in Ω
L = length of conductor in m
A = cross sectional area of conductor in m2
ρ = resistivity of conductor material in Ω-m.

RESISTIVE TRANSDUCER
There are 4 type of resistive transducers.
1. Potentiometers (POT)
2. Strain gauge
3. Thermistors
4. Resistance thermometer

POTENTIOMETER
• The potentiometer are used for voltage division. They consist of a
resistive element provided with a sliding contact. The sliding contact
is called as wiper.
• The contact motion may be linear or rotational or combination of the
two. The combinational potentiometer have their resistive element in
helix form and are called helipots.
• Fig shows a linear pot and a rotary pot.

VARIABLE-INDUCTANCE
TRANSDUCERS
An inductive electromechanical transducer is a transducer which converts the
physical motion into the change in inductance.
Inductive transducers are mainly used for displacement measurement.
The inductive transducers are of the self generating or the passive type. The self
generating inductive transducers use the basic generator principle i.e. the
motion between a conductor and magnetic field induces a voltage in the
conductor.
The variable inductance transducers work on the following principles.
Variation in self inductance
Variation in mutual inductance

PRINCIPLE OF VARIATION OF SELF INDUCTANCE
 Let us consider an inductive transducer having N turns

and reluctance R. when current I is passed through the
transducer, the flux produced is
 Φ = Ni / R
 Differentiating w.r.t. to t,
 dΦ/dt = N/R * di/dt
 The e.m.f. induced in a coil is given by
 e = N * dΦ/dt

Cond…
 e = N * N/R * di/dt
 e = N2 / R * di/dt
 Self inductance is given by
 L = e/di/dt = N2 / R
 The reluctance of the magnetic circuit is R = Ɩ/μA
 Therefore L = N2 / Ɩ/μA = N2 μA / Ɩ
 From eqn we can see that the self inductance may
vary due to
i. Change in number of turns N
ii. Change in geometric configuration
iii. Change in permeability of magnetic circuit

CHANGE IN SELF INDUCTANCE WITH
CHANGE IN NUMBER OF TURNS N
 From eqn we can see the output may vary with the
variation in the number of turns. As inductive
transducers are mainly used for displacement
measurement, with change in number of turns the
self inductance of the coil changes in-turn changing
the displacement
 Fig shows transducers used for linear and angular
displacement fig a shows an air cored transducer for
the measurement of linear displacement and fig b
shows an iron cored transducer used for angular
displacement measurement.
Cond…

CHANGE IN SELF INDUCTANCE WITH
CHANGE IN PERMEABILITY
• An inductive transducer that works on the principle of change
in self inductance of coil due to change in the permeability is
shown in fig
• As shown in fig the iron core is surrounded by a winding. If the
iron core is inside the winding then the permeability increases
otherwise permeability decreases. This cause the self
inductance of the coil to increase or decrease depending on the
permeability.
• The displacement can be measured using this transducer
Ferromagnetic
former
displacement coil

VARIABLE RELUCTANCE INDUCTIVE
TRANSDUCER
• Fig shows a variable reluctance inductive transducer.
• As shown in fig the coil is wound on the ferromagnetic iron. The
target and core are not in direct contact with each other. They are
separated by an air gap.
• The displacement has to be measured is applied to the ferromagnetic
core
• The reluctance of the magnetic path is found by the size of the air
gap.
• The self inductance of coil is given by
• L = N2 / R = N2 / Ri + Ra
• N : number of turns
• R : reluctance of coil
• Ri : reluctance of iron path
• Ra : reluctance of air gap

CONTD…
 The reluctance of iron path is negligible
 L = N2 / Ra
 Ra = la / μoA
 Therefore L œ 1 / la i.e. self inductance of the coil is inversely
proportional to the air gap la.
 When the target is near the core, the length is small. Hence the
self inductance is large. But when the target is away from the
core, the length is large. So reluctance is also large. This result
in decrease in self inductance i.e. small self inductance.
 Thus inductance is function of the distance of the target from
the core. Displacement changes with the length of the air gap,
the self inductance is a function of the displacement.
PRINCIPLE OF CHANGE IN MUTUAL
INDUCTANCE
• Multiple coils are required for inductive transducers that
operate on the principle of change in mutual inductance.
• The mutual inductance between two coils is given by
• M = KsqrtL1L2
• Where M : mutual inductance
• K : coefficient of coupling
• L1:self inductance of coil 1
• L2 : self inductance of coil 2
• By varying the self inductance or the coefficient of coupling
the mutual inductance can be varied

Cond…

DIFFERENTIAL OUTPUT
TRANSDUCERS
 Usually the change in self inductance ΔL for inductive
transducers is insufficient for the detection of stages
of an instrumentation system.
 The differential arrangement comprises of a coil that
is divided in two parts as shown in fig a and b.
 In response to displacement, the inductance of one
part increases from L to L+ΔL while the inductance of
the other part decreases from L to L- ΔL. The
difference of two is measured so to get output 2 ΔL.
This will increase the sensitivity and minimize error.
.
Cond…
 Fig c shows an inductive transducer that provides
differential output. Due to variation in the reluctance,
the self inductance of the coil changes. This is the
principle of operation of differential output inductive
transducer

LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL
TRANSFORMER(LVDT)
• AN LVDT transducer comprises a
coil former on to which three coils
are wound.
• The primary coil is excited with an
AC current, the secondary coils are
wound such that when a ferrite core
is in the central linear position, an
equal voltage is induced in to each
coil.
• The secondary are connected in
opposite so that in the central
position the outputs of the secondary
cancels each other out.

LVDT contd…
• The excitation is applied to the primary winding and
the armature assists the induction of current in to
secondary coils.
• When the core is exactly at the center of the coil then
the flux linked to both the secondary winding will be
equal. Due to equal flux linkage the secondary induced
voltages (eo1 & eo2) are equal but they have opposite
polarities. Output voltage eo is therefore zero. This
position is called “null position”

Cond…

Cond…
• Now if the core is displaced from its null position
toward sec1 then flux linked to sec1 increases and
flux linked to sec2 decreases. Therefore eo1 > eo2
and the output voltage of LVDT eo will be positive
• Similarly if the core is displaced toward sec2 then
the eo2 > eo1 and the output voltage of LVDT eo
will be negative.

Stress and Strain

stress-strain curve

Contd….
 Proportional limit: is the maximum stress in which the
stress is directly proportional to the strain.
 Elastic limit: is defined as the maximum stress developed
during tension test , such that there is no permanent
deformation when the load is removed.
 Yield point: it is a point at which there is an increase in
strain with no increase in stress.
 Ultimate stress: is the maximum stress that the material can
withstand with out failures.

Strain gauge
 The strain gauge is a passive, resistive transducer which
converts the mechanical elongation and compression into a
resistance change.
 This change in resistance takes place due to variation in length
and cross sectional area of the gauge wire, when an external
force acts on it.

Pressure sensors
Introduction
Together with temperature, pressure is one of the most important
physical quantities in our environment.
Pressure is a significant parameter in such varied disciplines as
thermodynamics, aerodynamics, acoustics, fluid mechanics, soil
mechanics and biophysics.
As an example of important industrial applications of pressure
measurement we may consider power engineering. Hydroelectric,
thermal, nuclear, wind and other plants generating mechanical, thermal
or electrical energy require the constant monitoring and control of
pressures.
Pressure sensors
we will consider the different physical characteristics necessary to understand
pressure sensors: pressure as a physical quantity, and various sensor models with
absolute, relative or differential pressure sensors.
We will take a brief look at the physical properties of fluids.
Static pressure
From a phenomenological point of view, pressure, p, as a
macroscopic parameter is defined starting with element of force
dF exerted perpendicularly on an element of surface dA of the
wall, by the fluid contained in the container:
p = dF / dA

Pressure sensors
The element of force dF caused by pressure p is perpendicular to
the element of surface dA
For pressure p inside the fluid with free surface we may write:
p = p0+ ρgh
p0: atmospheric pressure
ρgh: hydrostatic pressure
ρ: density
g: acceleration of gravity at the place of measurement
h: distance from the free surface

Absolute, relative and differential pressure sensors
 An absolute pressure sensor measures static, dynamic or total pressure
with reference to a vacuum
 A relative pressure sensor measures static,

dynamic or total pressure with reference to
ambient atmospheric pressure  A differential pressure sensor measures a static,
dynamic or total pressure with reference to an
unspecified variable pressure p2

Types of medium pressure sensors
 Manometer
 Barometer
 Microphone
Manometers
The manometer consists tube filled with liquid
of known density
A pressure difference across the tube causes the
liquid shift position
The change in position can measured to give the
pressure
Best suited to static pressure measurement
Difficult to use for small pressure changes,
unsuitable for very large
4/2/2018 pressures
Dessie Fentaw 58
Manometer Topologies

Barometer
 One common application of the manometer is the barometer
 The barometer measures atmospheric pressure
 This barometer uses a reference gas separated from the atmosphere by a liquid
 If the atmospheric pressure changes, the reference gas expands/contracts
 Static pressure gauge
4/2/2018 Dessie Fentawbarometer

Dodgy 60
Microphone
 The most common pressure sensor in daily use
 Designed for use at around 1 atm. Pressure
 Only measures fluctuations measures dynamic not static pressure
 Has several different constructions of varying complexity
4/2/2018
Condenser Microphone construction
Dessie Fentaw 61
Types of high pressure sensors
 Bourdon-tube Gauge
 Schrader Gauge
Bourdon-Tube gauge
 Invented by Eugene Bourdon in 1849
 Can be used to measure pressures up
to 100,000 psi
 Uses an elastic tube as its primary
element
 The tube straightens out with increasing
pressure, moving the pointer via
mechanical links
 Measures static pressure Commercial bourdon tube gauge
 The Bourdon tube is a hollow tube with an elliptical cross section.
When a pressure difference exists between the inside and outside, the
tube tends to straighten out and the end moves.
 The movement is usually coupled to a needle on a dial to make a
complete gauge.
 It can also be connected to a secondary device such as an air nozzle to
control air pressure or to a suitable transducer to convert it into an
electric signal.
 This type can be used for measuring pressure difference.

Schrader gauge
 Uses a piston connected to a spring
 Simple in construction
 Not particularly accurate
 Common use is in simple tyre pressure Tyre pressure gauge
gauges
 Performs better than bourdon-tube under
dynamic loads
F = PA
kx=F
x = (A/k)P
Pressurized gauge

Bellows gauge
 Uses the elastic deformation of a convoluted unit
which expands and contracts with changes in pressure.
 Either electrical or mechanical output.
 Doesn't work well with dynamic pressures due to mass
and large displacements.

Bellows gauge
A bellows is made of several capsules. These are hollow flattened structures
made from thin metal plate.
When pressurised the bellows expand and produce mechanical movement.
If the bellows is encapsulated inside an outer container, then the movement is
proportional to the difference between the pressure on the inside and outside.
Bellows and single capsules are used in many instruments. They are very
useful for measuring small pressures.

Spring loaded Bellows gauge
 A spring opposes the bellows.
 Limits the expansion of the unit and prolongs the bellows life.
 Resulting deflection is the force acting on the bellows and the
opposing spring force.

diaphragm gauges
 Uses the elastic deformation of a flexible membrane that separates two
different pressures.
 The deformation of the diaphragm is dependent on the difference in
pressure between the two faces.
 Can be used to measure gauge, differential, vacuum or absolute.
 Can be measured using mechanical, electrical, piezo-resistive and
capacitive means.
 Follows a linear variation with Δp when the deflection is less than 1/3 the
diaphragm thickness.
 Good Dynamic sensor.

Electrical pressure sensor
Consists of foil strain gauges.
Typically contains 4 gauges in a Wheatstone bridge formation.
Accuracies of ± 0.5%
Piezo-resistive pressure sensor

Piezo-resistive consist of a silicon diaphragm with a semiconductor strain gauge
bonded to the diaphragm.
Pressure sensitivity: S = ΔR/ (Δp*R) (mV/V-bar)
Advantages
 High sensitivity
 -Good linearity at constant temperature.

Capacitive pressure sensors
The variable gap created by a moving diaphragm can be used as a capacitance
sensor.
The capacitance of the sensor is related to pressure.

Capacitive pressure sensors
Basic concept: C = ɛ A/x
Sensitivity: ΔC/Δx = -ɛ A/x
Advantages
 more sensitive than piezo-resistive
 less temperature dependant
 great dynamic pressure sensor
Disadvantages
 requires special electronics
 diaphragm mechanical properties

Corrugated diaphragm sensor
 Creates a larger linear response over a larger range of deflections.
 Is better suited for mechanical sensing devices as amplification may
not be required.
LVDT-DIAPHRAGM
The motion of a diaphragm sensed by a Linear
Variable Differential Transformer or (LVDT).

Pressure Conversion by resistance variation
Potentiometer
The wiper of a potentiometer is
connected to a diaphragm, a Bourdon
tube or cell so that the deformation of
this sensing element causes a
displacement of the wiper

For an unloaded potentiometer with total resistance Rn, supplied with a source of
voltage Vs, voltage Vm between the wiper and one of its ends is:
Vm = Vs.R(x)/Rn
where
R(x): resistance between the wiper and the end of the potentiometer
Rn: total resistance
Vs: supply voltage
Vm: voltage between the wiper and one of its ends
If there is proportionality between:
– pressure p to be measured and deformation of the sensing element;
– deformation of the sensing element and displacement x of the wiper;
– displacement of the wiper and the resistance R(x);
Then we may write:
Vm = k. Vs .p
where k is a characteristic constant of the device.
The materials most often used for the production of sensing elements
include the following:
 Stainless steel
 Titanium
 Ni Span C
 Quartz
 Silicon
 Sapphire

Flow and Level Transducers
WHAT IS FLOW ?
Measure of the velocity of a fluid per unit
area in a closed conduit; ie: pipe or duct
FLOW = VELOCITY (fluid) X Area of
Pipe or Duct or Stack
FLOW: In our everyday lives

Water flow meter at our home or
apartment
used for billing purposes
Mechanical flow meter with local rate
and total
Relative accuracy

Flow and Level Transducers
The following is a list of commonly used flow devices in the Oil &
Gas Industry. A corporate standard in many cases provides guidance
on the evaluation criteria for flow meter selection.
There are many types of flow meters available and each has its own
application and advantages & limitations, but should always follow
project specifications first and be aware that information can vary
for the same type of flow meter between different manufacturers.

Bernoulli’s Law
As fluid speed increases, the pressure in the fluid decreases
Bernoulli’s Equation
P+½ ρv2+ρgh=constant
P=pressure of the fluid along the streamline
v=velocity of the fluid along the streamline
g=acceleration due to gravity
h=height
ρ=fluid density

Commonly used flow devices
Differential Pressure (Head) Type
Mass Type – measures the mass flow rate
Orifice Plate - Concentric, Eccentric,
directly.
Segmental, Quadrant Edge, Integral,
Corioles
Conditioning
Thermal
Venturi Tube
Flow Nozzles Velocity Type
Elbow Magnetic
Pitot Tube,) Ultrasonic - Transit Time, Doppler
Variable Area (Rota meter) Turbine
Wedge Meter Vortex
V-Cone Other Types

Positive Displacement
Target

Flow measurement - units
Flow is measured as a quantity (either volume or mass) per unit time
Volumetric units
Liquid
m3/hr, liters/min, etc.
Gas or Vapor
ft3/hr, m3/hr, etc.
Mass units (either liquid, gas or vapor)
lb/hr, kg/hr, etc.
Flow can be measured in accumulated (totalized) total amounts for a
time period
gallons, liters, meters passed in a day, etc.
Differential pressure flow meters
These are a range of meters that convert flow rate into a differential pressure.
 ORIFICE METERS.
 VENTURI METERS
 NOZZLE METERS
 PITOT TUBES.
The working principle for all these is that something makes the velocity of the
fluid change and this produces a change in the pressure so that a difference Dp =
p2 - p1 is created. It can be shown for all these meters that the volume flow rate Q
is related to dp by the following formula.
Q = K(dp)0.5
K is the meter constant.

