Transducer Note

TRANSDUCERS/
sensors
Prepared By:
Dessie Fentaw
Lecturer(Electronics Engineering.)
Bishoftu (Ethiopia)
10/12/22 Dessie Fentaw 1

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION OF TRANSDUCERS
A transducer is a device that convert one form of energy
to other form. It converts the measured to a usable
electrical signal.
In other word it is a device that is capable of converting
the physical quantity into a proportional electrical
quantity such as voltage or current.
Pressure, Transducer Voltage or

Force, current
e.t.c
Thermal: temperature, heat, heat flux, entropy, heat capacity
Mechanical: displacement (linear and angular),velocity,
acceleration, force, torque, pressure, mas flow, acoustics, touch,
flow velocity, etc
Magnetic: magnetic field, flux, magnetic moment, magnetic
permeability
Chemical: humidity, pH level, concentration of molecules
Biological: cell size, conditions, concentration.
Radiation: optical, UV, IR, x-ray, microwave, millimeter wave
Intensity, reflectivity, refractive index, polarization
Electrical: charge, field strength, voltage, current, duty cycle.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TRANSDUCERS
• Transducer contains two parts that are closely related to
each other i.e. the sensing element and transduction
element.
• The sensing element is called as the sensor. It is device
producing measurable response to change in physical
conditions.
• The transduction element convert the sensor output to
suitable electrical form. Transducer
Parameter
Sensing Transduction Electrical
Eg. Pressure, Temperature,
element element signal
force, e.t.c.

Main advantages of Electrical Transducer are:
The signal can be converted into digital form and can be stored for further
reference.
Reading of analog data with the help of electrical transducers has less losses
involved as compared to the mechanical transducers.
Output is easily amplified to any desired level.
The mass-inertia effects are minimized.
The effects of friction are minimized.

Accuracy: error between the result of a measurement and the true
value being measured.
Resolution: the smallest increment of measure that a device can
make.
Sensitivity: the ratio between the change in the output signal to a
small change in input physical signal. Slope of the input-output fit
line.
Repeatability/Precision: the ability of the sensor to output the
same value for the same input over a number of trials
Ruggedness: ability to withstand overload, with safety stops for
overload protection.

Accuracy vs. Resolution
True value
measurement

Accuracy vs. Precision
Precision without Accuracy without Precision and

accuracy precision accuracy

Dynamic Range: the ratio of maximum recordable input amplitude to minimum
input amplitude, i.e. D.R. = 20 log (Max. Input Ampl./Min. Input Ampl.) dB
Linearity: the deviation of the output from a best-fit straight line for a given range
of the sensor
Transfer Function (Frequency Response): The relationship between physical input
signal and electrical output signal, which may constitute a complete description of
the sensor characteristics.
Bandwidth: the frequency range between the lower and upper cutoff frequencies,
within which the sensor transfer function is constant gain or linear.
Noise: random fluctuation in the value of input that causes random fluctuation in
the output value

TRANSDUCERS SELECTION FACTORS
1. Operating Principle: The transducer are many times selected on
the basis of operating principle used by them. The operating principle
used may be resistive, inductive, capacitive , optoelectronic, piezo
electric etc.
2. Sensitivity: The transducer must be sensitive enough to produce
detectable output.
3. Operating Range: The transducer should maintain the range
requirement and have a good resolution over the entire range.
4. Accuracy: High accuracy is assured.
5. Cross sensitivity: It has to be taken into account when measuring
mechanical quantities. There are situation where the actual quantity is
being measured is in one plane and the transducer is subjected to
variation in another plan.
6. Errors: The transducer should maintain the expected input-output
relationship as described by the transfer function so as to avoid
errors.

Contd.
7. Transient and frequency response : The transducer should meet
the desired time domain specification like peak overshoot, rise
time, setting time and small dynamic error.
8. Loading Effects: The transducer should have a high input
impedance and low output impedance to avoid loading effects.
9. Environmental Compatibility: It should be assured that the
transducer selected to work under specified environmental
conditions maintains its input- output relationship and does not
break down.
10. Insensitivity to unwanted signals: The transducer should be
minimally sensitive to unwanted signals and highly sensitive to
desired signals.

CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
The transducers can be classified as

I. Active and passive transducers.
II. Analog and digital transducers.
III.On the basis of transduction principle used.
IV.Primary and secondary transducer
V. Transducers and inverse transducers.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
Active transducers :
These transducers do not need any external source of power for

their operation. Therefore they are also called as self generating
type transducers.
I. The active transducer are self generating devices which operate

under the energy conversion principle.
II.As the output of active transducers we get an equivalent

electrical output signal e.g. temperature or strain to electric
potential, without any external source of energy being used.
PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER

CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVE TRANSDUCERS

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
• Passive Transducers :
I. These transducers need external source of
power for their operation. So they are not
self generating type transducers.
II.A DC power supply or an audio frequency
generator is used as an external power
source.
III.These transducers produce the output
signal in the form of variation in resistance,
capacitance, inductance or some other
electrical parameter in response to the
quantity to be measured.
CLASSIFICATION OF PASSIVE
TRANSDUCERS

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY TRANSDUCERS
 Some transducers contain the mechanical as well as electrical

device. The mechanical device converts the physical quantity
to be measured into a mechanical signal. Such mechanical
device are called as the primary transducers, because they
deal with the physical quantity to be measured.
 The electrical device then convert this mechanical signal into
a corresponding electrical signal. Such electrical device are
known as secondary transducers.

CONTD
•Ref fig in which the diaphragm act as primary

transducer. It convert pressure (the quantity to be
measured) into displacement(the mechanical signal).
•The displacement is then converted into change in
resistance using strain gauge. Hence strain gauge acts as
the secondary transducer.

According to Transduction Principle

CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER:
•In capacitive transduction transducers the measurand is converted to
a change in the capacitance.
• A typical capacitor is comprised of two parallel plates of
d
conducting material separated by an electrical insulating material
called a dielectric. The plates and the dielectric may be either
flattened or rolled. Area=A
• The purpose of the dielectric is to help the two parallel plates
maintain their stored electrical charges.
• The relationship between the capacitance and the size of capacitor
plate, amount of plate separation, and the dielectric is given by
C = ε0 εr A / d
d is the separation distance of plates (m) Either A, d or ε can be varied.
C is the capacitance (F, Farad)
ε0 : absolute permittivity of vacuum
εr : relative permittivity
A is the effective (overlapping) area of capacitor plates (m2)
ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSDUCTION:
•In electromagnetic transduction, the measurand is
converted to voltage induced in conductor by change in
the magnetic flux, in absence of excitation.
•The electromagnetic transducer are self generating active
transducers
•The motion between a piece of magnet and an
electromagnet is responsible for the change in flux

Current induced in a coil.

INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCER
•In inductive transduction, the measurand is converted

into a change in the self inductance of a single coil. It is
achieved by displacing the core of the coil that is
attached to a mechanical sensing element

PIEZO ELECTRIC INDUCTION
•In piezoelectric induction the measurand is converted

into a change in electrostatic charge q or voltage V
generated by crystals when mechanically it is stressed
as shown in fig.

PHOTOVOLTAIC TRANSDUCTION :
•In photovoltaic transduction the measurand is converted to

voltage generated when the junction between dissimilar material
is illuminated as shown in fig.

Physics of Photovoltaic Generation
n-type
semiconductor
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + Depletion Zone
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
p-type
semiconductor

PHOTO CONDUCTIVE TRANSDUCTION :
•In photoconductive transduction the measurand is

converted to change in resistance of semiconductor
material by the change in light incident on the material.

Transducer and Inverse Transducer
TRANSDUCER:
•Transducers convert non electrical quantity to

electrical quantity.
INVERSE TRANSDUCER:
• Inverse transducers convert electrical quantity to a

non electrical quantity

PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
• Resistive transducers :
– Resistive transducers are those transducers in which the
resistance change due to the change in some physical
phenomenon.
– The resistance of a metal conductor is expressed by a simple
equation.
– R = ρL/A
– Where R = resistance of conductor in Ω
L = length of conductor in m
A = cross sectional area of conductor in m2
ρ = resistivity of conductor material in Ω-m.

RESISTIVE TRANSDUCER
There are 4 type of resistive transducers.
1. Potentiometers (POT)
2. Strain gauge
3. Thermistors
4. Resistance thermometer

POTENTIOMETER
• The potentiometer are used for voltage division. They consist of a
resistive element provided with a sliding contact. The sliding contact
is called as wiper.
• The contact motion may be linear or rotational or combination of the
two. The combinational potentiometer have their resistive element in
helix form and are called helipots.
• Fig shows a linear pot and a rotary pot.

An inductive electromechanical transducer is a transducer which converts the
physical motion into the change in inductance.
Inductive transducers are mainly used for displacement measurement.
The inductive transducers are of the self generating or the passive type. The self
generating inductive transducers use the basic generator principle i.e. the
motion between a conductor and magnetic field induces a voltage in the
conductor.
The variable inductance transducers work on the following principles.
Variation in self inductance
Variation in mutual inductance

PRINCIPLE OF VARIATION OF SELF
INDUCTANCE
Let us consider an inductive transducer having N turns
and reluctance R. when current I is passed through the
transducer, the flux produced is
 Φ = Ni / R
Differentiating w.r.t. to t,
dΦ/dt = N/R * di/dt
The e.m.f. induced in a coil is given by
e = N * dΦ/dt

Cond…
 e = N * N/R * di/dt
 e = N2 / R * di/dt
 Self inductance is given by
 L = e/di/dt = N2 / R
 The reluctance of the magnetic circuit is R = Ɩ/μA
 Therefore L = N2 / Ɩ/μA = N2 μA / Ɩ
 From eqn we can see that the self inductance may
vary due to
i. Change in number of turns N
ii. Change in geometric configuration
iii. Change in permeability of magnetic circuit

CHANGE IN SELF INDUCTANCE WITH
CHANGE IN NUMBER OF TURNS N
 From eqn we can see the output may vary with the
variation in the number of turns. As inductive
transducers are mainly used for displacement
measurement, with change in number of turns the
self inductance of the coil changes in-turn changing
the displacement
 Fig shows transducers used for linear and angular
displacement fig a shows an air cored transducer for
the measurement of linear displacement and fig b
shows an iron cored transducer used for angular
displacement measurement.
Cond…

CHANGE IN SELF INDUCTANCE WITH
CHANGE IN PERMEABILITY
• An inductive transducer that works on the principle of change
in self inductance of coil due to change in the permeability is
shown in fig
• As shown in fig the iron core is surrounded by a winding. If the
iron core is inside the winding then the permeability increases
otherwise permeability decreases. This cause the self
inductance of the coil to increase or decrease depending on the
permeability.
• The displacement can be measured using this transducer
Ferromagnetic
former
displacement coil

VARIABLE RELUCTANCE INDUCTIVE
TRANSDUCER
• Fig shows a variable reluctance inductive transducer.
• As shown in fig the coil is wound on the ferromagnetic iron. The
target and core are not in direct contact with each other. They are
separated by an air gap.
• The displacement has to be measured is applied to the ferromagnetic
core
• The reluctance of the magnetic path is found by the size of the air
gap.
• The self inductance of coil is given by
• L = N2 / R = N2 / Ri + Ra
• N : number of turns
• R : reluctance of coil
• Ri : reluctance of iron path
• Ra : reluctance of air gap

CONTD…
The reluctance of iron path is negligible
L = N2 / Ra
Ra = la / μoA
Therefore L œ 1 / la i.e. self inductance of the coil is inversely
proportional to the air gap la.
When the target is near the core, the length is small. Hence the
self inductance is large. But when the target is away from the
core, the length is large. So reluctance is also large. This result
in decrease in self inductance i.e. small self inductance.
Thus inductance is function of the distance of the target from
the core. Displacement changes with the length of the air gap,
the self inductance is a function of the displacement.
PRINCIPLE OF CHANGE IN MUTUAL
INDUCTANCE
• Multiple coils are required for inductive transducers that
operate on the principle of change in mutual inductance.
• The mutual inductance between two coils is given by
• M = KsqrtL1L2
• Where M : mutual inductance
• K : coefficient of coupling
• L1:self inductance of coil 1
• L2 : self inductance of coil 2
• By varying the self inductance or the coefficient of coupling
the mutual inductance can be varied