Differential pressure flow meters

Orifice Plate Flow meter
The orifice plate is a differential pressure flow
meter (Primary element).
Based on the work of Daniel Bernoulli the

relationship between the velocity of fluid
passing through the orifice is proportional to
the square root of the pressure loss across it.
To measure the differential pressure when the
fluid is flowing, connections are made from the
upstream and downstream pressure tappings to
a secondary device known as a DP (Differential
Pressure) cell.


Applications Orifice plate
Applications
 Power generation
 Oil production and refining
 Water treatment and distribution
 Suger factories
 Gas processing and transmission
 Chemical and petrochemical industry
Special features
 Maximum operating temperature up to 800 °C
 Maximum operating pressure up to 400 bar
 Suitable for liquid, gas and steam flow measurement
 Accuracy ≤ ±0.5 % of actual flow rate
4/2/2018  Repeatability of measurement of 0.1 %
Dessie Fentaw 86
Venturi Tube
Discovered two centuries ago by Italian scientist

Giovanni Battista Venturi (1746 - 1822).

Venturi Tube
 In the venturi meter velocity is increased and the pressure decreased
in the upstream cone.
 The pressure drop from points F to I can be used to measure the rate
of flow through the meter.
 Venturi meters are most commonly used for liquids, especially
water.

Applications of venturi tube
Applications of venturi tube
 Power generation
 Oil production and refining
 Water treatment and distribution
 Gas processing and transmission
 Chemical and petrochemical industry
Special features
 Suitable for liquid, gas and steam flow measurement
 Accuracy ≤ ±0.5 % of actual flow rate
 Repeatability of measurement 0.1 %
 Ensure the lowest pressure loss in the family of
primary flow elements
4/2/2018  Calibration may
Dessiebe performed if required
Fentaw 89
Rota meters
 Rota meters fall into the category of flow measurement
devices called variable area meters.
 These devices have nearly constant pressure and depend
on changing cross sectional area to indicate flow rate.
 Rota meters are extremely simple, robust devices that can
measure flow rates of both liquids and gasses. Fluid flows
up through the tapered tube and suspends a ‘float’ in the
column of fluid.
 The position of the float indicates the flow rate on a
marked scale.

Rota meters
Three types of forces must be accounted for when
analyzing Rota meter performance:
 Flow
Buoyancy
 Gravity
 Buoyancy Gravity
 For our analysis neglect drag effect
Flow
Ultrasonic Meter
 Transit time ultrasonic meters employ two transducers located upstream
and downstream of each other.
 Each transmits a sound wave to the other, and the time difference between
the receipt of the two signals indicates the fluid velocity.
 Transit time meters usually require clean fluids and are used where high
range ability is required. Accuracy is within 1% for ideal applications.

Ultrasonic Meter
 Flow is measured by measuring the difference in transit time for two
ultrasonic beams transmitted in a fluid both upstream and downstream.
Ultrasonic meter characteristics

 Pressure Loss: None
 Accuracy: 0.25% to 5%
 Viscosity Effect: None
 Relative Cost: High
 Type of Output: Linear

Turbine meter
 Turbine meter is kept in rotation by the
linear velocity of the stream in which it is
immersed.
 The number of revolutions the device
makes is proportional to the rate of flow.

Level Transducers
 This sub topic discusses the measurement of the level of liquids and free-
flowing solids by different level transducers.
 There are many widely varying methods for the measurement of liquid
level.
 Level measurement is an important part of process control.
 Level sensing can be single point, continuous, direct, or indirect.
Continuous level monitoring measures the level of the liquid on an
uninterrupted basis.
 In this case, the level of the material will be constantly monitored, and
hence the volume can be continuously monitored, if the cross-sectional
area of the container is known.

Level Transducers
Level sensing devices can be divided into four categories
1. direct sensing, in which the actual level is monitored
2. indirect sensing, in which a property of the liquid, such
as pressure, is sensed to determine the liquid level;
3. single point measurement, in which it is only necessary
to detect the presence or absence of a liquid at a specific
level; and
4. free-flowing solid level sensing
Level Transducers
Direct Level Sensing

A number of techniques are used for
direct level sensing, such as
direct visual indication using a sight glass
or a float.
Ultrasonic distance measuring devices
also may be considered.

Float sensors are are two types
I. The angular arm
II. The pulley.
The float material is less dense than the density of the liquid, and floats up and
down on top of the material being measured
Methods of measuring liquid levels, using (a) a simple float with level
indicator on the outside
4/2/2018 Dessie of the tank, and (b) an angular arm float.
Fentaw 98
Ultrasonic or sonic devices can be used for single point or continuous level
measurement of a liquid or a solid. A setup for continuous measurement is
shown in Figure
Use of ultrasonic devices for continuous liquid level measurements made by timing
reflections from the surface of the liquid.
Indirect Level Sensing
A commonly used method of indirectly measuring a liquid level is to measure the
hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the container.
The level can be extrapolated from the pressure and the specific weight of the liquid.
The level of liquid can be measured using , capacitive probes, resistive tapes, or by
weight measurements.
Pressure is often used as an indirect method of measuring liquid levels.
Pressure increases as the depth increases in a fluid.
The pressure is given by:
p = γd
where p is the pressure,γ is the specific weight, and d is the depth.

a b
Pressure sensors positioned (a) below tank bottom, and (b) above
tank bottom.
Capacitive probes can be used in liquids and free-flowing solids for
continuous level measurement .
 Materials placed between the plates of a capacitor increase the
capacitance by a factor (μ ), known as the dielectric constant of the
material.
 For instance, air has a dielectric constant of 1, and water has a dielectric
constant of 80.
 When two capacitor plates are partially immersed in a nonconductive
liquid, the capacitance (Cd) is given by

Where
Ca is the capacitance with no liquid
μ is the dielectric constant of the liquid between the plates
r is the height of the plates, and
d is the depth or level of the liquid between the plates.
The liquid level is given by

 Methods of measuring liquid levels using a capacitive probe for continuous

monitoring in (a) non conducting liquid, and (b) conducting liquid.

 The capacitive probe shown in Figure (a) is used to measure the level in a
non conducting liquid, and consists of an inner rod with an outer shell.
 The capacitance is measured between the two using a capacitance bridge.
 In the portion of the probe that is out of the liquid, air serves as the dielectric
between the rod and outer shell.
 In the section of the probe immersed in the liquid, the dielectric is that of the
liquid, which causes a large capacitive change.
 Where the tank is made of metal, it can serve as the outer shell.
 The capacitance change is directly proportional to the level of the liquid.
 The dielectric constant of the liquid must be known for this type of
measurement.
Cond…
 If the liquid is conductive, then one of the plates is enclosed in an

insulator, as shown in Figure (b).
 The dielectric constant is now that of the insulator, and the liquid level
sets the area of the capacitor plate.

Cond…
Resistive tapes can be used to measure liquid levels, as shown in Figure
Resistive tape level sensor

Resistive element is placed in close proximity to a conductive strip in an easily
compressible nonconductive sheath.
The pressure of the liquid pushes the conductive strip against the resistive element,
shorting out a length of the resistive element that is proportional to the depth of the
liquid.
TRANSDUCERS
Temperature Transducer
Prepared By: Dessie Fentaw
Lecturer(Electronics Engineering.)
Bishoftu (Ethiopia)

Temperature Transducer
The word temperature can be describe as the degree of hotness or coolness
of a material body.
Types of temperature transducers (sensors)
 Liquid and gas thermometer
 Bimetallic strip
 Resistance thermometers (RTD and Thermistors)
 Thermocouple
 Junction semiconductor sensor
 Radiation pyrometer
 IC temperature sensor
 Within the limited scope of this course, we shall discuss few of
the above mentioned temperature sensors, that are useful for
measurement in industrial environment.
Resistance Thermometer
 Resistance of metal increase with increases in temperature.
Therefore metals are said to have a positive temperature coefficient
of resistivity.
 Fig shows the simplest type of open wire construction of platinum
résistance thermometer. The platinum wire is wound in the form of
spirals on an insulating material such as mica or ceramic.
 This assembly is then placed at the tip of probe
 This wire is in direct contact with the gas or liquid whose
temperature is to be measured.

 It is well known that resistance of metallic conductors increases with
temperature, while that of semiconductors generally decreases with
temperature.
 Resistance thermometers employing metallic conductors for
temperature measurement are called Resistance Temperature
Detector (RTD), and those employing semiconductors are termed as
Thermistors.
 RTDs are more rugged and have more or less linear characteristics
over a wide temperature range.
 The variation of resistance of metals with temperature is normally
modelled in the form.

 Copper, Nickel and Platinum are mostly used as
RTD materials.
 The range of temperature measurement is decided
by the region, where the resistance-temperature
characteristics are approximately linear.
 The resistance versus temperature characteristics
of these materials is shown as


 The resistance of the platinum wire changes with the change
in temperature of the gas or liquid
 This type of sensor have a positive temperature coefficient of
resistivity as they are made from metals they are also known
as resistance temperature detector
 Resistance thermometer are generally of probe type for
immersion in medium whose temperature is to be measured
or controlled.

 Wire wound and thin film devices.
 Nearly linear over a wide range of
temperatures.
 Can be made small enough to have
response times of a fraction of a second.
 Require an electrical current to produce a
voltage drop across the sensor

RTD Applications
 Air conditioning and refrigeration

servicing
 Furnace servicing
 Foodservice processing
 Medical research
 Textile production

Advantages Disadvantages
 Most stable over time  High cost

 Most accurate  Slowest response time
 Most repeatable temperature  Low sensitivity to small temperature
measurement changes
 Very resistant to contamination/  Sensitive to vibration (strains the
 corrosion of the RTD element platinum element wire)
 Some what fragile(Easily broken,
damaged, or destroyed)
 Decalibration if used beyond the
sensor’s temperature ratings
Thermistor
 Thermistor is a contraction of a term “thermal resistor”.
 Thermistor are temperature dependent resistors. They are made of
semiconductor material which have negative temperature
coefficient of resistivity i.e. their resistance decreases with increase
of temperature.
 Thermistor are widely used in application which involve
measurement in the range of 0-60º Thermistor are composed of
sintered mixture of metallic oxides such as mangnese, nickel,
cobalt, copper, iron and uranium
Thermistor

 The Thermistor may be in the form of beads, rods and
discs.
 The Thermistor provide a large change in resistance for
small change in temperature.
 In some cases the resistance of Thermistor at room
temperature may decreases as much as 6% for each 1ºC
rise in temperature.
Their characteristics can be expressed as:
β is a constant, its value is decided by the characteristics of the material, the

nominal value is taken as 4000

Application Thermistors
 Most are seen in medical equipment
markets.
 Thermistors are also used are for engine
coolant
 oil, and air temperature measurement in the
transportation industry.

 High sensitivity to small  Limited temperature range

temperature changes  Fragile
 Temperature measurements  Some initial accuracy “drift”
become more stable with use  Decalibration if used beyond the
 Copper or nickel extension wires sensor’s temperature ratings
can be used  Lack of standards for replacement

Thermocouples
When a pair of dissimilar metals are joined at one end, and there is a
temperature difference between the joined ends and the open ends, thermal
emf is generated, which can be measured in the open ends.
This forms the basis of thermocouples and so the effect is See beck Effect
 The picture shows a typical industrial probe

with a flexible extension and standard plug.
Thomas Johan Seebeck discovered in 1821 that thermal energy can produce
electric current.
When two conductors made from dissimilar metals are connected forming two
common junctions and the two junctions are exposed to two different
temperatures, a net thermal emf is produced, the actual value being dependent on
the materials used and the temperature difference between hot and cold junctions.
The thermoelectric emf generated, in fact is due to the combination of two effects:
Peltier effect and Thomson effect.
Where T1 and T2 are hot and cold junction temperatures in

K. C1 and C2 are constants depending upon the materials.
For Copper/ Constantan thermocouple, C1=62.1 and A typical thermocouple
C2=0.045.
Thermocouples
Peltier showed that heat is absorbed at the hot end and rejected at the
cold end. Thompson showed that part of the e.m.f. is due to the
temperature gradient in the wire as well as the temperature difference
between the junctions.
Most thermocouple metals produce a relationship between the two
temperatures and the e.m.f as follows.

Thermocouple Applications
 Plastic injection molding
machinery
 Food processing equipment
 Semiconductor processing
 Heat treating
 Medical equipment
 Industrial heat treating
 Packaging equipment

Thermocouples
 Simple, Rugged  Least stable, least repeatable
 High temperature operation  Low sensitivity to small temperature
 Low cost changes
 No resistance lead wire problems  Extension wire must be of the same
 Point temperature sensing thermocouple type
 Fastest response to temperature  Wire may pick up radiated electrical
changes noise if not shielded

 Lowest accuracy

Thermocouple Materials
 Theoretically, any pair of dissimilar materials can be used as a

thermocouple. But in practice, only few materials have found applications
for temperature measurement.
 The choice of materials is influenced by several factors, namely, sensitivity,
stability in calibration, inertness in the operating atmosphere and
reproducibility (i.e. the thermocouple can be replaced by a similar one
without any recalibration).
 Table shows the common types of thermocouples, their types, composition,
range, sensitivity etc.

Monolatic IC Temprature sensors
The most commonly used IC Temperature sensors are
 LM-335 series
 LM-35 series
 LM=34 series
 AD-592 series

LM34/LM35
Precision Monolithic Temperature Sensors
Introduction
 Most commonly-used electrical temperature sensors are difficult to apply. For
example, thermocouples have low output levels and require cold junction
compensation.
 Thermistors are nonlinear, In addition, the outputs of these sensors are not
linearly proportional to any temperature scale
 Early monolithic sensors, such as the LM3911, LM134 and LM135,overcame
many of these difficulties, but their outputs are related to the Kelvin
temperature scale rather than the more popular Celsius and Fahrenheit scales.
 Fortunately, in 1983 two I.C.’s, the LM34 Precision Fahrenheit Temperature
Sensor and the LM35 Precision Celsius Temperature Sensor, were introduced.

LM34/LM35
The LM34 has:
 an output of 10 mV/°F with a typical nonlinearity of only ±0.35°F over a
−50 to +300°F temperature range,
 accurate to within ±0.4°F typically at room temperature (77°F).
 The LM34 has low output impedance and linear output characteristic
make interfacing with readout or control circuitry easy.
 An inherent strength of the LM34 over other currently available
temperature sensors is that it is not as susceptible to large errors in its
output from low level leakage currents.

LM34/LM35
 For instance, many monolithic temperature sensors have an output of only 1
μA/°K. This leads to a 1°K error for only 1 μ-Ampere of leakage current.
 On the other hand, the LM34 may be operated as a current mode device
providing 20 μA/°F of output current.
 The same 1 μA of leakage current will cause an error in the LM34’s output of
only 0.05°F (or 0.03°K after scaling).