Cond…

DIFFERENTIAL OUTPUT
TRANSDUCERS
Usually the change in self inductance ΔL for inductive
transducers is insufficient for the detection of stages of
an instrumentation system.
The differential arrangement comprises of a coil that is
divided in two parts as shown in fig a and b.
In response to displacement, the inductance of one part
increases from L to L+ΔL while the inductance of the
other part decreases from L to L- ΔL. The difference of
two is measured so to get output 2 ΔL. This will increase
the sensitivity and minimize error.
.
Cond…
Fig c shows an inductive transducer that provides
differential output. Due to variation in the reluctance,
the self inductance of the coil changes. This is the
principle of operation of differential output inductive
transducer

LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL
TRANSFORMER(LVDT)
• AN LVDT transducer comprises a
coil former on to which three coils
are wound.
• The primary coil is excited with an
AC current, the secondary coils are
wound such that when a ferrite core
is in the central linear position, an
equal voltage is induced in to each
coil.
• The secondary are connected in
opposite so that in the central
position the outputs of the
secondary cancels each other out.

LVDT contd…
• The excitation is applied to the primary winding and
the armature assists the induction of current in to
secondary coils.
• When the core is exactly at the center of the coil then
the flux linked to both the secondary winding will be
equal. Due to equal flux linkage the secondary induced
voltages (eo1 & eo2) are equal but they have opposite
polarities. Output voltage eo is therefore zero. This
position is called “null position”

Cond…

Cond…
• Now if the core is displaced from its null position
toward sec1 then flux linked to sec1 increases and
flux linked to sec2 decreases. Therefore eo1 > eo2
and the output voltage of LVDT eo will be positive
• Similarly if the core is displaced toward sec2 then
the eo2 > eo1 and the output voltage of LVDT eo
will be negative.

 Proportional limit: is the maximum stress in which the
stress is directly proportional to the strain.
 Elastic limit: is defined as the maximum stress developed
during tension test , such that there is no permanent
deformation when the load is removed.
 Yield point: it is a point at which there is an increase in
strain with no increase in stress.
 Ultimate stress: is the maximum stress that the material can
withstand with out failures.

The strain gauge is a passive, resistive transducer which
converts the mechanical elongation and compression into a
resistance change.
This change in resistance takes place due to variation in length
and cross sectional area of the gauge wire, when an external
force acts on it.

TYPES OF STRAIN GAUGE
• The type of strain gauge are as:
 Wire gauge
 Unbonded
 Bonded
 Foil type
 Semiconductor gauge

UNBONDED STRAIN GAUGE
 An unbonded meter strain gauge is shown in fig
 This gauge consist of a wire stretched between two point in an insulating medium such as air.
The wires may be made of various copper, nickel, or nickel iron alloys.
 In fig the element is connected via a rod to diaphragm which is used for sensing the pressure.
The wire are tensioned to avoid buckling when they experience the compressive force.

 The unbounded meter wire gauges used almost exclusively in transducer application
employ preloaded resistance wire connected in Wheatstone bridge as shown in fig.
 At initial preload the strain and resistance of the four arms are nominally equal with the
result the output voltage of the bridge is equal to zero.
 Application of pressure produces a small displacement , the displacement increases a
tension in two wire and decreases it in the other two thereby increase the resistance of
two wire which are in tension and decreasing the resistance of the remaining two wire .
 This causes an unbalance of the bridge producing an output voltage which is proportional
to the input displacement and hence to the applied pressure .


BONDED STRAIN GAUGE
 The bonded metal wire strain gauge are used for both stress analysis and for
construction of transducer.
 A resistance wire strain gauge consist of a grid of fine resistance wire. The grid
is cemented to carrier which may be a thin sheet of paper bakelite or teflon.

 The wire is covered on top with a thin sheet of material so as to prevent it from
any mechanical damage.

 The carrier is bonded with an adhesive material to the specimen which permit a
good transfer of strain from carrier to grid of wires.

BONDED STRAIN GAUGE

BONDED METAL FOIL STRAIN GAUGE
 It consist of following parts:
1. Base (carrier) Materials: several types of base material are used to support the
wires. Impregnated paper is used for room temp. applications.
2. Adhesive: The adhesive acts as bonding materials. Like other bonding operation,
successful starain gauge bonding depends upon careful surface preparation and use of
the correct bonding agent.
In order that the strain be faithfully transferred on to the strain gauge, the bond
has to be formed between the surface to be strained and the plastic backing material
on which the gauge is mounted .
.


It is important that the adhesive should be suited to this

backing and adhesive material should be quick
drying type and also insensitive to moisture.
3. Leads: The leads should be of such materials which
have low and stable resistivity and also a low
resistance temperature coefficent

Contd.
This class of strain gauge is only an extension of the

bonded metal wire strain gauges.
The bonded metal wire starin gauge have been completely
superseded by bonded metal foil strain gauges.
Metal foil strain gauge use identical material to wire strain
gauge and are used for most general purpose stress
analysis application and for many transducers.


SEMICONDUCTOR GAUGE
 Semiconductor gauge are used in application where a high gauge factor is desired. A high gauge factor
means relatively higher change in resistance that can be measured with good accuracy.
 The resistance of the semiconductor gauge change as strain is applied to it. The semiconductor gauge
depends for their action upon the piezo-resistive effect i.e. change in value of resistance due to change
in resistivity.
 Silicon and germanium are used as resistive material for semiconductor gauges.