LM34/LM35
The LM34 has:
 The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperature
 sensors, whose output voltage is linearly proportional to the
 Celsius (Centigrade) temperature.
 The LM35 thus has an advantage over linear temperature sensors calibrated
in ° Kelvin, as the user is not required to subtract a large constant
 voltage from its output to obtain convenient Centigrade scaling.
 The LM35 does not require any external calibration or trimming to provide
typical accuracies of ±1⁄4°C at room temperature and ±3⁄4°C over a full −55
to +150°C temperature range.

LM34/LM35
Features
 Calibrated directly in ° Celsius (Centigrade)
 Linear + 10.0 mV/°C scale factor
 0.5°C accuracy guarantee able (at +25°C)
 Rated for full −55° to +150°C range
 Suitable for remote applications
 Low cost due to wafer-level trimming
 Operates from 4 to 30 volts
 Less than 60 μA current drain
 Low self-heating, 0.08°C in still air Nonlinearity only ±1⁄4°C typical
 Low impedance output, 0.1 W for 1 mA load

AD592
Precision
 The AD592 isIC
a twoTemperature Transducer
terminal monolithic integrated circuit temperature
transducer that provides an output current proportional to absolute
temperature.
 For a wide range of supply voltages the transducer acts as a high
impedance temperature dependent current source of 1 mA/K.
 Improved design and laser wafer trimming of the IC’s thin film resistors
allows the AD592 to achieve absolute accuracy levels and nonlinearity
errors previously unattainable at a comparable price.

PRODUCT HIGHLIGHTS
 With a single supply (4 V to 30 V) the AD592 offers 0.5°C temperature measurement
accuracy.
 A wide operating temperature range (–25°C to +105°C) and highly linear output make the
AD592 an ideal substitute for older, more limited sensor technologies (i.e.,
 thermistors, RTDs, diodes, thermocouples).
 The AD592 is electrically rugged; supply irregularities and variations or reverse voltages up
to 20 V will not damage the device.
 Because the AD592 is a temperature dependent current source, it is immune to voltage noise
pickup and IR drops in the signal leads when used remotely.

 The high output impedance of the AD592 provides greater than 0.5°C/V rejection of
supply voltage drift and ripple.
 Laser wafer trimming and temperature testing insures that AD592 units are easily
interchangeable.
 Initial system accuracy will not degrade significantly over time. The AD592 has
proven long term performance and repeatability advantages inherent in integrated
circuit design and construction.

OPTICAL TRANSDUCERS
INTRODUCTION
Visible light is a small portion of this spectrum. This is the only part of
this energy range that our eyes can detect. What we see is a rainbow of
colors.
RedOrangeYellowGreenBlueIndigoViolet
ROY G BIV
Frequency Ranges
Wavelengths
104 101 1 10-2 10-5 10-6 10-8 10-10 10-12

Frequencies (cycles per sec)
3 x 106 3 x 1010 3 x 1014 3 x 1016 3 x1018 3 x10 22
Frequency Ranges of Visible Light
Red light has a frequency of roughly
4.3 × 1014 Hz, and a wavelength of about 7.0 × 107 m (700nm).
Violet light, at the other end of the visible range, has nearly double the
frequency—7.5 × 1014 Hz—and (since the speed of light is the same
in either case) just over half the wavelength—
4.0 × 107 m (400nm).

The radiation to which our eyes are most sensitive has a
wavelength near the middle of this range, at about
5.5 x 10-7m (550 nm), in the yellow-green region of the

spectrum.
C = λν
 The frequency (v) of a wave is the number of waves to cross a

point in 1 second (units are Hertz – cycles/sec or sec-1)
 λ is the wavelength- the distance from crest to crest on a wave
c is a constant value= 3.00 x 108 m/s

 The colors we see in objects are the colors that are reflected, all other
colors are absorbed. A red t-shirt appears red because red is reflected
to our eyes and the other colors are absorbed.
 When all colors are being reflected we see white light (white isn’t
really a color)
 When all wavelengths of light are being absorbed we see black

(black also, isn’t really a color
Atoms and Light
 The movement of electrons inside of atoms produces light and other
electromagnetic radiation.
 Sunlight produces every color in the rainbow but…
 Each element gives off only certain frequencies of light, called

spectral lines. In effect each element has its own signature of spectral
lines allowing us to identify which element we have or what stars are
made of.
 Albert Einstein returned to the idea that light existed as particles. He
proposed that light could be described as quanta of energy that behave as if
they were particles. Light quanta are called photons.
In 1921 Albert Einstein received the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering the photoelectric
effect
 While it was difficult for scientists to believe (they can be stubborn) it did
explain the photoelectric effect (previously a mystery )

 The photoelectric effect – When light shines on metals, electrons
(photoelectrons) are ejected from their surface.
Red light will not cause certain frequency has to be achieved or the
effect does not work
electrons to eject!
 In the photoelectric effect experiment, why does red light not cause the emission of an
electron though blue light can?
 The photons of red light don’t have sufficient energy to eject an electron.
 The electric field of the red light oscillates too slowly to eject an electron.
 Red light contains fewer photons than blue, not enough to eject electrons.
 The red light doesn't’t penetrate far enough into the metal electrode
The Photoelectric Effect
Photoconductive Cell
 Photoconductive cells are light-sensitive resistors in which resistance decreases
with an increase in light intensity when illuminated.
 These devices consist of a thin single-crystal or polycrystalline film of
compound semiconductor substances.
 Most commercially available photoconductive cells are manufactured from
cadmium sulfide (CdS), which is sensitive to light in the visible spectrum.
 Other materials that are less commonly used in photoconductive cells include
lead sulfide (PbS), lead selenide (PbSe), and lead telluride (PbTe), although they
react to infrared light, not the visible spectrum.
 CdS photoconductive cells (CdS cells) are often referred to as light dependant
resistors (LDR).
 They function within the same general spectral range as the human eye, and are
therefore widely used in applications where this type of spectral response is
required.
Photoconductive Cell
Typical Construction of a Plastic Coated Photocell
 Light sensitive material is arranged in the form of a long strip, zigzagged across
a disc shaped base with protective sides. For added protection, a glass or plastic
cover may be included
Characteristics of a Photoconductive cell
Photoconductor in circuit Spectral response of CdS cell
 The illumination characteristics of a typical photoconductive cell are shown from

which it is obvious that when the cell is not illuminated its resistance may be more
than 1 00 kilo ohms.
 This resistance is called the dark resistance.
 When the cell is illuminated, the resistance may fall to a few hundred ohms
Applications of photoconductivity devices
They are
 Light meters
 Infrared detectors
 TV cameras
 Voltage regulator
 Relays and
 Detecting ships and air crafts

PHOTOVOLTAIC TRANSDUCER
 The word „photovoltaic“ consists of two words: photo, a Greek word for light, and
voltaic, which defines the measurement value by which the activity of the electric
field is expressed ,i.e. the difference of potentials.
 Photovoltaic systems use cells to convert sunlight into electricity.
 Converting solar energy into electricity in a photovoltaic installation is the most
known way of using solar energy.
 The light has a dual character according to quantum physics. Light is a particle and
it is a wave.
 The particles of light are called photons. Photons are mass less particles, moving at
light speed.
 The energy of the photon depends on its wavelength and the frequency, and we can
calculate it by the Einstein's law,
where:
E = hϑ E ‐ photon energy
h ‐ Planck's constanth = 6.626×10 − 34Js
ϑ ‐ photon frequency
PHOTOVOLTAIC TRANSDUCER
In photovoltaic transduction the measured is converted to voltage

generated when the junction between dissimilar material is
illuminated as shown in fig.
Physics of Photovoltaic Generation
n-type
semiconductor
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + Depletion Zone
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
p-type
semiconductor
 The diagram above illustrates the operation of a basic photovoltaic cell, also called a
solar cell.
 Solar cells are made of the same kinds of semiconductor materials, such as silicon,
used in the microelectronics industry.
 For solar cells, a thin semiconductor wafer is specially treated to form an electric
field, positive on one side and negative on the other.
 When light energy strikes the solar cell, electrons are knocked loose from the atoms
in the semiconductor material.
 If electrical conductors are attached to the positive and negative sides, forming
an electrical circuit, the electrons can be captured in the form of an electric
current that is, electricity.
 This electricity can then be used to power a load, such as a light or a tool.
 A number of solar cells electrically connected to each other and mounted in a
support structure or frame is called a photovoltaic module.
 Multiple modules can be wired together to form an array.
 In general, the larger the area of a module or array, the more electricity that will
be produced. Photovoltaic modules and arrays produce direct-current (dc)
electricity.
 They can be connected in both series and parallel electrical arrangements to
produce any required voltage and current combination.
Photo-diodes
Photo-diodes:There is an increase flow of majority carriers through a pn
junction due to the application of light photons.
 Thus, the conductance of a photodiode increases with light.
 Photo-diodes are usually only responsive to a narrow band of
wavelengths typically in the infrared band –around 900 to 1100
nanometres
Phototransistor
 Introduction
 Package and Scheme
 Operation
 Advantages
 Example and applications

Phototransistor Introduction
 A transistor which is sensitive to the input light intensity
 Operation similar to traditional transistors; Have collector, emitter, and base
 Phototransistor base is a light-sensitive collector-base junction
 Dark Current: Small collector can emit leakage current when transistor is
switched off.
Phototransistor Packages
Phototransistor Scheme
 Photocurrent: The electrons are amplified by the transistor and appear as a current
in the collector/emitter circuit.
 The base is internally left open and is at the focus of a plastic lens.
Phototransistor Operation
 The phototransistor must be properly biased
 A light sensitive collector base p-n junction

controls current flow between the emitter and
collector
 As light intensity increases, resistance

decreases, creating more emitter-base current
 The small base current controls the larger

emitter-collector current
 Collector current depends on the light

intensity and the DC current gain of the
phototransistor
Why Use Phototransistors?
 More sensitive than photodiodes of comparably sized area
 Available with gains form 100 to over 1500
 Moderately fast response times
 Available in a wide range of packages
 Usable with almost any visible or near infrared light source such as
IREDs, lasers, sunlight, and etc
 Same general electrical characteristics as familiar signal transistors

Application Example Avoiding Obstacles
Automated
Cart LED
Baffle Obstacle
Phototransistor
Phototransistor Applications
 Coin counters
 Lottery card readers
 Position sensors
 Remote controllers
 audio/visual Equipment
 Games - laser tag
 Camera shutter control
 LED light source - light pens
 Security systems
 Safety shields
 Encoders - measure speed and direction
 Photoelectric controls
 Remote residential electric meter reading
Process Control instrumentation

What is Process Control?
Process control is the act of controlling a final control element to change the
manipulated variable to maintain the process variable at a desired Set Point.
The Following are definitions of some terms we will be using in out discussion of process
control:
 The manipulated variable (MV) is a measure of resource being fed into the process, for
instance how much thermal energy.
 A final control element (FCE) is the device that changes the value of the manipulated
variable.
 The controller output (CO) is the signal from the controller to the final control element.
 The process variable (PV) is a measure of the process output that changes in response to
changes in the manipulated variable.
 The Set Point (SP) is the value at which we wish to maintain the process variable.
Defance Engineering collage Dessie Fentaw 174

Control Systems
 In process control, the basic objective is to regulate the
value of some quantity
 We have a desired value that is referred to as the reference

or set point
 We also must have some way of measuring the actual

value of that quantity
 We must also have some method of comparing the

measured quantity to the reference value
 We finally need some method of changing the quantity

Let us see simple process control
The process
The process is shown diagrammatically below

 The previous slide shows a system that has liquid
flowing in at some rate Qin, and flowing out at another
rate Qout.
 The liquid has a height or level h. The formula for Qout

is Qout = K*sqrt(h), thus the flow rate out of the tank is
dependent on the height h.
 If h is too low for the Qout be less than Qin then the
height will increase. If the height increases to a point
that Qout is more than Qin than the height will decrease.
 At some value of h Qout will equal Qin – it is at this point

the tank has self-regulated

Looking at the tank in Slide above and given the following
information:
Qin = 2.5 gal/min

Qout = K*sqrt(h) and K = 1.2 (gal/min)
At what height will the tank self-regulate to?
First we must realize that the tank will stabilize at the point that Qin
= Qout, we have the relationship 2.5 gal/min = 1.2*sqrt(h).
h = ((2.5 gal/min)/(1.2))2 = 4.34 ft
(look at page 3 in text for same example with different numbers)

Human – Aided control
In this case a human has been added to the process.
The human can adjust the height by opening and

closing the valve to change Qout in such a way that
the height can be adjusted .
In this case the controlled variable is still the height,

but the height can be manipulated by a person
changing the manipulated or controlling variable
Qout

 In this process a human can regulate the level using a sight tube ‘S’ to compare
the level ‘h’ to the objective ‘H’ and adjust the value to change the level.
 By a succession of incremental opening and closing of the valve, the human
can bring the level to set point value H.
 And maintain it there by continues monitoring of the sight tube and adjustment
of the valve, the height is regulated.

Automatic control
For automatic control the system is
modified as shown below.
An automatic level-control system
replaces the human with a controller
and uses a sensor to measure the
level.

In the previous slide the person is replaced by an automatic
control system.
The height is measured by a sensor (a float or electronic), and a

controller (typically a microcomputer or other electronic
circuitry) will signal an actuator to open/close the valve
controlling Qout
Again the height is adjusted to a set point H by manipulating
Qout

Servomechanism-Type Control System
 The goal of such systems is to move
the arm of the robot using servo-
motors from point A to point B, or
any of series of movements.
 Often used in repetitive

manufacturing processes
 This course will NOT cover such

systems, although they use similar
technologies.
 This course concentrates on

PROCESS Control.

This block diagram of a control loop defines all the basic
elements and signals involved.
Process control block diagram

Process
 In the previous example the flow of liquid in and out of the tank, the tank it
self, and the liquid all constitute a process to be placed under control with
respect to the fluid level.
 There are single-variable processes, in which only one variable is to be
controlled.
 As well as multivariable processes in which many variable perhaps
interrelated may require regulation.
Measurement
 To effect control of a variable in process we must have information on
variable itself.
 Such information is found by measuring the variable
 A measurement refers to the conversion of the variable in to some other
corresponding analog
Defance Engineering collage
form, such as electric voltage and current.
Dessie Fentaw 185
The physical diagram of a control loop and its corresponding
block diagram look similar. Note the use of current- and
pressure-transmission signals.

The physical diagram of a control loop and its corresponding
block diagram look similar. Note the use of current- and
pressure-transmission signals.

Control system Evaluation
Control system objective is best represented by three requirements
 The control system should be stable
 Provide the best possible steady-state regulation
 Provide the best possible transient regulation
 A control system can actually

cause a system to become
unstable.

One of the measures of control system
performance is how the system responds to
changes of set point or a transient disturbance
in damped response.

In cyclic or under damped response, the
variable will exhibit oscillations about
the reference value.

The quarter-amplitude criterion
 Two criteria for judging the quality of

control-system response are the
minimum area and quarter amplitude.
 Specifies that the amplitude of each
peak of the cycle response must be a
quarter of the preceding peak
 Thus a2 =a2/4 ,a3 =a2/4 and so on

Analog and Digital processing
 Data were represented by the magnitude of voltages & and currents in analog
from (continuous signal from), procssing of this data (amplifing, filtering,
clipping etc....) is colled analog processing.
 Most modern control systems now employ digital computer to perform
controllers operations.
 In computers data are represented as binary numbers consisting of a specific
number of bits.
 Proecssing this digital signals is referred to as digital processing.

Graph (a) shows how output variable b
changes as an analog of variable c. Graph
(b) shows how a digital output variable, n,
would change with variable c.

An ADC converts analog data, such as voltage, into a digital
representation, in this case 4 bits.

Types of control
ON/OFF control
 In this controller the final control element has only two states, on & off.
 fig. below shows on/off control system.
 The objective is to maintain the temperature in a system at reference value Tref.
 A sensors cinvert temperature values in to a resistance in analog fashin.' i.e ,R
varies smoothly & continuously with T.

This ON/OFF control system can either heat or cool or do neither. No variation of the
degree of heating or cooling is possible.

 Signal conditioning converts the variable R in to analog voltage, V. Thus, V is an
analog of T as well. The differential amplifier multiplies the difference between v
& a reference voltage, vref, by gain k to produce an error voltagV ve.
 Vref is simply as that voltage from the converter which would be produced by Tref.
 Yhis system is digital because the relays will either be open or colosed so that the
heater or the cooler will be either be on or off.
 The diodes direct the current to appropriate relay to produce heating or cooling,
based on polarity.

 This system also exhibites a deadband &hysteresis.
 The deadband is a range of temperature in which no action will occur.
 Hysteresis menas that the behavior of the system is different at the same value
of tempreature is increasing or decreasing.
 of coures our home &auto heaters and air conditioners are some of the control
system which work according to the same ON/OFF mode.

Analog control
 Fig. below shows a process in which a heater is used to control the temperature
in an oven.
 In this case heater output Q is an analog of the excitaion voltage Va and the heat
can be varied continuously.
 Notice that every signal is anloge; vT analog of T, the error E analog of
difference b/n the reference, Vref & the temperaure voltage, VT .
 Vref voltage result from referenc temperatuer Tref

An analog control system such as this allows continuous variation of some parameter,
such as heat input, as a function of error.

Digital control
 Involve the use of computer in modren applications, although in the past

digital logic circuits are used.
There are two approaches in digital control.
1. Supervisory conrol (SC)
2. Direct direct digital control(DDC)

Supervisory control(SC)
 Computers were first didn't have good relibility; they suffered frequent failures
and breakdown.
 In SC a single computer could monitor many control loops &use appropriarte
software to optimize the set point for overall plant operation.
 If the computer failed, the analog loops kept the process running by using the last
setpoints until th computer came back on line. fig.below shows such from of
digital control system.

 In supervisory control, the computer monitors measurements and updates setpoints,
but the loops are still analog in nature

Direct digital control(DDC)
 In recent days computer becomes more reliable & miniaturized, they have taken over
the controller function.
 Thus the analog processing loop is discaded.
 The ADC & DAC provide the interface with the process measurement &control action.
 The computer inputs the digital equivalent of the temperature, NT, as an ADC O/P of
the I/P voltage VT.

 Error detection &controller action are detrmined by softwere.
 The computer then prvides an output directly to th heater via digital representation
NQ Which is converted to the exciton voltage VQ by the DAC.
 This direct digital control system lets the computer perform the error detection
and controller functions.
Programmable logic cintroller (PLC)
 In past electrical realys wired accoreding to complex digram into what was called a
relay logic controller.
 In recent years this controller is replaced by PLC. Originally it deigend to discrete -
state(ON/OFF) systems but these days used to implement DDC. Fig below show how
thermal limit switch is used instead of sensr or to indicate when the temprature has
risen above or fallen below the limit temperatue.
 These are simply switches designed to open (or colse) when the temperature reaches
creset certain preset value.

 A programmable logic controller
(PLC) is an outgrowth of ON/OFF-
type control environments.
 In this case the heater and cooler are
either ON or OFF.

Analog data Representation
Electric current and pneumatic pressures are the most common means
of information transmission in the industrial environment.

One of the advantages of current as a transmission signal is that it is
nearly independent of line resistance.

A transfer function shows how a system-block output variable varies in
response to an input variable, as a function of both static input value
and time.

Uncertainties in block transfer functions build up as more blocks are
involved in the transformation.

Hysteresis is a predictable error resulting from differences in the
transfer function as the input variable increases or decreases.

Comparison of an actual curve and its best-fit straight line, where the
maximum deviation is 5% FS.

GOAL:
Maintaining process variables
(temperatures, pressures, flows,
compositions, levels) at a desired operating
value.
Processes are dynamic in nature, and

changes are always occurring. The
important variables those related to safety,
product quality, and production rates will
not achieve design conditions.
POINTS:
1.1 PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM
1.2 IMPORTANT TERMS
1.3 TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
1.4 CONTROL STRATEGIES
1.5 SUMMARY

• Manual process control
• Automatic process control

Steam
Process
fluid
Ti(t) T(t)
T
Condensate
return
Figure 1-1 Heat exchanger
The purpose of this unit: To heat the process

fluid from some inlet temperature, Ti(t), up to a
desired outlet temperature, T(t).
Steam
Process
fluid
Ti(t) T(t)
T
Condensate
return
Figure 1-1 Heat exchanger
In this process many variables can change,

causing the outlet temperature to deviate from
its desired value. If this happens, some action
must be taken to correct for this deviation.

• Manual process control
(1) Measure the temperature T(t);
(2) Compare it to its desired value

(3) Based on this comparison, decide what to
do to correct for any deviation. The steam valve
can be manipulated to correct for the deviation.
Steam
Process
fluid
Ti(t) T(t)
T
Condensate
return
How it works?
Steam
Process
fluid
Ti(t) T(t)
T
Condensate
return
If the outlet temperature T(t) is above its desired

value, the steam valve can be throttled back to
cut the steam flow(energy) to the heat exchanger;
If the outlet temperature T(t) is below its desired
value, the steam valve could be opened more to
increase the steam flow to the heat exchanger.
Disadvantages of manual process control
(1) The operator should look at the temperature
frequently to take corrective action whenever it
deviates its desired value.
(2) Different operators would make different

decisions as to how to move the steam valve,
resulting in inconsistent operation.
(3) This corrective procedure would require a

large number of operators.
So, We would like to accomplish this control

automatically. Without requiring intervention from
the operator. Dessie Fentaw
4/2/2018 232
• Automatic process control:
SP
(1) Measure the outlet
temperature of the TC
Controller
process stream by a
sensor(thermocouple, Final control
element
resistance temperature Steam
device, thermisters, etc.)
(2) Transmitter transmits Transmitter
the signal to the Process TT
controller fluid
(3) Controller compare Ti(t) T(t)

Sensor
the signal to the desired T
value, and decides what Condensate
return
to do to maintain the
temperature at its desired
value. Fig. 1-2 Heat exchanger control loop
(4) The controller sends a signal to the final control element to
manipulate
4/2/2018 the steam flow.
Dessie Fentaw 233
Three components of all control systems:
SP
(1)Sensor/transmitter.
The primary and Controller
TC
secondary elements. Final control

element
Steam
(2) Controller. The
brain of the control Transmitter
system. Process TT
fluid
(3) Final control Ti(t) T(t)
Sensor
element. A control T
valve, but not always. Condensate
return
(variable-speed
pumps, conveyors Fig. 1-2 Heat exchanger control loop
and electric motors)
Three basic operations:
SP
(1) Measurement(M).
Measuring the variable to Controller
TC
be controlled Final control

element
Steam
(2) Decision(D). Based on
the measurement, the Transmitter
controller decides what to Process TT
fluid
do to maintain the
Ti(t) T(t)
variable at its desired Sensor
T
value. Condensate
return
Fig. 1-2 Heat exchanger control loop
(3) Action(A). As a controller’s decision, the system
must take an action. This is usually accomplished by
the final control element.
1.2 IMPORTANT TERMS
• Controlled variable (process variable, measurement).
The variable that must be controlled at some desired
value. SP
•Controlled object or Controller

TC
Process. The object Final control

that need to be element
Steam
controlled.
Transmitter
Process TT
fluid
Ti(t) T(t)
• Set point. The desired Sensor
T
value of the controlled Condensate
variable. return

1.2 IMPORTANT TERMS
• Manipulated variable. The variable used to maintain the
controlled variable at its desired value.
• Disturbance(upset). Any
variable that causes the SP
controlled variable to
deviate away from the set Controller
TC
point. Final control

element
• In the heat exchanger, Steam
possible disturbances.
Transmitter
Inlet process temperature Process TT
Ti(t), the process flow f(t), fluid
The energy content of the T (t)i T(t)

Sensor
steam, ambient condition, T
Condensate
process fluid composition return
and fouling.
1.2 IMPORTANT TERMS
• NOTE. Disturbances are always occurring in processes,
transient conditions are very common. It is because of
these disturbances that automatic process control is
needed. If there were no disturbances, design operating
conditions would prevail, and there would be no
necessity of continuously “monitoring” the process.
With these preceding terms defined, we can say:

The objective of an automatic process control system is
to adjust the manipulated variable to maintain the
controlled variable at its set point in spite of disturbances.

• Why control is important?
(1) Safety: Prevent injury to plant personnel, protect the
environment by preventing emission and minimizing
waste and prevent damage to the process equipment.
(2) Maintain product quality (composition, purity, color,

etc.) on a continuous basis and with minimum cost.
(3) Maintain plant production rate at minimum cost.
So, we can say that the reasons for automation of

process plants are to provide safety and at same time
maintain desired product quality, high plant throughput,
and reduce demand on human labor.

1.3 TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEM
Two types of control system:

(1) Regulatory control In some processes the controlled
variable deviated from the set point because of
disturbances, regulatory control refers to systems
designed to compensate for these disturbances.
(2) Servo control In some processes, the most important
disturbance is the set point itself. That is, the set point
may be changed as a function of time. Servo control
refers to control systems designed for this purpose.
In the process industries, regulatory control is far more

common that servo control.
Points：
(1) Feedback control (closed-loop control)
(2) Feedforward control (open-loop control)
(3) Choose a proper control system

Points:
• How it works?
• The block diagrams of feedback control
• The characteristics of feedback control

•How it works? SP
If the inlet process TC

Controller
temperature decreases,
Final control
thus creating a disturbance, element
Steam
its effect must propagate
through the heat exchanger
Transmitter
before the outlet Process TT
temperature decreases. fluid

T(t)
Once the outlet temperature T (t) i
Sensor
T
changes, the signal from Condensate
the transmitter to the return
controller also changes.

•How it works? SP
It is then that the controller TC

Controller
becomes aware that a
Final control
deviation from set point has element
Steam
occurred and it must
compensate for the
Transmitter
disturbance by Process TT
manipulating the steam fluid

T (t) T(t)
valve. The controller then i
Sensor
T
signals the valve to Condensate
increase its opening and return
thus increase the steam

flow. Fig. 1-2 Heat exchanger control loop
The response of feedback control (closed-loop control)
At first the outlet temperature
TEMPERATURE
decreases because of the
INLET
decrease in inlet temperature, but
then it increases, even above the TIME
set point and continuous to
TEMPERATURE
oscillate until it finally stabilizes.
OUTLET
This oscillatory response is typical TIME
of feedback control and shows
CONTROLLER
that it is essentially a trial and
OUTPUT
error operation. That is, when the
controller notices that the outlet
TIME
temperature has decreased below
Fig.1-3 Response
the SET POINT, it signals the valve of feedback control
to open. But theDessie
4/2/2018 opening
Fentaw is more 245
TEMPERATURE
Than required. Therefore, the
outlet temperature increases
INLET
above the SET POINT. Noticing
TIME
this, the controller signals the
TEMPERATURE
valve to close again somewhat to
bring the temperature back down.
OUTLET
This trial and error continued until
TIME
the temperature reached and
stayed at SET POINT.
CONTROLLER
OUTPUT TIME
Fig.1-3 Response
of feedback control
• The block diagrams of feedback control system
Disturbance 1 Disturbance 2
Output
SP
Final control Process Or
Controller
element or plant Controlled
Summing
- variable
junction
Sensor/
Transmitter
Fig 1-4 Block diagrams of closed-loop control systems

 The advantage of feedback control
Compensate for all disturbances
The result of any disturbance entering the process is to
make the controlled variable deviate from the SET POINT.
Once the controlled variable deviates from the set point,
the controller changes its output to return the controlled
variable to SET POINT(its desired value).
The feedback control loop does not know, nor does it
care, which disturbance enters the process. It only tries
to maintain the controlled variable at set point, and in
this way compensates for all disturbances. The feedback
controller works with minimum knowledge of the
process. Actually, the only information it needs is in
which direction to move, and how much to move is
usually
4/2/2018 adjustedDessie
byFentaw
trial and error. 248
 The disadvantage of feedback control

SP
Can compensate for a
disturbance only AFTER Controller
TC
the controlled variable Final control

has deviated from the set element
Steam
point because of the
disturbance. Transmitter
Process TT
Can not give the fluid
controlled variable a Ti(t) T(t)

Sensor
timely control (laggard) T
Condensate
return
Points:
• How it works?
• The block diagram of feedforward control
• The characteristics of feedforward control

• How it works?
The feedforward control is a very common control

strategy in the process industries. It is the simplicity
that accounts for its popularity.
The objective of feedforward control is to measure
the disturbances and compensate for them before
the controlled variable deviates from the set point.
If applied correctly, the controlled variable
deviation would be minimum.

Suppose that “major” SP
disturbance is the inlet Feedforward
temperature Ti(t). To controller
implement feedforward
Steam
control, this disturbance
TT
must first be measured
and then a decision made Ti(t) T(t)
as to manipulate the T
Condensation
retun
steam valve to
compensate for them. Fig 1-5 Feedforward control

Fig 1-5 shows this control SP
strategy. Feedforward
controller
 measure the inlet
temperature Steam
TT
 Feedforward controller
makes the decision about Ti(t) T(t)
T
how to manipulate the Condensation
retun
steam valve to maintain
the controlled variable at Fig 1-5 Feedforward control
set point.
• The Block diagrams of Feedforward control
Sensor/
Tranmitter Process flow
Disturbances
Output
SP
Final control Process Or
Controller
element or plant Controlled
variable
Fig 1-6 Block diagrams of feedforward control

 The disadvantage of feedforward control
Feedforward control cannot compensate

for all disturbances that enter the process

 The disadvantage of feedforward control
SP
Feedforward
 In this example, The feedforward controller
control system can compensate

only one of disturbances. If any Steam
TT
of the other disturbances enter
the process, this strategy will not f(t) Ti(t) T(t)
compensate for it, and the result T

Condensation
retun
will be a permanent deviation
from set point of the controlled Fig 1-5 Feedforward control
variable.

 The advantage of feedforward control

SP
It has the characteristic Feedforward

controller
of forward control
Steam
So, if we use this strategy
TT
correctly, the controlled
variable will not deviate Ti(t) T(t)
set point. T
Condensation
retun
Fig 1-5 Feedforward control

Some examples:
Washing machine
Feedforward
Oven control system
Microwave oven
Feedback
Air conditioner control system

(3) Choose a proper control system
Review:
• Feedback control system
• Feedforward control system
?:
How to choose a proper control system?