SEMICONDUCTOR GAUGE

Introduction
Together with temperature, pressure is one of the most important
physical quantities in our environment.
Pressure is a significant parameter in such varied disciplines as
thermodynamics, aerodynamics, acoustics, fluid mechanics, soil
mechanics and biophysics.
As an example of important industrial applications of pressure
measurement we may consider power engineering. Hydroelectric,
thermal, nuclear, wind and other plants generating mechanical,
thermal or electrical energy require the constant monitoring and
control
10/12/22 of pressures.Dessie Fentaw 74
we will consider the different physical characteristics necessary to understand
pressure sensors: pressure as a physical quantity, and various sensor models with
absolute, relative or differential pressure sensors.
We will take a brief look at the physical properties of fluids.
Static pressure
From a phenomenological point of view, pressure, p, as a
macroscopic parameter is defined starting with element of force
dF exerted perpendicularly on an element of surface dA of the
wall, by the fluid contained in the container:
p = dF / dA

The element of force dF caused by pressure p is perpendicular to
the element of surface dA
For pressure p inside the fluid with free surface we may write:
p = p0+ ρgh
p0: atmospheric pressure
ρgh: hydrostatic pressure
ρ: density
g: acceleration of gravity at the place of measurement
h: distance from the free surface

 An absolute pressure sensor measures static, dynamic or total pressure
with reference to a vacuum
 A relative pressure sensor measures static,

dynamic or total pressure with reference to
ambient atmospheric pressure  A differential pressure sensor measures a static,
dynamic or total pressure with reference to an
unspecified variable pressure p2

 Manometer
 Barometer
 Microphone
Manometers
The manometer consists tube filled with liquid
of known density
A pressure difference across the tube causes the
liquid shift position
The change in position can measured to give
the pressure
Best suited to static pressure measurement
Difficult to use for small pressure changes,
unsuitable for very large
10/12/22
pressures
Dessie Fentaw 78
Barometer
 One common application of the manometer is the barometer
 The barometer measures atmospheric pressure
 This barometer uses a reference gas separated from the atmosphere by a liquid
 If the atmospheric pressure changes, the reference gas expands/contracts
 Static pressure gauge
10/12/22 Dodgy
Dessie Fentawbarometer 80
Microphone
 The most common pressure sensor in daily use
 Designed for use at around 1 atm. Pressure
 Only measures fluctuations measures dynamic not static pressure
 Has several different constructions of varying complexity
10/12/22
Condenser Microphone construction
Dessie Fentaw 81
 Bourdon-tube Gauge
 Schrader Gauge
Bourdon-Tube gauge
 Invented by Eugene Bourdon in 1849
 Can be used to measure pressures up
to 100,000 psi
 Uses an elastic tube as its primary
element
 The tube straightens out with increasing
pressure, moving the pointer via
mechanical links
 Measures static pressure Commercial bourdon tube gauge
 The Bourdon tube is a hollow tube with an elliptical cross section.
When a pressure difference exists between the inside and outside, the
tube tends to straighten out and the end moves.
 The movement is usually coupled to a needle on a dial to make a
complete gauge.
 It can also be connected to a secondary device such as an air nozzle to
control air pressure or to a suitable transducer to convert it into an
electric signal.
 This type can be used for measuring pressure difference.

Schrader gauge
 Uses a piston connected to a spring
 Simple in construction
 Not particularly accurate
Tyre pressure gauge
 Common use is in simple tyre pressure
gauges
 Performs better than bourdon-tube under
dynamic loads
F = PA
kx=F
x = (A/k)P
Pressurized gauge

 Uses the elastic deformation of a convoluted unit
which expands and contracts with changes in pressure.
 Either electrical or mechanical output.
 Doesn't work well with dynamic pressures due to
mass and large displacements.

A bellows is made of several capsules. These are hollow flattened structures
made from thin metal plate.
When pressurised the bellows expand and produce mechanical movement.
If the bellows is encapsulated inside an outer container, then the movement is
proportional to the difference between the pressure on the inside and outside.
Bellows and single capsules are used in many instruments. They are very
useful for measuring small pressures.

 A spring opposes the bellows.
 Limits the expansion of the unit and prolongs the bellows life.
 Resulting deflection is the force acting on the bellows and the
opposing spring force.

 Uses the elastic deformation of a flexible membrane that separates two
different pressures.
 The deformation of the diaphragm is dependent on the difference in
pressure between the two faces.
 Can be used to measure gauge, differential, vacuum or absolute.
 Can be measured using mechanical, electrical, piezo-resistive and
capacitive means.
 Follows a linear variation with Δp when the deflection is less than 1/3 the
diaphragm thickness.
 Good Dynamic sensor.

The natural frequency of a circular diaphragm is

Different sensing element geometry
Consists of foil strain gauges.
Typically contains 4 gauges in a Wheatstone bridge formation.
Accuracies of ± 0.5%
Piezo-resistive pressure sensor

Piezo-resistive consist of a silicon diaphragm with a semiconductor strain gauge
bonded to the diaphragm.
Pressure sensitivity: S = ΔR/ (Δp*R) (mV/V-bar)
Advantages
 High sensitivity
-Good linearity at constant temperature.
 Current MEMS pressure sensors can contain on chip compensation and
amplification.
 Can perform signal conditioning and compensate

The variable gap created by a moving diaphragm can be used as a capacitance
sensor.
The capacitance of the sensor is related to pressure.

Basic concept: C = ɛ A/x
Sensitivity: ΔC/Δx = -ɛ A/x
Advantages
 more sensitive than piezo-resistive
 less temperature dependant
 great dynamic pressure sensor
Disadvantages
 requires special electronics
 diaphragm mechanical properties

 Creates a larger linear response over a larger range of deflections.
 Is better suited for mechanical sensing devices as amplification may
not be required.
LVDT-DIAPHRAGM
The motion of a diaphragm sensed by a Linear
Variable Differential Transformer or (LVDT).

Potentiometer
The wiper of a potentiometer is
connected to a diaphragm, a Bourdon
tube or cell so that the deformation of
this sensing element causes a
displacement of the wiper

For an unloaded potentiometer with total resistance Rn, supplied with a source of
voltage Vs, voltage Vm between the wiper and one of its ends is:
Vm = Vs.R(x)/Rn
where
R(x): resistance between the wiper and the end of the potentiometer
Rn: total resistance
Vs: supply voltage
Vm: voltage between the wiper and one of its ends
If there is proportionality between:
– pressure p to be measured and deformation of the sensing element;
– deformation of the sensing element and displacement x of the wiper;
– displacement of the wiper and the resistance R(x);
Then we may write:
Vm = k. Vs .p
where k is a characteristic constant of the device.
The materials most often used for the production of sensing elements
include the following:
 Stainless steel
 Titanium
 Ni Span C
 Quartz
 Silicon
 Sapphire

WHAT IS FLOW ?
Measure of the velocity of a fluid per unit
area in a closed conduit; ie: pipe or duct
FLOW = VELOCITY (fluid) X Area of
Pipe or Duct or Stack
FLOW: In our everyday lives

Water flow meter at our home or
apartment
used for billing purposes
Mechanical flow meter with local rate
and total
Relative accuracy

The following is a list of commonly used flow devices in the Oil &
Gas Industry. A corporate standard in many cases provides guidance
on the evaluation criteria for flow meter selection.
There are many types of flow meters available and each has its own
application and advantages & limitations, but should always follow
project specifications first and be aware that information can vary
for the same type of flow meter between different manufacturers.