• Proper Control System
• Can get the output that a process need
• Low cost

• Contrast
Feedforward Feedback Control

Control System System
Can not compensate Can compensate all

all disturbances disturbances
Simple structure Complex structure

Low cost High cost

• Choice
An open-loop
system
• Simplicity and low cost

Trade-off:
• Complexity and higher cost
Premise: Ensure the A closed-loop

requirement of system
industrial production

• Feedforward control with feedback control
In this example, TC
SP
Feedforward control
+
now compensate for Feedforward
controller
the “major” +
disturbance;
Steam
feedback control
compensate for all TT
TT
other disturbances. T(t)

f(t) Ti(t)
T Condensation
retun
Fig 1-6 Feedforward control with feedback control

• feedforward control with feedback control
Notice: the three basic TC

SP
operations, M,D,A are
+
still present in this Feedforward
controller
more “advanced” +
control strategy.
Steam
The sensors and TT
TT
transmitters perform
the measurement. f(t) Ti(t) T(t)
T Condensation
Both feedforward and retun
feedback controller
make the decision. Fig 1-6 Feedforward control with feedback control
The steam valve takes
action.
1.5 SUMMARY
• The need for automatic process control

• The principles of a control system, we can
use three letters to describe, M, D and A
• Present the basic components of a process

control system: sensor/transmitter, controller,
and final control element

1.5 SUMMARY
• Present two types of control strategies:

Feedforward control or feedback control, we
also discussed their advantages and
disadvantages,
• Give the principles of choosing the proper
control system

April 2, 2018 Dessie Fentaw 267
Types of Actuators
 Electrical
 Ac and dc motors
 Stepper motors
 solenoids
 Hydraulic
 Use hydraulic fluid to actuate motion
 Pneumatic
 Use compressed air to actuate motion

Introduction
The term ‘hydraulics’ refers to the power produced in
moving liquids.
Modern hydraulic systems are defined as;
The use of confined liquids to transmit power, multiply

force or produce motion efficiently.

Pascal’s Law
The French mathematician & philosopher, Blaise Pascal, discovered
that liquids cannot be compressed.
His work on hydraulics led to him publishing the following law
concerning confined fluids;
"a change in the pressure of an enclosed incompressible fluid is
conveyed undiminished to every part of the fluid and to the surfaces of
its container."
In other words, if a pressure is applied on a confined fluid, this pressure is
transmitted in all directions with equal force on equal areas.

Basic Hydraulic System
A ‘Basic’ hydraulic system provides a mechanical
advantage similar to that of a simple lever.
By using cylinders of different sizes a

Multiplication of Forces can be achieved

Typical Hydraulic System
Although the layout and complexity of a hydraulic system will
vary based on it’s primary function, the principles and
components of the system will be the same.
Typically, a hydraulic system will consist of;
 The Hydraulic Fluid
 A Reservoir
 A Hydraulic Pump
 Hydraulic Fluid Lines
 A number of Hydraulic Valves
 A number of Hydraulic Actuators

Typical Layout
The diagram below shows a typical layout of components in a
Hydraulic System.
Actuator
Reservoir
Low Pressure Return
Selector
Valve
POWER
Pump Pressure Line

Hydraulic system components
The diagram below shows the main components in a Hydraulic
System.

Main Components of a Hydraulic system
 Hydraulic systems normally contain the following

components;
1. Hydraulic Fluid
2. An Oil Reservoir
3. A Pump to Move Oil, and Apply Pressure
4. Pressure Lines
5. Control Valves - to regulate fluid flow
6. Piston and Cylinder - to actuate external mechanisms

Control system for a typical Hydraulic system

Hydraulic Fluid
 The fluid used within the hydraulic system can be almost
any liquid.
 However, the most common hydraulic fluids contain

specially compounded petroleum oils.
 These lubricate and protect the system components

from corrosion.

Reservoir
 The reservoir is no more than a tank that acts as
a storehouse for the fluid.
 The reservoir also acts as a heat dissipater – ensuring that
the oil remains at the optimum temperature.
 If the oil gets too hot, it’s properties change and the fluid
will become more viscous.
 If the properties of the hydraulic fluid change, this can

affect the responsiveness of the system.

The Hydraulic Pump
 The hydraulic pump allows the conversion of mechanical

energy into hydraulic energy by forcing the hydraulic fluid,
under pressure, from the reservoir, through a filter into the
system.
 The type of pump used will be dependent on the application,

but ‘Gear Pumps’, ‘Vane Pumps’ and ‘Piston Pumps’ are the
three types of pumps typically utilised.

Hydraulic Fluid Lines
The hydraulic fluid lines transport the hydraulic fluid to and

from the pump through to all the components of the hydraulic
system.
These lines can be rigid metal tubes, or flexible hose assemblies.
The fluid lines can transport fluid either under pressure or via
vacuum (i.e. suction).

Hydraulic Selector Valves
The hydraulic selector valves are used to control the pressure,
direction and flow rate of the hydraulic fluid within the hydraulic
system.
There are a number of different types of selector valve in use – a
common type is the Open Centre Spool Valve.

Hydraulic Actuators
 The hydraulic actuator converts hydraulic energy into

mechanical energy to do work.
 The actuators usually take the form of hydraulic cylinders
with a piston that allows the hydraulic ram to move in and
out.

Special Problems
The extreme flexibility of hydraulic systems present a number of
problems
 Since hydraulic fluid has no shape, they must be positively confined
throughout the entire system.
 Special consideration to the structural integrity of the system must be

given – i.e. Strong pipes and containers
 Leaks must be prevented – a particular problem with the high pressures

involved.
 The constant movement of the fluid in the system results in friction

within the fluid and hence a reduction in efficiency.
 Foreign matter must not be allowed to accumulate in the system.
 Chemical action may cause corrosion of the system components

Pneumatic Systems
Pneumatic systems work in a very similar way to that of hydraulic systems.
 It is very similar to hydraulic system, but power-to-weight ratio is much lower
than hydraulic system
The major difference is that in pneumatic systems, high pressure air is used
instead of hydraulic fluid.
 This is because air is much more compressible than fluid and it is much easier to
store the pressure, using reservoirs.
This can give a reserve of power for short bursts of very heavy operation, or for
emergency use if the system fails.
In an airframe, a pneumatic system can be used in place of a hydraulic system

 Variety of Actuation mechanisms available
 Cylinders
 Grippers
 Motors

Typical Pneumatic System
Like the hydraulic system, the layout and complexity of a pneumatic system will
vary based on it’s primary function, but the principles and components of the system
will be the same.
Typically, a pneumatic system will consist of;
 A Storage Cylinder – for the compressed air
 Pressure Gauges
 Pressure Valves – Non-Return, Reducing, Maintaining
 Pneumatic Air Lines
 A number of Pneumatic Selector Valves
 A number of Pneumatic Actuators

Typical Layout
The diagram below shows a typical layout of components in a
Pneumatic System.

Basic Pneumatic System

Disadvantages of Pneumatics
Due to, the compressibility of air:
response
The rate of movement depends strongly on the load
the position of systems cannot be controlled with any degree of accuracy.
Relative inefficiency in transmitting power when compared with
Hydraulic system(b/c energy is lost in compressing the air)
All these components take up quite a bit of valuable space within a
robot.
No weight advantage if only one cylinder used (still need
compressor, reservoir, pressure sensors, regulator)

Advantage of Pneumatics
 Weight
 Cylinders much lighter than motors
 Simple
 Much easier to mount than motors
 Much simpler and more durable than rack and pinion for linear
motion
• Clean (food industry)
 Fast on/off type tasks
• No return lines needed
 Big forces with elasticity
 No leak problems
 No burnout
 Cylinders can be stalled indefinitely without damage
 Adaptable infrastructure

Current State of Actuators
All three types of actuators are in use today

 Electric actuators are the type most commonly used
 Hydraulic and pneumatic systems allow for increased force
and torque from smaller motor
There are some dual function actuators

 i.e. rotation and translation

Key components of Hydraulic and Pneumatic
 Pump/Compressor
 Pressure regulator
 Valve
 Solenoid
 Actuator

Valves
1. Direction control valves
2. Pressure control valves
3. Process control valves

Valve Symbols: Valve connections
Ports are labeled by a
Control methods number or letter:
1 or P : pressure
supply
3 or T : hydraulic return
3/5 or R/S : pneumatic
exhaust ports
2/5 or B/A : output
ports
Valves with controls indicated
Finite position valve usually specified as “x/y valve”

x: number of ports (sum of inlets and outlets)
y: number of positions
4/3 valve: 4 ports and 3 positions

Example: Pneumatic lift system
Lift load
Lower load

Directional control valves
Pneumatic & hydraulic systems use direction control valves to direct the flow of fluid
through a system
Directional control valves perform only three functions:
•stop fluid flow
•allow fluid flow, and change direction of fluid flow.
Are not intended to vary the rate of flow of fluid .
Spool valve-a spool moves horizontally with in the valve
body to control the flow. When the spool moves to one side
one of the output port will be pressurized; And when the
spool moves to the other side, the other port will be
pressurized,
Poppet valve: It is normally in a closed condition &

output not connected to the pressure supply. In this valves,
balls, discs, or cones, are used in conjunction with valves
seats to control the flow of the fluid.

Pressure control valves
Infinite position valve is shown below:
allows any position between open and closed to modulate flow or pressure
Pressure regulating valves
There are three main types of pressure

control valves:
1. Pressure regulating valves-control operating
pressure in a circuit and maintain it constant
2. Pressure limiting valves-used as a safety
devices to limit the pressure in a circuit to Check valve (One directional flow)
bellow some safe value. Pressure limiting valve
3. Pressure sequence valves- valves that are
used to sense the pressure of an external
line and give a signal when it reaches some
preset value.
Process control valves
Used to control the rate of fluid flow in to or out of a
tank
The bases of such valves is a an actuator being
used to move a plug in to the flow pipe and so alter
the cross-section of the pipe through which the fluid
can flow
A common form of pneumatic actuator used with
process control valves is the diaphragm actuator.
It consist of a diaphragm with input pressure from a
controller at one side and an atmospheric pressure
on the other
This pressure is termed as a gauge pressure.
The effect of change in the input pressure is to
move the central part of the diaphragm.
This movement communicated to the final control
element by a shaft which is attached to the
diaphragm.

Example
 A diaphragm actuator is used to open a control valve. If a force of 500N
must be applied to the valve, what diaphragm area is required for a
control gauge pressure of 100KPa.
Solution

Process control valves

Solenoid valves
 Solenoids are the most common actuator
components.
 The basic principle of operation is there is a
moving ferrous core (a piston) that will move
inside wire coil
 Normally the piston is held outside the coil by a
spring.
 When voltage is applied to the coil and current
flows, the coil builds up a magnetic field that
attracts the piston and pulls it into the center of
the coil.
 The piston can be used to supply a linear force.
Well known applications of these include
pneumatic values and car door openers.
A- Input side
B- Diaphragm
C- Pressure chamber
D- Pressure relief passage
E- Solenoid
F- Output side
Solenoid controlled cylinder

Hydraulic/Pneumatic actuators-Cylinders
•A cylinder uses pressurized fluid or air to create a
linear force/motion
•In the figure a fluid is pumped in SAC
to one side of the cylinder under pressure, causing
that side of the cylinder to expand, and advancing the
piston.
The fluid on the other side of the piston must be
allowed to escape freely - if the incompressible fluid
was trapped the cylinder could not advance.
• Single acting cylinder (SAC)
• Double acting cylinder (DAC)
• Two well-defined endpoints
• Rotary
DAC

Hydraulic/Pneumatic actuators-Cylinders
The force the cylinder can exert is proportional
to the cross sectional area of the cylinder SAC
Types of cylinders:
• Single acting cylinder (SAC)
• Double acting cylinder (DAC)
• Two well-defined endpoints
• Rotary
DAC

Hydraulic/pneumatic cylinders
Calculation of cylinders
A1 A2
p2 vB
p1
v0

Rotary actuators
A rotary actuator converts energy into controlled rotational force, and is often used in systems
where cylinder mountings are not a viable solution.
Rotary actuators are used to convert potential pneumatic energy into mechanical energy.
Rotary actuators produce torque .Commonly called air motors
In most cases rotary actuators are not chosen for their efficiencies, but for their power, speed
and torque.
•Semi-rotary actuator involving a

vane used to provide a shaft
rotation proportional to pressure
difference b/n the two parts
•The van can be rotated CW or
CCW depending on the pressure
•For rotation more than 360 deg. A
pneumatic motor(Vane motor) can
be used

Examples
1. A pneumatic system is operated at a pressure of 1000kPa. What diameter of
cylinder will be required to move a load requiring a force of 12kN.
Soln
D=391mm
2. A hydraulic cylinder is to be used to move a work piece in a manufacturing
operation through a distance of 50mm in 10s. A force of 10kN is required to
move the work piece. Determine the required working pressure and
hydraulic liquid flow rate if a cylinder with piston diameter of 100mm is
available.
Soln
P= 1.2MPa
Q= 3.9*10-5 m3 /s

Rotary actuators
There is a wide range of rotary actuator designs available, including rack and
pinion, piston chain, helical spine, Scotch yoke, bladder and vane rotary
actuators, each suited to a specific group of applications.
rack and pinion Vane Motor
Linear cylinder as a rotary actuator

Used for all Automation
 Actuators are used everywhere there is automation
 robot, conveyor system, etc.
Linear
Actuator Rotary
Electric Motor
Actuator

Where Used
 Electric motors used for high precision
 Precise robot applications such as automotive and pharmaceutical
 Now up to 10,000 lbf
 Hydraulic actuators used for increased torque
 High force and torque applications up to 32,000 lbf
 High precision achievable
 Pneumatic actuators are used for lower cost and lower
precision applications

Characteristics of actuators
 Weight, Power-to-Weight Ratio, Operating Pressure
 The weight of the actuating system and Power-to-Weight
Ratio is important.
stepper motor < servomotor
pneumatic : lowest, hydraulic : highest
 Pneumatic and hydraulic system are composed of two
system, actuating
system and power system.
 Operating pressure
hydraulic : 55~5,000 psi
pneumatic : 100~120 psi

Final Control
 The function of final control element is to translate low-
energy control signal into a level of action

Final Control Operation
Control signal
Signal Conversions Actuator
Final
Control
Element
Process
Fig. Elements of the final control opration

Signal Conversions
 The modification to the control signal to properly
interface with the actuator
 For example, the electric motor actuator to operate

the valve
Current-to-voltage conversion
 The devices that perform signal conversions are

called transducers

Actuator
The translation of control signal into action on the
control element
For example
 Valve (control element)  Mechanism to
open or close the valve
 can be electrically (Solenoid, or motor)
 pneumatically
 hydraulically controlled
 Heater (control element)  Relay switch

Control Element
 The device that influences the process variables
 For example
Flow  Valve
Temperature  Heater

Signal Conversions
 Signal conversion is to convert low-energy control
signal to a high-energy signal to drive the actuator
 The signal from controller comes in 3 forms

 Electrical current 4-20 mA
 Pneumatic pressure 3 to 15 psi
 Digital signal

 Common element to perform analog signal conversion
are
 Relay
 Amplifiers
 Common element to perform digital signal conversion
are
 ON/OFF control
 DAC
 Direct action

Pneumatic Signals
 In pneumatic system, signals is carried in form of gas
pressure
 The pressure gas travels at speed of 330 m/s.
 There are 3 types of conversion
 Amplification
 Nozzle/Flapper system
 Current-to-Pressure converters

Amplification
 Pneumatic amplifier or booster raise pressure via a
regulator
 As the input pressure increases, the diaphragm motion will

move the plug into the booster

A pneumatic amplifier or booster converts the siginal pressure to a higher
Pressure or the same pressure

 As the signal pressuer varies, the diapheagm motion will move the plug in the body
block of the booster.
 If motion is down, the gas leak is reduced and pressure in the out put line is
increasd.
 The device is reveres acting, because a high-pressure will cause out put pressure to
decrease. many other designs are also used

Nozzle/Flapper System
 An important signal coversion is from pressure to mechanicaal motion and vice
versa.
 This conversion can be provided by a nozzle/flapper system(sometimes called a
nozzle/baffle system). Adiagram of this device is sown in figure below .
 A regulated supply of pressure, usually over 20 psi, provides a source of air through
the restriction.