As fluid speed increases, the pressure in the fluid decreases
Bernoulli’s Equation
P+½ ρv2+ρgh=constant
P=pressure of the fluid along the streamline
v=velocity of the fluid along the streamline
g=acceleration due to gravity
h=height
ρ=fluid density

An airfoil is something with a shape that creates lift. (Imagine a cross section of an
airplane wing.)
•The shape causes air to move faster over the top of the wing, and slower beneath the
wing.
•Bernoulli’s Law says that the faster a fluid is moving, the less pressure it has.
•Therefore, there is a lower pressure above the wing than there is below the wing.
•This causes lift on the airplane as the wings move towards the area with lower
Differential Pressure (Head) Type
Mass Type – measures the mass flow rate
Orifice Plate - Concentric, Eccentric,
directly.
Segmental, Quadrant Edge, Integral,
Corioles
Conditioning
Thermal
Venturi Tube
Flow Nozzles Velocity Type
Elbow Magnetic
Pitot Tube,) Ultrasonic - Transit Time, Doppler
Variable Area (Rota meter) Turbine
Wedge Meter Vortex
V-Cone Other Types

Positive Displacement
Target

DENSITY
A Measure Of Mass Per Unit Of Volume (lb/ft3 or kg/M3).
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The Ratio Of The Density Of A Material To The Density Of Water Or
Air Depending On Whether It Is A Liquid Or A Gas.
COMPRESSIBLE FLUID
Fluids (Such As Gasses) Where The Volume Changes With Respect To
Changes In The Pressure. These Fluids Experience Large Changes In
Density Due To Changes In Pressure.
NON-COMPRESSIBLE FLUID
Fluids (Generally Liquids) Which Resist Changes In Volume As The
Pressure Changes. These Fluids Experience Little Change In Density Due
To Pressure Changes.
Linear
Transmitter output is directly proportional to the flow input.
Square Root
Flow is proportional to the square root of the measured value.
Beta Ratio (d/D)
Ratio of a differential pressure flow device bore (d) divided by internal
diameter of pipe (D).
A higher Beta ratio means a larger orifice size. A larger orifice plate bore
size means greater flow capacity and a lower permanent pressure loss.
Pressure Head
The Pressure At A Given Point In A Liquid Measured In Terms Of The

Vertical Height Of A Column Of The Liquid Needed To Produce The Same
Pressure.
Flow is measured as a quantity (either volume or mass) per unit time
Volumetric units
Liquid
m3/hr, liters/min, etc.
Gas or Vapor
ft3/hr, m3/hr, etc.
Mass units (either liquid, gas or vapor)
lb/hr, kg/hr, etc.
Flow can be measured in accumulated (totalized) total amounts for a
time period
gallons, liters, meters passed in a day, etc.
Laminar Flow - Is Characterized By Concentric Layers Of Fluid Moving In
Parallel Down The Length Of A Pipe. The Highest Velocity (Vmax) Is Found
In The Center Of The Pipe. The Lowest Velocity (V=0) Is Found Along The
Pipe Wall.
SIDE VIEW END VIEW
VMAX
PARABOLIC FLOW PROFILE CONCENTRIC FLUID LAYERS

Turbulent Flow - Is Characterized by A Fluid motion that has local velocities
and Pressures that fluctuate randomly. This causes the velocity of the fluid in the
pipe to be more uniform across a cross Section.
SIDE VIEW
VMAX ~ VAVG

The Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces (velocity and density that keep the
fluid in motion) to viscous forces (frictional forces that slow the fluid down) and is used
for determining the dynamic properties of the fluid to allow an equal comparison
between different fluids and flows.
Laminar flow :occurs at low Reynolds numbers, where viscous forces are dominant,
and is characterized by smooth, constant fluid motion
Turbulent flow: occurs at high Reynolds numbers and is dominated by inertial forces,
producing random eddies, vortices and other flow fluctuations.
The Reynolds number is the most important value used in fluid dynamics as it provides
a criterion for determining similarity between different fluids, flow rates and piping
configurations
when : units are considered NR is
dimensionless.
NOTE : Reynolds number directly

proportional to velocity & inversely
proportional to viscosity!
NR < 2000 – laminar flow
NR > 4000 – Turbulent flow

Cond…
For 2000 < NR < 4000 – transition region or critical region ,flow can either
be laminar of turbulent More viscous fluid will tend to have laminar flow or
lower
Reynolds number.
Reynolds numbers for some real-life examples
• Blood flow in brain ~ 100
• Blood flow in aorta ~ 1000
• Typical pitch in major league baseball ~ 200000
• Blue whale swimming ~ 300000000

Example: Determine the Reynolds number for Glycerin
at 25C
Pipe at D = 150 mm = 0.15 m
Velocity = V = 3.6 m/s
ρ = 1258 kg/m3
ή = 0.96 Pa.s or (kg/m.s)
= 3.6 * 0.15 * 1258 / 0.96 = 708

Nr < 2000; therefore flow is laminar
These are a range of meters that convert flow rate into a differential pressure.
 ORIFICE METERS.
 VENTURI METERS
 NOZZLE METERS
 PITOT TUBES.
The working principle for all these is that something makes the velocity of the
fluid change and this produces a change in the pressure so that a difference Dp =
p2 - p1 is created. It can be shown for all these meters that the volume flow rate
Q is related to dp by the following formula.
Q = K(dp)0.5
K is the meter constant.