 The nozzle is open at the end where
the gap exists between the nozzle and
flapper ,and air escape in this region.

Current-to-Pressure Converters
 The current- to-pressure, or simply I/P converter, is an important element in
process control.
 often, when we want to use the low-level electric current signal to do work, it is
easier to let the work be done by a pneumatic signal.
 The I/P converter diven us a linear way of translatin the 4-to 20-mA current in to
a 3-to15- psig signal.

I/P Converter
 Convert 4-20 mA into 3-to-15 psi signal

 There are many designes for these converter, but the basic princiipl almost always
involves the ues of a nozzle/floapper system.
 Fig above illustrates a simply way to construct such a converter.
 Notic that the current through a coil produces a force that will tend to pull the
flapper down and close off the gap.

 A high current produces a high pressure so that the device is direct acting .
 Adjustment of the spring and perhaps the position relative to the pivot to
which they are attached allows the unit to be calibrated so that 4mA
corresponds to 3 psi and 20 mA corresponds to 15 psi

Electrical Actuator
 Action is the result of input electrical signal
 Solenoid
 Electrical motor
i. DC motor
ii. AC motor
iii. Stepping motor

Solenoid
 An elementary device that converts an electrical
signal into mechanical motion (linear)
 The solenoid consists of a coil and plunger

 The plunger may be freestanding or spring loaded.
 The coil will have some voltage or current rating and may be dc ac.
 Solenoid specifications include the electrical rating and the plunger pull or
push force when excited by the specified voltage

How a Solenoid Works.
1. Apply Current
2. Magnetic Field Builds
3. Stop and Plunger
Become Attracting
Magnets
4. Magnetic Force Drives
Plunger to Stop

Basics Types of
Solenoids
Push Rotary
Pull Open
Clapper Closed

Types of Solenoids
Pull Solenoids
 Force is Directed Back
towards Solenoid.
Push Solenoids
 Force is Directed AWAY
from Solenoid

Types of Solenoids
Clapper Solenoids
 Typically Force
application can be the
same as a Push or Pull
 Greater amount of End
Force/Hold Force

Types of Solenoids
Rotary Solenoids  Every Company has
 Apply a Torque over a different ways to obtain
range of Rotation. the rotary motion.

Types of Solenoids
Rotary Solenoids
 Other Configurations:

Types of Solenoids
 Open Frame Solenoids  Closed Frame
Solenoids or Tubular
Solenoids

Typical Solenoid Applications
 Linear Applications
 Valve Actuators
 Latching/Switching
 Pushing/Pulling Objects
 Sorting
 Shutters
 Characteristics
 Size  as Force 

Pneumatic Actuators
 Conversion of pressure signal into action
F  A  p1  p2 
p1  p2  pressure difference (Pa)

A  diaphragm area m 2  
F  force (N)
 If we need to double the available force for a given

pressure, it is only to double the diaphragm area

 The action of pneumatic actuator is shown below
 The shaft position is linearly related to applied control

pressure
A
x  p
k

Hydraulic Actuator
 The inherent compressibility of gases cause limit to
the output force
 When large force is required, hydraulic actuator may
be employed.
 The basic idea is the same except fluid is
incompressible
 The hydraulic pressure is given by

F1
pH 
A1
 This pressure is transferred equally to the working

piston as.
Fw  pH A2
Thus, the working force is given by

Process control loop tuning and
Controllers

Introduction
 In this chapter, we study the nature of controller action for systems with
operations and variables that range over continuous values.
 The controller inputs the results of measurements of the controller variable
and determines an appropriate output to the final control element.
 Essentially, the controller is some form of computer either analog or digital,
pneumatic or electronic.

Closed-loop control system in process control.

 The Controller provides a corrective signal. Output will depend on vε.
 The Output signal conditioning or Signal conditioner is the interface between the
controller output (a signal) to the output actuator.
 The Output actuator or Final correcting device directly affects a process change: motor,
heater, solenoid, etc.
 The Input sensor detects any changes in the process respect to the set-point.
 The Input signal conditioning converts the output from the input sensor to a process
variable signal.

The Controller is the heart of any electronic control system and possesses the following
characteristics:
i. It maintains the process variable within acceptable limits of the set point.
ii. The smaller the variations of the process from the set point the better the controller.
iii. The faster the controller responds when the process variable deviates from the set point
the better the controller.

Controller Principles
 The controller takes input, solve certain equations to
calculate the proper output
 The equations describe the mode or action of the

controller

Process Characteristics
 To select which mode of operation to used depends on
the characteristics of the process
 Process equation
 Dynamic behavior of the process

 The control of liquid temperature in the tank
 The controlled variable is TL(liquid temprature)

 TL depends on many parameters in the process
TL  F (QA , QB , QS , TA , TS , T0 )
where QA , QB  flow rates in pipes A and B
QS  steam flow rate
TA  ambient temperature
T0  inlet fluid temperature
TS  steam temperature
 The controller loop adjusts QS and regulate the TL, regardless
of each parameters vary with each other

Process Load
 Set of parameters in the process that results in controlled
variable equal to setpoint value, excluding controlled
variable
 When the load changes, the controlling variable is adjusted

to compensate for this change to bring back to the setpoint
Process Lag
 The time delay that process responds to the load change

Example
 An inlet flow is suddenly double. The process gradually
change the liquid temperature.

Self-Regulation
 A significant characteristic of some processes to adopt a
specific value or stable value of controlled variable under
nominal load without regulation via process control loop
is called self-regulation.
 The control operations are significantly affected by the

self regulation.

Control System Parameters
 Error
 Variable Range
 Control Parameter Range
 Control Lag
 Dead Time
 Cycling
 Controller Modes

Error
 The deviation or error of the controlled variable
from the set point is given by
e  r b
e  error
b  measured indication of variable
r  setpoint of variable (reference)

 The previous equation is error as an absolute sense
 To express error as percent of span
r b
ep  100
bmax  bmin

Example
The temperature has a range of 300 to 440 K and a set

point of 384 K. Find the percentage of span error
when the temperature is 379 k

Control Parameter Range
 The controller output expressed as percentage
 where 0 % is the minimum controller output and

100 % is the maximum controller output
u  umin
p 100
umax  umin
p  controller output as percent of full scale

u  value of the output
umax  maximum value of controlling parameter
umin  minimum value of controlling parameter
Example
A controller outputs a 4-to-20 mA signal to control motor speed from 140 to
600 rpm with a linear dependence. Calculate (a) current corresponding to 310
rpm and (b) the value of (a) expressed as the percentage of control output.
Soln.
We find the slope m and intersect so

Control Lag
 The time for the process-control loop to make
necessary adjustment to the final control element
Example,
A change in liquid temperature occurs, it is required some
finite time for the control system to physically actuate the
steam control valve

Dead Time
 Dead time is the delay from when a controller
output signal is issued until when the measured
process variable (PV) first begins to respond.
 The presence of dead time is never a good thing in a

control loop.

Cycling
 An oscillation of the error about zero
 It means the controlled variable varies up and down

between the setpoint

Controller Modes
 Discontinuous controller mode
 A discrete state of output from the controller
 Continuous controller mode
 Smoothly continuous adjust the output
 The choice is depended on
 Process characteristics
 Cost analysis
 Product rate
 Other industrial factors

Direct
 WhenAction
controlled variable increases as controller output
increases
 Level control
 Level increase, the value should open more (drive signal should
increase)
Reverse Action
 When an increase in controlled variable cause a
decrease in controller output
 Temperature control
If temperature increase, the drive to the heater should be
decrease

Discontinuous Controller Modes
 Two position mode
 Multi-position mode
 Floating control mode

Two Position Mode
 The controller will output 2 values of signal
depends on ep
 0% e p  0
p
100% e p  0
Heater,
 if temperature drops below setpoint, the heater is
turn ON.
 If the temperature rises above the setpoint, it is turn
OFF

Neutral Zone
 During -ep to ep, the controller output will not
change
 This is design to prevent excessive cycling

Example
A liquid-level control system linearly converts a displacement

of 2 to 3 m into a 4 to 20 mA control signal. A relay serves as
the two position controller to open or close an inlet valve. The
relay closes at 12 mA and opens at 10 mA. Find (a) the
relation between displacement level and current and (b) the
neutral zone or displacement gap in meter

Multi position Mode
 Provide several intermediate setting of controller
outputs
 Try to reduce cycling behavior and overshoot
 This mode is represent by
p  pi e p  ei i  1, 2,...n

Example
100 e p  e1

p   50 e1  e p  e1
 0 e p  e1

 The graph represents the error and the control output
 The overshoot and undershoot are due to process lag

time and controller lag time

Floating-Control Mode
 p is not uniquely determined by error ep
Single speed floating controller

The output p of the controller change at a fixed rate when
error exceeds the neutral zone
dp
  K F e p  e p
dt
dp
 rate of change of controller output with time
dt
K F  rate constant (%/s)
e p  half the neutral zone
 The previous equation is integrated, we get
p   K F t  p (0) e p  e p
p (0)  controller output at t=0
 It shows that the present output depends on the time history

of error

 If deviation persists, the controller saturates at either
100% or 0%

Multiple Speed
 The possible rate for controller depends on
magnitude of ep
dp
  K Fi e p  e pi
dt

Continuous Controller Mode
 Proportional control mode
 Integral control mode
 Derivative control mode

Proportional Control Mode
 Each value of error (ep) has a unique value of
controller output in one-to-one correspondence
p  K p e p  p0
K p  proportional gain between error

and controller output (% per %)
p0  controller output with no error (%)

Direct and Reverse rAction
b
ep   100
From bmax  bmin
 As b (measured)increases --> p decreases --> reverse

action
 To get direct action, put negative sign for Kp

Proportional Band
 The range of error to cover 0 to 100% controller
output is called proportional band (PB)
100
PB 
Kp

Summary
 If error is zero, the output is constant equal to p0
 If there is error, for every 1% of error, a correction

Kp percent is added to or subtracted from p0,
depending on the sign of error
 There is a band of error about zero of magnitude PB

within which the output is not saturate at 0% or
100%

Offset
A load change permanently effects the output of the
controller
Example

Integral Control Mode
 Integral mode eliminates offset by allowing the
controller to adapt by changing zero output.
 Integral action is provided by summing error over

time, multiplying that sum by a gain and adding the
result to the present controller output.
t
p (t )  K I  e p dt  p (0)
0

 p(0) is the controller output when the integral action
starts
 KI expresses how much controller output in percent is
needed for every percent time accumulative error,
another way
 When error occurs, the controller

dp (t )
 K I e p begins to increase
(decrease) its output atdta rate that depends on the size of
the error and the gain

controller constant in s-1. Find the output of this controller to a constant error
of 2.2%.
Solution:
Given Data: Reset action time = TI = 2.2
min = 132 Seconds
Error = ep = 2.2%
Asked: Integral controller constant = KI = ?
Controller output = p = ?

Summary
 If error is zero, the output stays fixed at value equal
to what it was when the error went to zero
 If error is not zero, the output will begin to increase

or decrease at a rate of KI percent/second for every
1% of error

Integral mode controller action
a). The rate of output change depends on error
b).an illustration of integral mode output and error

Derivative Control Mode
 Derivative action responds to the rate at which the
errors is changing. That is, the derivative of the
error
de p
p(t )  K D
dt
 KD tells us how much percentage change the

controller output for every percent-per-second rate
of change of error

Summary
 If error is zero, the mode provide no output
 Derivative action is not use alone because it provides

no action when error is constant
 If the error is changing, the mode contribute an output

KD percent for every 1 % per s of rate of change of
error

How would a derivative controller with KD = 4 s respond to an error that
varies as ep=2.2 Sin(0.04t)?
Solution
Given: KD = 4 s ep = 2.2 Sin(0.04t) Asked: Derivative controller o/p=?
For derivative mode, p(t) = KD (dep/dt)
p(t) = 4 x d/dt(2.2 Sin(0.04t))
= 4 x 2.2 x Cos(0.04t) x 0.04
= 0.352 Cos(0.04t)

Composite Control Mode
 The combination of basic modes
 Gain advantage of each modes
 Eliminate some limitations

Example
 PI
 PD
 PID

Proportional-Integrate
Control (PI)
 Combination of proportional mode and integral
mode t
p  K P e p  K P K I  e p dt  PI (0)
0
where
PI (0)  integral term at t = 0

Summary
 One-to-One correspondence
 Eliminate offset
 When the error is zero, p = pI(0)
 If the error is not zero, the proportional term

contributes a correction and the integral term begin
to increase the accumulate value

Proportional Derivative
Control (PD)
 Combination of proportional and derivative modes.
de p
p  K Pep  K P K D  p0
dt
 Cannot eliminate the offset proportional controller
 Can handle fast process load changes if offset error

is acceptable
Three-Mode Controller (PID)
 Powerful Complex Controller
 Combines the proportional, integral, and derivative

modes
 Can be used in any process condition

t
de p
p  K P e p  K P K I  e p dt  K P K D  pI (0)
0
dt

Objectives:
 Know general PLC issues
 To be able to write simple ladder logic programs
 Understand the operation of a PLC
INTRODUCTION:
 The advent of the PLC began in the 1970s, and has become the most common choice for
manufacturing controls.
 PLCs have been gaining popularity on the factory floor and will probably remain predominant for
some time to come.
 Most of this is because of the advantages they offer;

 Cost effective for controlling complex systems.
 Flexible and can be reapplied to control other systems quickly and easily.
 Computational abilities allow more sophisticated control.
 Trouble shooting aids make programming easier and reduce downtime.
 Reliable components make these likely to operate for years before failure.

What are PLCs and How do they work?
 PLCs are often defined as a very small model of industrial computers that contain hardware and software
used to perform control functions.
 A PLC consists of two basic sections:
 the central processing unit (CPU), and
 the input/output interface system.
 The CPU, which controls all PLC activity, can further be broken down into:
 the processor, and
 memory system.
 The input/output system is physically connected to field devices
 (e.g., switches, sensors, motor starters, light, valves, etc.), and
 provides the interface between the CPU and the information providers (inputs) and controllable
devices (outputs). Origin - in 1968
 Original goals:
 Programmable
 communication capable
 Maintainable
 Reliable
 Compact
 inexpensive
 Additional features:
 discrete & continuous control
 To operate,
 the CPU “reads” input data from connected field devices through the use of its input interfaces, and
 then “executes” or performs the control program that has been stored in its memory system.
 Programs are typically created in ladder logic,
 a language that closely resembles a relay-based wiring schematic, and
 are entered into the CPU’s memory prior to operation.
 Finally, based on the program,
 the PLC “writes” or updates output devices via the output interfaces.
 This process, also known as scanning,
 typically continues in the same sequence without interruption, and
 changes only when a change is made to the control program.

Ladder Logic
 Ladder logic is the main programming method used for PLCs.
 A relay is a simple device that uses a magnetic field to control a

switch, as pictured in Figure 1.
 When a voltage is applied to the input coil, the resulting current creates
a magnetic field.
 The magnetic field pulls a metal switch (or reed) towards it and the
contacts touch, closing the switch.
 The contact that closes when the coil is energized is called normally
open.
 The normally closed contacts touch when the input coil is not energized.
 Relays are normally drawn in schematic form using a circle to represent

the input coil.
 The output contacts are shown with two parallel lines. Figure 1:
 Normally open contacts are shown as two lines, and Simple Relay Layouts and
 will be open (non-conducting) when the input is not energized. Schematics
 Normally closed contacts are shown with two lines with a diagonal line
through them.
 When the input coil is not energized the normally closed contacts will be
closed (conducting).

 Relays are used to let one power source close
a switch for another (often high current)
power source, while keeping them isolated.
 An example of a relay in a simple control
application is shown in Figure 2.

 In this system the first relay on the left is used as
normally closed, and will allow current to flow until a
voltage is applied to the input A.
Figure 2
 The second relay is normally open and will not allow
A Simple Relay Controller
current to flow until a voltage is applied to the input B.
 If current is flowing through the first two relays then

current will flow through the coil in the third relay, and
close the switch for output C.
 This circuit would normally be drawn in the ladder logic

form.
 This can be read logically as C will be on if A is off and B

is on.
 The example in Figure 2 does not show the entire control system, but only the
logic.
 When we consider a PLC there are;
 inputs,
 outputs, and
 the logic.
 Figure 3 shows a more complete representation of the PLC.

 Here there are two inputs from push buttons.
 We can imagine the inputs as activating 24V DC relay
coils in the PLC.
 This in turn drives an output relay that switches 115V

AC, that will turn on a light.
Note:
 in actual PLCs inputs are never relays, but outputs

are often relays.
 The ladder logic in the PLC is actually a computer

program that the user can enter and change.
Notice that;
 both of the input push buttons are normally open,
 but the ladder logic inside the PLC has one normally
open contact, and one normally closed contact. Figure 3
A PLC Illustrated With Relays

Programming:
 The first PLCs were programmed with a
technique that was based on relay logic wiring
schematics.
 An example of ladder logic can be seen in

Figure 4.
 To interpret this diagram imagine that the power
Figure 4
A Simple Ladder Logic Diagram
is on the vertical line on the left hand side, we
call this the hot rail.
 On the right hand side is the neutral rail.
 In the figure there are two rungs, and on each

rung there are combinations of inputs (two
vertical lines) and outputs (circles).
 If the inputs are opened or closed in the right
combination the power can flow from the hot
rail, through the inputs, to power the outputs, and
finally to the neutral rail.
 An input can come from a sensor, switch, or any
other type of sensor.
 An output will be some device outside the PLC
that is switched on or off, such as lights or
motors
 In the top rung the contacts are normally open
and normally closed.
 Which means if input A is on and input B is off,
then power will flow through the output and
activate it.
 Any other combination of input values will result
4/2/2018 in the output X being
Dessieoff.
Fentaw 410
 The second rung of Figure 4 is more complex,
 there are actually multiple combinations of inputs that will result in the output Y turning
on.
 On the left most part of the rung, power could flow through the top if C is off and D is on.
 Power could also (and simultaneously) flow through the bottom if both E and F are true.
 This would get power half way across the rung, and then if G or H is true the power will
be delivered to output.
Other methods for programming PLCs

 One of the earliest techniques involved mnemonic instructions.
 These instructions can be derived directly from the ladder logic diagrams and entered into
the PLC through a simple programming terminal.
 An example of mnemonics is shown in Figure 5.

 The first line 00000 has the instruction LDN
(input load and not) for input 00001.
 This will examine the input to the PLC and
 if it is off it will remember a 1 (or true),
 if it is on it will remember a 0 (or false).
 The next line uses an LD (input load)

statement to look at the input.
 If the input is off it remembers a 0,

Figure 5 An Example of a Mnemonic Program and
Equivalent Ladder Logic
 if the input is on it remembers a 1 (note:
this is the reverse of the LD).

 The AND statement recalls the last two
numbers remembered and
 if the are both true the result is a 1,
otherwise the result is a 0.
 This result now replaces the two
numbers that were recalled, and there is

only one number remembered.
 The process is repeated for lines 00003 and

00004, but
 when these are done there are now three

numbers remembered.
 The oldest number is from the AND,
 the newer numbers are from the two LD
instructions.
 The AND in line 00005 combines the results from the last LD instructions and now
there are two numbers remembered.
 The OR instruction takes the two numbers now remaining and

 if either one is a 1 the result is a 1, otherwise the result is a 0.
 This result replaces the two numbers, and there is now a single number there.
 The last instruction is the ST (store output) that will look at the last value stored and
 if it is 1, the output will be turned on,
 if it is 0 the output will be turned off.
 The ladder logic program in Figure 5, is equivalent to the mnemonic program.

 Even if you have programmed a PLC with ladder logic,
 it will be converted to mnemonic form before being used by the PLC.

Input adjustment interface
 Input adjustment module turns a level of real logic to a level that suits CPU unit
 For example, input from a sensor which works on 24 VDC must be converted to a signal of 5 VDC in order for a
CPU to be able to process it.
 This is typically done through opto-isolation
 Opto-isolation means that:
 there is no electrical connection between external world and CPU unit.
 They are "optically" separated, or in other words, signal is transmitted through light.
 External device brings a signal which turns LED on,
 whose light in turn incites photo transistor which in turn starts conducting, and
 a CPU sees this as logic zero (supply between collector and transmitter falls under 1V)
 When input signal stops LED diode turns off,
 transistor stops conducting,
 collector voltage increases, and
 CPU receives logic 1 as information.

Output adjustment interface
 Output interface is similar to input interface.
 CPU brings a signal to LED diode and turns it on.

 Light incites a photo transistor which begins to conduct electricity, and
 thus the voltage between collector and emitter falls to 0.7V , and
 a device attached to this output sees this as a logic zero.
 Inversely it means that a signal at the output exists and is interpreted as logic one.
 Photo transistor is not directly connected to a PLC controller output.

 Between photo transistor and an output usually there is a relay or
 a stronger transistor capable of interrupting stronger signals.

Connecting sensors and execution devices
 Two terms most frequently mentioned when discussing connections

to inputs or outputs are:
 "sinking" and "sourcing".
 The most brief definition of these two concepts would be:

 SINKING = Common GND line (-)
 SOURCING = Common VCC line (+)

Input lines
Following pictures display some examples of sensor outputs and their connection with a PLC
controller.
 Mentioning is that sinking-sourcing and sourcing - sinking pairing is always used, and not
sourcing-sourcing or sinking-sinking pairing.

Output lines
 PLC controller output lines usually can be:
 Transistors in PNP connection
 Transistors in NPN connection
 Relays
 The following two pictures display a realistic way how a PLC manages external devices.
 Main difference between these two pictures is a position of "output load device".
 By "output load device" we mean some relay, signalization light or similar.

Input Devices / Sensor Wiring
i.e. examining the various electrical wiring techniques for sensors.
 When a sensor detects a logical change it must signal that change to the PLC.
 This is typically done by switching a voltage or current on or off.
 In some cases the output of the sensor is used to switch a load directly, completely
eliminating the PLC.
 Typical out-puts from sensors (and inputs to PLCs) are listed below in relative
popularity.
 Sinking/Sourcing - Switches current on or off.
 Plain Switches - Switches voltage on or off.
 Solid State Relays - These switch AC outputs.
 TTL (Transistor Transistor Logic) - Uses 0V and 5V to indicate logic levels.

Switches
 The simplest example of sensor outputs are
switches and relays.
 A simple example is shown in Figure 1.1.
 In the figure a NO contact switch is connected to

input 01.
 A sensor with a relay output is also shown.
 The sensor must be powered separately, therefore

the V+ and V- terminals are connected to the power
supply.
 The output of the sensor will become active when a
phenomenon has been detected.
 This means the internal switch (probably a relay)
will be closed allowing current to flow and the
positive voltage will be applied to input 06.
Transistor Transistor Logic (TTL)
 Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL) is based on two voltage levels, 0V for false and 5V for true.
 The voltages can actually be slightly larger than 0V, or lower than 5V and still be detected correctly.
 This method is very susceptible to electrical noise on the factory floor, and should only be used when necessary.
 TTL outputs are common on electronic devices and computers.
 When connecting to other devices simple circuits can be used to improve the signal, such as the Schmitt trigger in
Fig.1.2.
 A Schmitt trigger will receive an input voltage between 0-5V and convert it to 0V or 5V.
 If the voltage is in an ambiguous range, about 1.5-3.5V it will be ignored.
 If a sensor has a TTL output the PLC must use a TTL input card to read the values.
 If the TTL sensor is being used for other applications it should be noted that the maximum current output is
normally about 20mA.

Sinking/Sourcing
 Sinking sensors allow current to flow into the sensor to the voltage common,
 while sourcing sensors allow current to flow out of the sensor from a positive source.
 For both of these methods the emphasis is on current flow, not voltage.
 By using current flow, instead of voltage, many of the electrical noise problems are reduced.
 When discussing sourcing and sinking we are referring to the output of the sensor that
is acting like a switch.
 In fact the output of the sensor is normally a transistor, that will act like a switch (with
some voltage loss).
 A PNP transistor is used for the sourcing output, and an NPN transistor is used for the
sinking input.
 When discussing these sensors the term sourcing is often interchanged with PNP, and
sinking with NPN.
 A simplified example of a sinking output sensor is shown in Fig.1.3.
 The sensor will have some part that deals with detection, this is on the left.
 The sensor needs a voltage supply to operate, so a voltage supply is needed for the sensor.
 If the sensor has detected some phenomenon then it will trigger the active line.
 The active line is directly connected to an NPN transistor.
 If the voltage to the transistor on the active line is 0V, then the transistor will not allow current to
flow into the sensor.
 If the voltage on the active line becomes larger (say 12V) then the transistor will switch on and allow
current
4/2/2018 to flow into the sensor
Dessieto the common.
Fentaw 425
 Sourcing sensors are the complement to sinking sensors.
 The sourcing sensors use a PNP transistor, as shown in Fig.1.4.
 When the sensor is inactive the active line stays at the V+ value, and the
transistor stays switched off.
 When the sensor becomes active the active line will be made 0V, and the
transistor will allow current to flow out of the sensor (hence sourcing).

Direct Control Using NPN/PNP Sensors
 Most NPN/PNP sensors are capable of handling currents up to a few amps, and they can be
used to switch loads directly.
 An example using sourcing and sinking sensors to control lights is shown in Fig.1.5.
 In the sinking system in Figure 1.5 the light has V+ applied to one side.
 The other side is connected to the NPN output of the sensor.
 When the sensor turns on the current will be able to flow through the light, into the output to V-
common.
 (Note: Yes, the current will be allowed to flow into the output for an NPN sensor.)
 In the sourcing arrangement the light will turn on when the output becomes active, allowing current to
flow from the V+, thought the sensor, the light and to V- (the common).
A PLC Input Card for Sinking Sensors
 At this point it is worth stating the obvious –
 The output of a sensor will be an input for a

PLC.
 And, as we saw with the NPN sensor, this
does not necessarily indicate where current
is flowing.
 There are two viable approaches for connecting sensors to PLCs.
 The first is to always use PNP sensors and

normal voltage input cards.
 The second option is to purchase input cards
specifically designed for sourcing or sinking
sensors.
 An example of a PLC card for sinking sensors is shown in
Fig.1.6.
Note:
 When a PLC input card does not have a common but it has
a V+ instead, it can be used for NPN sensors.
 In this case the current will flow out of the card (sourcing)
and we must switch it to ground.

ASIDE
 This card is shown with 2 optocouplers (one for each output).
 Inside these devices the is an LED and a phototransistor, but no electrical connection.
 These devices are used to isolate two different electrical systems.
 In this case they protect the 5V digital levels of the PLC computer from the various
external voltages and currents.
 The dashed line in the figure represents the circuit, or current flow path when the sensor is
active.
 This path enters the PLC input card first at a V+ terminal (Note: there is no common on
this card) and flows through an optocoupler.
 This current will use light to turn on a phototransistor to tell the computer in the PLC the
input current is flowing.
 The current then leaves the card at input 00 and passes through the sensor to V-. When the
sensor is inactive the current will not flow, and the light in the optocoupler will be off.
 The optocoupler is used to help protect the PLC from electrical problems outside the PLC.
PLC Input Card for Sourcing Sensors
 The input cards for PNP sensors are similar to

the NPN cards, as shown in Fig.1.7.
Note:
 When we have a PLC input card that has a
common then we can use PNP sensors.
 In this case the current will flow into the
card and then out the common to the power
supply.
 The current flow loop for an active sensor is

shown with a dashed line.
 Following the path of the current we see that it

begins at the V+, passes through the sensor, in
the input 00, through the optocoupler, out the
common and to the V-.

Two Wire Sensors
 Wiring is a major concern with PLC applications, so to reduce the total number of wires, two wire sensors have become
popular.
 But, by integrating three wires worth of function into two, we now couple the power supply and sensing functions into one.
 Two wire sensors are shown in Figure 1.8.
 A two wire sensor can be used as either a sourcing or sinking input.
 In both of these arrangements the sensor will require a small amount of current to power the sensor, but when active it will
allow more current to flow.
 This requires input cards that will allow a small amount of current to flow (called the leakage current), but also be able to
detect when the current has exceeded
4/2/2018 a given
Dessie value.
Fentaw 431
Sourcing and Sinking Schematic Symbols
 When drawing wiring diagrams, the symbols in Figure 1.9 are used for sinking
and sourcing proximity sensors.
 Notice that:
 In the sinking sensor when the switch closes (moves up to the terminal) it contacts
the common.
 Closing the switch in the sourcing sensor connects the output to the V+.
 On the physical sensor the wires are color coded as indicated in the diagram.
 The brown wire is positive,
 The blue wire is negative and
 The output is white for sinking and black for sourcing.
 The outside shape of the sensor may change for other devices, such as photo
sensors which are often shown as round circles.
The Comparator (Schmitt trigger )
 When the op-amp has one input sensor signal connected to its
inverting input terminal and a second input sensor signal connected
to its noninverting input terminal, it will compare the voltage level
of the two inputs and the output will be the amount of difference
between the two signals multiplied by the gain.
 Since the gain for this configuration is infinite, the slightest

difference in voltage between the two inputs will cause the output
to be driven to its maximum value.
 This maximum value is called saturation, and it will be

approximately the full amount of the power supply voltage.
 If Vnonin signal > Vinv Signal, the Vo will be +ve saturation.
 If Vinv Signal is larger, the Vo will be -ve saturation.
 Fig.1.10 shows the modifications that can be made to the

comparator circuit to make the comparator a useful circuit (Schmitt
trigger ).
 For example;
 R is connected in series with a cadmium sulfide cell (CdS cell) that is a light sensor.
 Which provide a voltage drop circuit that is connected to the noninverting input.
 And a reference voltage is applied to the inverting input through potentiometer.
 A diode and the coil of a control relay are connected in series with the output terminal.
 The diode will ensure that only +ve voltage will pass to the coil to energize it.
 If the pot is set to provide 5V to the inverting input,

 the output will be –ve as long as the voltage supplied by the sensor to the noninvrting terminal
is < 5V.
 As long as the output voltage is –ve , the diode will be reverse biased & no current will flow to
the relay coil.
 If the light conditions change and the sensor’s resistance changes so that the voltage drop
ckt produces a voltage > 5V reference voltage,
 The output will become +ve & the diode will be forward biased and allow current to flow to the
coil of the CR.
 When current flows through the CR coil, it becomes magnetized and closes the NO contacts.
PLC Functions
 Ladder logic input contacts and output coils allow simple logical
decisions.
 However, Functions extend basic ladder logic to allow other types of
control.
 For example, the addition of timers and counters allowed event based
control.
 Most of the functions will:
 use PLC memory locations to get values, store values and track function status.
 normally become active when the input is true. But, some functions, such as TOF timers, can
remain active when the input is off.
 Hence, Basic PLC Function Categories as;

 Combinatorial Logic  Lists
 (i.e. a form of digital logic, in w/h the o/p
 shift registers/stacks
states depend on the i/p states, but not on
 Sequencers
other factor.)
 relay contacts and coils  Program Control
 Event  branching/looping
 Timer instructions
 Immediate inputs/outputs
 counter instructions
 fault/interrupt detection
 Data Handling
 Input and Output
 Moves
 Mathematics  PID
 Conversions  Communications
 Numerical Logic  High speed counters
 Boolean operations  ASCII string functions

 Comparisons
Data Handling
 Move Functions
 There are two basic types of move functions;
 MOV (value, destination) - moves a value from one location in memory and
place it in another memory location.
 MVM (value, mask, destination) - moves a value to a memory location, but

with a mask to select specific bits.