The orifice plate is a differential pressure flow
meter (Primary element).
Based on the work of Daniel Bernoulli the

relationship between the velocity of fluid
passing through the orifice is proportional to
the square root of the pressure loss across it.
To measure the differential pressure when the
fluid is flowing, connections are made from the
upstream and downstream pressure tappings to
a secondary device known as a DP (Differential
Pressure) cell.
Applications
 Power generation
 Oil production and refining
 Water treatment and distribution
 Suger factories
 Gas processing and transmission
 Chemical and petrochemical industry
Special features
 Maximum operating temperature up to 800 °C
 Maximum operating pressure up to 400 bar
 Suitable for liquid, gas and steam flow measurement
 Accuracy ≤ ±0.5 % of actual flow rate
10/12/22  Repeatability of measurement of 0.1 %
Dessie Fentaw 118
Discovered two centuries ago by Italian scientist
Giovanni Battista Venturi (1746 - 1822).

 In the venturi meter velocity is increased and the pressure
decreased in the upstream cone.
 The pressure drop from points F to I can be used to measure the
rate of flow through the meter.
 Venturi meters are most commonly used for liquids, especially
water.

Applications of venturi tube
 Power generation
 Oil production and refining
 Water treatment and distribution
 Gas processing and transmission
 Chemical and petrochemical industry
Special features
 Suitable for liquid, gas and steam flow measurement
 Accuracy ≤ ±0.5 % of actual flow rate
 Repeatability of measurement 0.1 %
 Ensure the lowest pressure loss in the family of
primary flow elements
10/12/22  Calibration may
Dessiebe performed if required
Fentaw 121
 Rota meters fall into the category of flow measurement
devices called variable area meters.
 These devices have nearly constant pressure and
depend on changing cross sectional area to indicate flow
rate.
 Rota meters are extremely simple, robust devices that
can measure flow rates of both liquids and gasses. Fluid
flows up through the tapered tube and suspends a ‘float’
in the column of fluid.
 The position of the float indicates the flow rate on a
marked scale.
Three types of forces must be accounted for when
analyzing Rota meter performance:
 Flow
Buoyancy
 Gravity
 Buoyancy Gravity
 For our analysis neglect drag effect
Flow
 Transit time ultrasonic meters employ two transducers located upstream
and downstream of each other.
 Each transmits a sound wave to the other, and the time difference
between the receipt of the two signals indicates the fluid velocity.
 Transit time meters usually require clean fluids and are used where high
range ability is required. Accuracy is within 1% for ideal applications.

 Flow is measured by measuring the difference in transit time for two
ultrasonic beams transmitted in a fluid both upstream and downstream.
Ultrasonic meter characteristics
 Pressure Loss: None

 Accuracy: 0.25% to 5%
 Viscosity Effect: None
 Relative Cost: High
 Type of Output: Linear

 Turbine meter is kept in rotation by the
linear velocity of the stream in which it is
immersed.
 The number of revolutions the device
makes is proportional to the rate of flow.

 This sub topic discusses the measurement of the level of liquids and free-
flowing solids by different level transducers.
 There are many widely varying methods for the measurement of liquid
level.
 Level measurement is an important part of process control.
 Level sensing can be single point, continuous, direct, or indirect.
Continuous level monitoring measures the level of the liquid on an
uninterrupted basis.
 In this case, the level of the material will be constantly monitored, and
hence the volume can be continuously monitored, if the cross-sectional
area of the container is known.

Level sensing devices can be divided into four categories
1. direct sensing, in which the actual level is monitored
2. indirect sensing, in which a property of the liquid, such as
pressure, is sensed to determine the liquid level;
3. single point measurement, in which it is only necessary
to detect the presence or absence of a liquid at a specific
level; and
4. free-flowing solid level sensing
Direct Level Sensing
A number of techniques are used for
direct level sensing, such as
direct visual indication using a sight glass
or a float.
Ultrasonic distance measuring devices
also may be considered.

Float sensors are are two types
I. The angular arm
II. The pulley.
The float material is less dense than the density of the liquid, and floats up and
down on top of the material being measured
Methods of measuring liquid levels, using (a) a simple float with level
indicator on the outside
10/12/22 Dessie of the tank, and (b) an angular arm float.
Fentaw 130
Ultrasonic or sonic devices can be used for single point or continuous level
measurement of a liquid or a solid. A setup for continuous measurement is
shown in Figure
Use of ultrasonic devices for continuous liquid level measurements made by timing
reflections from the surface
10/12/22
of the liquid.
Dessie Fentaw 131
A commonly used method of indirectly measuring a liquid level is to measure the
hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the container.
The level can be extrapolated from the pressure and the specific weight of the liquid.
The level of liquid can be measured using , capacitive probes, resistive tapes, or by
weight measurements.
Pressure is often used as an indirect method of measuring liquid levels.
Pressure increases as the depth increases in a fluid.
The pressure is given by:
p = γd
where p is the pressure,γ is the specific weight, and d is the depth.

a b
Pressure sensors positioned (a) below tank bottom, and (b) above
tank bottom.
Capacitive probes can be used in liquids and free-flowing solids for
continuous level measurement .
Materials placed between the plates of a capacitor increase the capacitance
by a factor (μ ), known as the dielectric constant of the material.
 For instance, air has a dielectric constant of 1, and water has a dielectric
constant of 80.
When two capacitor plates are partially immersed in a nonconductive
liquid, the capacitance (Cd) is given by

Where
Ca is the capacitance with no liquid
μ is the dielectric constant of the liquid between the plates
r is the height of the plates, and
d is the depth or level of the liquid between the plates.
The liquid level is given by

 Methods of measuring liquid levels using a capacitive probe for continuous
monitoring in (a) non conducting liquid, and (b) conducting liquid.

 The capacitive probe shown in Figure (a) is used to measure the level in a
non conducting liquid, and consists of an inner rod with an outer shell.
 The capacitance is measured between the two using a capacitance bridge.
 In the portion of the probe that is out of the liquid, air serves as the dielectric
between the rod and outer shell.
 In the section of the probe immersed in the liquid, the dielectric is that of the
liquid, which causes a large capacitive change.
 Where the tank is made of metal, it can serve as the outer shell.
 The capacitance change is directly proportional to the level of the liquid.
 The dielectric constant of the liquid must be known for this type of
measurement.
 If the liquid is conductive, then one of the plates is enclosed in an
insulator, as shown in Figure (b).
 The dielectric constant is now that of the insulator, and the liquid level
sets the area of the capacitor plate.