 Examples of the basic MOV are given as shown;
 When A is true,
 the MOV function moves a floating point
number from the source to the destination

address.
 The data in the source address is left
unchanged.
 When B is true,
 the floating point number in the source will
be converted to an integer and stored in the

destination address in integer memory.
 The floating point number will be rounded up
or down to the nearest integer.
 When C is true,
 the integer value of 123 will be placed in the
integer file N7:23.

Mathematical Functions
 Mathematical functions will retrieve one or more values, perform an

operation and store the result in memory.
 The Arithmetic Functions are:

 ADD (value,value,destination) - add two values
 SUB(value,value,destination) – subtract
 MUL(value,value,destination) – multiply
 DIV(value,value,destination) – divide
 NEG(value,destination) - reverse sign from positive/negative
 CLR(value) - clear the memory location

 Consider an ADD function as shown;
 That will retrieve values from N7:4 and F8:35, convert them both to the type of the
destination address, add the floating point numbers, and store the result in F8:36.
 The function has two sources labeled source A and source B.

 An application of the arithmetic function is shown as;
 Most of the operations provide the results

we would expect.
 The second ADD function retrieves a value from
N7:3, adds 1 and overwrites the source - this is
normally known as an increment operation.
 The first DIV statement divides the integer 25 by

10, the result is rounded to the nearest integer, in
this case 3, and the result is stored in N7:6.
 The NEG instruction takes the new value of -10,

not the original value of 0, from N7:4 invert the
sign and store it in N7:7.

 A list of more advanced functions are given as:
 ACS(value,destination) - inverse cosine
 COS(value,destination) – cosine
 ASN(value,destination) - inverse sine
 SIN(value,destination) – sine
 ATN(value,destination) - inverse tangent
 TAN(value,destination) – tangent
 XPY(value,value,destination) - X to the power of Y
 LN(value,destination) - natural log
 LOG(value,destination) - base 10 log
 SQR(value,destination) - square root
 CPT(destination,expression) - accept an expression and perform a complex

calculation.

 An equation has been converted to ladder logic as;
 Given
 Assign A = F8:0
B = F8:1
C = F8:2
D = F8:3
 The first step in the conversion is to convert the

variables in the equation to unused memory
locations in the PLC.
 The equation can then be converted using the most

nested calculations in the equation, such as the LN
function. In this case the results of the LN function
are stored in another memory location, to be
recalled later.
 The other operations are implemented in a similar

manner.
 The same equation could have been implemented with a CPT function as shown;
 The equation uses the same memory locations chosen in the previous logic
diagram.
 The expression is typed directly into the PLC programming software.

Conversions:
 Ladder logic conversion functions are;
 TOD(value,destination) - convert from BCD to 2s compliment
 FRD(value,destination) - convert from 2s compliment to BCD
 DEG(value,destination) - convert from radians to degrees
 RAD(value,destination) - convert from degrees to radians
 Examples of the conversion functions are given as shown;
 The functions load in a source

4/2/2018 value,
Dessie do the conversion, and store the results.
Fentaw 445
FLOWCHART BASED DESIGN
 Topics:
 Describing process control using flowcharts
 Conversion of flowcharts to ladder logic
 A flowchart is ideal for a process that has sequential process steps.
 The steps will be executed in a simple order that may change as the result of
some simple decisions.
 The symbols used for flowcharts are shown in Figure 7.

 These blocks are connected using arrows to
indicate the sequence of the steps.
 The different blocks imply different types of

program actions.
 Programs always need a start block, but PLC

programs rarely stop so the stop block is rarely
used.
 Other important blocks include operations and

decisions.
 The other functions may be used but are not

Figure 7 Flowchart Symbols
necessary for most PLC applications.

 The general method for constructing flowcharts is:
1. Understand the process.

2. Determine the major actions, these are drawn as blocks.
3. Determine the sequences of operations, these are drawn with
arrows.
4. When the sequence may change use decision blocks for
branching.
Once a flowchart has been created ladder logic can be written.
 There are two basic techniques that can be used,
 the first presented uses blocks of ladder logic code.
 The second uses normal ladder logic.

 Example: A flowchart is shown in Figure 8, for a control system for a large water tank.
Statement:
 When a start button is pushed the tank will start to fill, and the flow out will be stopped.
 When full, or the stop button is pushed the outlet will open up, and the flow in will be stopped.
 In the flowchart the general flow of execution starts at the top.
 The first operation is to open the outlet valve and close the inlet valve.
 Next, a single decision block is used to wait for a button to be pushed.
 when the button is pushed the yes branch is followed and the inlet valve is opened, and the
outlet valve is closed.
 Then the flow chart goes into a loop that uses two decision blocks to wait until the tank is
full, or the stop button is pushed.
 If either case occurs the inlet valve is closed and the outlet valve is opened.
 The system then goes back to wait for the start button to be pushed again.

Figure 8 A Flowchart for a Tank Filler

BLOCK LOGIC METHOD
Step 1:
 Add labels to each block (name

each block) in the flowchart, as
shown in Figure 9.
 Each of the numbered steps will then be

converted to ladder logic
Figure 9 Labeling Blocks in the Flowchart

 Each block in the flowchart will be converted to a block of ladder logic.
 To do this we will use the MCR (Master Control Relay) instruction.
 The instruction is shown in Figure 10, and will appear as a matched pair of outputs labeled
MCR.
 If the first MCR line is true then the ladder logic on the following lines will be scanned as
normal to the second MCR.
 If the first line is false the lines to the next MCR block will all be forced off.
 If a normal output is used inside an MCR block, it may be forced off.
 Therefore latches will be used in this method
Figure 10 The MCR Function

 STEP 2:
Write ladder logic to force the PLC into the first state
 The first part of the ladder logic required

will reset the logic to an initial condition,
as shown in Figure 11.
 The line will only be true for the first scan

of the PLC, and
 at that time it will turn on the flowchart

block F1 which is the reset all values off
operation.
 All other operations will be turned off.

Figure 11 Initial Reset of States

 STEP 3
Write ladder logic for each function in the flowchart
 The ladder logic for the first state is shown in

Figure 12.
 When F1 is true the logic between the MCR

lines will be scanned,
 if F1 is false the logic will be ignored.
 This logic turns on the outlet valve and turns

off the inlet valve.
 It then turns off operation F1, and turns on the

next operation F2.
Figure 12 Ladder Logic for the Operation F1

Cont…
 The ladder logic for operation
F2 is simple, and
 when the start button is pushed,
it will turn off F2 and turn on

F3.
 The ladder logic for operation
F3 opens the inlet valve and

moves to operation F4.
Figure 13 Ladder Logic for Flowchart Operations F2 and F3

Cont…
F4 turns off F4, and
 if the tank is full it turns on F6,
 otherwise F5 is turned on.
F5 is very similar.
Figure 14 Ladder Logic for Operations F4 and F5

Cont…
 The ladder logic for operation F6
turns the outlet valve on and
 turns off the inlet valve.
 It then ends operation F6 and
 returns to operation F2.
Figure 15 Ladder Logic for Flowchart Operation F6

SEQUENCE BITS
 In general there is a preference for methods
that do not use MCR statements or latches.
 The flowchart used in the previous example

can be implemented without these
instructions using the following method.
 The first step to this process is shown in

Figure 16.
 As before each of the blocks in the flowchart

are labelled, but now the connecting arrows
(transitions) in the diagram must also be
labelled.
 These transitions indicate when another

function block will be activated. Figure 16 Label the Flowchart Blocks and Arrows

 The first section of ladder logic is
shown in Figure 17.
 This indicates when the transitions
between functions should occur.
 All of the logic for the transitions
should be kept together, and
 appear before the state logic that
follows in Figure 17.
Figure 17 The Transition Logic

 The logic shown in Figure 18
 will keep a function on, or
 switch to the next function.
 Consider the first ladder rung for F1,
 it will be turned on by transition T1 and
 once function F1 is on it will keep itself on,
 unless T2 occurs shutting it off.
 If T2 has occurred the next line of ladder

logic will turn on F2.
 The function logic is followed by output

logic that relates output values to the active
functions.
Figure 18 The Function Logic and Outputs

STATE BASED DESIGN
 Topics:
 Describing process control using state diagrams
 Conversion of state diagrams to ladder logic
 A system state is a mode of operation.
 Consider a bank machine that will go through very carefully selected states.
 The general sequence of states might be idle, scan card, get secret number, select
transaction type, ask for amount of cash, count cash, deliver cash/return card, then
idle.

 A State based system can be described with
 system states, and
 the transitions between those states.
 A state diagram is shown in Figure 19.
 The diagram has two states, State 1 and State 2.
 If the system is in state 1 and A happens the

system will then go into state 2,
 otherwise it will remain in State 1.
 Likewise
 if the system is in state 2, and B happens the

system will return to state 1.
 As shown in the figure this state diagram could be

used for an automatic light controller.
Figure 19 A State Diagram

 Consider the design of a coffee vending machine.
 The first step requires the identification of vending machine states as shown:
 STATES
 idle - the machine has no coins and is doing nothing
 inserting coins - coins have been entered and the total is displayed
 user choose - enough money has been entered and the user is making coffee
selection
 make coffee - the selected type is being made
 service needed - the machine is out of coffee, cups, or another error has
occurred
 The states are then drawn in a state diagram as shown in Figure 20.
 Transitions are added as needed between the states.
 Here we can see that when powered up the machine will start in an idle state.
 The transitions here are based on the inputs and sensors in the vending machine.
Figure 20
4/2/2018 State Diagram
Dessie Fentaw for a Coffee Machine 464
State Diagram Example
 Consider the traffic lights in Figure 21.
 The normal sequences for traffic lights are
 a green light in one direction for a long period of time,

typically 10 or more seconds.
 This is followed by a brief yellow light, typically 4

seconds.
 It is understood that a green or yellow light in one

direction implies a red light in the other direction.
 Pedestrian buttons are provided so that when

pedestrians are present a cross walk light can be
Figure 21 Traffic Lights
turned on and the duration of the green light increased.

 The first step for developing a controller is to define the inputs and
outputs of the system as shown.

 The inputs are used when defining the transitions.
 The outputs can be used to define the system state.
 Use a state table as shown in Figure 22.
 Here the light sequences are listed in order.

Figure 22 System State Table for Traffic Lights

 Transitions can be added to the state table to clarify the operation, as shown in Figure 23.
 Here the transition from Green E/W to Yellow E/W is S1.
 this means is that a cross walk button must be pushed to end the green light. This is not
normal, normally the lights would use a delay.
 The transition from Yellow E/W to Green N/S is caused by a 4 second delay (this is normal.)
 The next transition is also abnormal, requiring that the cross walk button be pushed to end the
Green N/S state.
 The last state has a 4 second delay before returning to the first state in the table.
Figure 23 State Table with Transitions

 A state diagram for the system is shown in Figure 24.
 This diagram is equivalent to the state table in Figure 23, but it can be
valuable for doing visual inspection.
Figure 24 A Traffic Light State Diagram

Conversion to Ladder Logic
 Block Logic Conversion
 State diagrams can be converted directly to ladder logic using block logic.
 This technique will produce larger programs, but it is a simple method to understand, and easy
to debug.
 The traffic light example is to be implemented in ladder logic.
 The inputs and outputs are defined in Figure 25.
 first scan is the address of the first scan in the PLC.
 The locations B3/1 to B3/4 are internal memory locations that will be used to track which
states are on.
Figure 25 Inputs and Outputs for Traffic Light Controller

 The initial ladder logic block
shown in Figure 26 will initialize
the states of the PLC,
 so that only state 1 is on.
 The first scan indicator first scan

will execute the MCR block when
the PLC is first turned on, and
 the latches will turn on the value

Figure 26
for state 1 B3/1 and turn off the Ladder Logic to Initialize Traffic Light Controller
others.

Figure 27 General Output Control Logic

 The first state is implemented in Figure 28. If state 1 is active this will be active.
 The transition is S1 or I/1 which will end state 1 B3/1 and start state 2 B3/2.
Figure 28 Ladder Logic for First State

 The second state is more complex because it involves a time delay, as shown in
Figure 29.
 When the state is active the RTO timer will be timing.
 When the timer is done state 2 will be unlatched, and state 3 will be latched on.
 The timer is retentive, so it must also be reset when the state is done, so that it will
start at zero the next time the state starts.
Figure 29 Ladder Logic for Second State

 The third and fourth states are shown in Figure 30 and Figure 31.
 Their layout is very similar to that of the first two states.
Figure 30
Ladder Logic for State Three
Figure 31
Ladder Logic for State Four

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4/2/2018 Dessie Fentaw 1

Pressure, Transducer Voltage or

4/2/2018 Dessie Fentaw 3

4/2/2018 Dessie Fentaw 4

• Transducer contains two parts that are closely related to

4/2/2018 Dessie Fentaw 5

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4/2/2018 Dessie Fentaw 8

Precision without Accuracy without Precision and

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The transducers can be classified as

II. Analog and digital transducers.

III. On the basis of transduction principle used.

IV. Primary and secondary transducer

V. Transducers and inverse transducers.

4/2/2018 Dessie Fentaw 13

These transducers do not need any external source of power for

I. The active transducer are self generating devices which

II. As the output of active transducers we get an equivalent

4/2/2018 Dessie Fentaw 15

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4/2/2018 Dessie Fentaw 18

 Some transducers contain the mechanical as well as electrical

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•Ref fig in which the diaphragm act as primary

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•In inductive transduction, the measurand is converted

4/2/2018 Dessie Fentaw 24

•In piezoelectric induction the measurand is converted

4/2/2018 Dessie Fentaw 25

•In photovoltaic transduction the measurand is converted to

4/2/2018 Dessie Fentaw 26

4/2/2018 Dessie Fentaw 27

•In photoconductive transduction the measurand is

4/2/2018 Dessie Fentaw 28

•Transducers convert non electrical quantity to

• Inverse transducers convert electrical quantity to a

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4/2/2018 Dessie Fentaw 32

Inductive transducers are mainly used for displacement measurement.

4/2/2018 Dessie Fentaw 33

 Let us consider an inductive transducer having N turns

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