Resistive tapes can be used to measure liquid levels, as shown in Figure
Resistive tape level sensor

Resistive element is placed in close proximity to a conductive strip in an easily
compressible nonconductive sheath.
The pressure of the liquid pushes the conductive strip against the resistive element,
shorting out a length of the resistive element that is proportional to the depth of the
liquid.
TRANSDUCERS
EL-4611
Chapter Three
Temperature Transducer
Prepared By: Dessie Fentaw
Lecturer(Electronics Engineering.)
Bishoftu (Ethiopia)
2006EC/2013

Temperature Transducer
The word temperature can be describe as the degree of hotness or coolness
of a material body.
Types of temperature transducers (sensors)
 Liquid and gas thermometer
 Bimetallic strip
 Resistance thermometers (RTD and Thermistors)
 Thermocouple
 Junction semiconductor sensor
 Radiation pyrometer
 IC temperature sensor
 Within the limited scope of this course, we shall discuss few of
the above mentioned temperature sensors, that are useful for
measurement in industrial environment.
Resistance Thermometer
 Resistance of metal increase with increases in temperature.
Therefore metals are said to have a positive temperature coefficient
of resistivity.
 Fig shows the simplest type of open wire construction of platinum
résistance thermometer. The platinum wire is wound in the form of
spirals on an insulating material such as mica or ceramic.
 This assembly is then placed at the tip of probe
 This wire is in direct contact with the gas or liquid whose
temperature is to be measured.

 It is well known that resistance of metallic conductors increases
with temperature, while that of semiconductors generally decreases
with temperature.
 Resistance thermometers employing metallic conductors for
temperature measurement are called Resistance Temperature
Detector (RTD), and those employing semiconductors are termed as
Thermistors.
 RTDs are more rugged and have more or less linear characteristics
over a wide temperature range.
 The variation of resistance of metals with temperature is normally
modelled in the form.

 Copper, Nickel and Platinum are mostly used as
RTD materials.
 The range of temperature measurement is decided
by the region, where the resistance-temperature
characteristics are approximately linear.
 The resistance versus temperature characteristics
of these materials is shown as


 The resistance of the platinum wire changes with the change
in temperature of the gas or liquid
 This type of sensor have a positive temperature coefficient of
resistivity as they are made from metals they are also known
as resistance temperature detector
 Resistance thermometer are generally of probe type for
immersion in medium whose temperature is to be measured
or controlled.

 Wire wound and thin film devices.
 Nearly linear over a wide range of
temperatures.
 Can be made small enough to have
response times of a fraction of a second.
 Require an electrical current to produce a
voltage drop across the sensor

RTD Applications
 Air conditioning and refrigeration

servicing
 Furnace servicing
 Foodservice processing
 Medical research
 Textile production

Advantages Disadvantages
 Most stable over time  High cost

 Most accurate  Slowest response time
 Most repeatable temperature  Low sensitivity to small temperature
measurement changes
 Very resistant to contamination/  Sensitive to vibration (strains the
 corrosion of the RTD element platinum element wire)
 Some what fragile(Easily broken,
damaged, or destroyed)
 Decalibration if used beyond the
sensor’s temperature ratings
Thermistor
 Thermistor is a contraction of a term “thermal resistor”.
 Thermistor are temperature dependent resistors. They are made of
semiconductor material which have negative temperature
coefficient of resistivity i.e. their resistance decreases with
increase of temperature.
 Thermistor are widely used in application which involve
measurement in the range of 0-60º Thermistor are composed of
sintered mixture of metallic oxides such as mangnese, nickel,
cobalt, copper, iron and uranium
Thermistor

 The Thermistor may be in the form of beads, rods and
discs.
 The Thermistor provide a large change in resistance for
small change in temperature.
 In some cases the resistance of Thermistor at room
temperature may decreases as much as 6% for each 1ºC
rise in temperature.
Their characteristics can be expressed as:
β is a constant, its value is decided by the characteristics of the material, the

nominal value is taken as 4000

Application Thermistors
 Most are seen in medical equipment
markets.
 Thermistors are also used are for engine
coolant
 oil, and air temperature measurement in the
transportation industry.

 High sensitivity to small  Limited temperature range

temperature changes  Fragile
 Temperature measurements  Some initial accuracy “drift”
become more stable with use  Decalibration if used beyond the
 Copper or nickel extension wires sensor’s temperature ratings
can be used  Lack of standards for replacement

When a pair of dissimilar metals are joined at one end, and there is a
temperature difference between the joined ends and the open ends, thermal
emf is generated, which can be measured in the open ends.
This forms the basis of thermocouples and so the effect is See beck Effect
 The picture shows a typical industrial probe

with a flexible extension and standard plug.
Thomas Johan Seebeck discovered in 1821 that thermal energy can produce
electric current.
When two conductors made from dissimilar metals are connected forming two
common junctions and the two junctions are exposed to two different
temperatures, a net thermal emf is produced, the actual value being dependent on
the materials used and the temperature difference between hot and cold junctions.
The thermoelectric emf generated, in fact is due to the combination of two effects:
Peltier effect and Thomson effect.
Where T1 and T2 are hot and cold junction temperatures in
K. C1 and C2 are constants depending upon the materials.
For Copper/ Constantan thermocouple, C1=62.1 and A typical thermocouple

C =0.045.
2
Peltier showed that heat is absorbed at the hot end and rejected at the
cold end. Thompson showed that part of the e.m.f. is due to the
temperature gradient in the wire as well as the temperature difference
between the junctions.
Most thermocouple metals produce a relationship between the two
temperatures and the e.m.f as follows.

 Plastic injection molding
machinery
 Food processing equipment
 Semiconductor processing
 Heat treating
 Medical equipment
 Industrial heat treating
 Packaging equipment

 Simple, Rugged  Least stable, least repeatable
 High temperature operation  Low sensitivity to small temperature
 Low cost changes
 No resistance lead wire problems  Extension wire must be of the same
 Point temperature sensing thermocouple type
 Fastest response to temperature  Wire may pick up radiated electrical
changes noise if not shielded

 Lowest accuracy

Thermocouple Materials
Theoretically, any pair of dissimilar materials can be used as a thermocouple.

But in practice, only few materials have found applications for temperature
measurement.
The choice of materials is influenced by several factors, namely, sensitivity,
stability in calibration, inertness in the operating atmosphere and
reproducibility (i.e. the thermocouple can be replaced by a similar one without
any recalibration).
Table shows the common types of thermocouples, their types, composition,
range, sensitivity etc.

The most commonly used IC Temperature sensors are
 LM-335 series
 LM-35 series
 LM=34 series
 AD-592 series

Introduction
Most commonly-used electrical temperature sensors are difficult to apply. For
example, thermocouples have low output levels and require cold junction
compensation.
Thermistors are nonlinear, In addition, the outputs of these sensors are not
linearly proportional to any temperature scale
 Early monolithic sensors, such as the LM3911, LM134 and LM135,overcame
many of these difficulties, but their outputs are related to the Kelvin temperature
scale rather than the more popular Celsius and Fahrenheit scales.
 Fortunately, in 1983 two I.C.’s, the LM34 Precision Fahrenheit Temperature
Sensor and the LM35 Precision Celsius Temperature Sensor, were introduced.

The LM34 has:
an output of 10 mV/°F with a typical nonlinearity of only ±0.35°F over a
−50 to +300°F temperature range,
 accurate to within ±0.4°F typically at room temperature (77°F).
 The LM34 has low output impedance and linear output characteristic
make interfacing with readout or control circuitry easy.
 An inherent strength of the LM34 over other currently available
temperature sensors is that it is not as susceptible to large errors in its output
from low level leakage currents.

 For instance, many monolithic temperature sensors have an output of only 1
μA/°K. This leads to a 1°K error for only 1 μ-Ampere of leakage current.
 On the other hand, the LM34 may be operated as a current mode device
providing 20 μA/°F of output current.
 The same 1 μA of leakage current will cause an error in the LM34’s output of
only 0.05°F (or 0.03°K after scaling).

The LM34 has:
The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperature
sensors, whose output voltage is linearly proportional to the
Celsius (Centigrade) temperature.
The LM35 thus has an advantage over linear temperature sensors calibrated in
° Kelvin, as the user is not required to subtract a large constant
 voltage from its output to obtain convenient Centigrade scaling.
The LM35 does not require any external calibration or trimming to provide
typical accuracies of ±1⁄4°C at room temperature and ±3⁄4°C over a full −55 to
+150°C temperature range.

Features
 Calibrated directly in ° Celsius (Centigrade)
 Linear + 10.0 mV/°C scale factor
 0.5°C accuracy guarantee able (at +25°C)
 Rated for full −55° to +150°C range
 Suitable for remote applications
 Low cost due to wafer-level trimming
 Operates from 4 to 30 volts
 Less than 60 μA current drain
 Low self-heating, 0.08°C in still air Nonlinearity only ±1⁄4°C typical
 Low impedance output, 0.1 W for 1 mA load

 The AD592 is a two terminal monolithic integrated circuit temperature
transducer that provides an output current proportional to absolute
temperature.
 For a wide range of supply voltages the transducer acts as a high
impedance temperature dependent current source of 1 mA/K.
 Improved design and laser wafer trimming of the IC’s thin film resistors
allows the AD592 to achieve absolute accuracy levels and nonlinearity
errors previously unattainable at a comparable price.

PRODUCT HIGHLIGHTS
With a single supply (4 V to 30 V) the AD592 offers 0.5°C temperature measurement
accuracy.
 A wide operating temperature range (–25°C to +105°C) and highly linear output make the
AD592 an ideal substitute for older, more limited sensor technologies (i.e.,
thermistors, RTDs, diodes, thermocouples).
 The AD592 is electrically rugged; supply irregularities and variations or reverse voltages up
to 20 V will not damage the device.
 Because the AD592 is a temperature dependent current source, it is immune to voltage noise
pickup and IR drops in the signal leads when used remotely.

 The high output impedance of the AD592 provides greater than 0.5°C/V rejection
of supply voltage drift and ripple.
 Laser wafer trimming and temperature testing insures that AD592 units are easily
interchangeable.
 Initial system accuracy will not degrade significantly over time. The AD592 has
proven long term performance and repeatability advantages inherent in integrated
circuit design and construction.

Chapter Five
Miscellaneous transducers
In this chapter we will discuss various transducer such as:
 Humidity
 Velocity
 acceleration
 Vibration
 Gyroscope

Humidity
Moisture – the amount of water contained in a liquid or solid.
Absolute humidity – the mass of water vapour per unit volume.
Relative humidity (RH) – the ratio of actual vapour pressure (pw

partial pressure of water vapour) to the saturation vapour pressure
ps at the same temperature. pw
RH  100
ps
Dewpoint temperature – the temperature at which RH is 100%.
At dewpoint condensation droplets appear (at low
teperature below O0C the moisture can freeze).
Temperatures
 Dew Point: The temperature at which a parcel of air becomes saturated when cooled at
constant pressure and constant water-vapor content.
 Dry-bulb :Technically, the ambient temperature registered by the dry-bulb
thermometer of a psychrometer. However, it is identical to the temperature of the air and
may also be used in that sense.
 Wet-bulb: The lowest temperature attained by evaporating water from a saturated wick
covering the bulb of a thermometer at the point of observation.
 If the air temperature cools to the dew point, or if the dew point rises to equal the air
temperature, then dew, fog or clouds begin to form. At this point where the dew
point temperature equals the air temperature, the relative humidity is 100%.

A hygrometer, also known as a psychrometer, is an device that is used
to measure the humidity in the air.
A common way these devices work is by using a material that attracts
moisture and that changes depending on how moist it is.
The probably simplest method of these is to use a human hair. The hair will
change length, depending on the moisture.
Psychrometer
An instrument used for measuring the water-vapor content of the air.
It consists of two ordinary glass thermometers.
The bulb of one thermometer (wet-bulb) is covered with a clean muslin wick, which is
saturated with water prior to an observation.
When the bulbs are properly ventilated, they indicate the wet- and dry-bulb temperatures
of the atmosphere.

 A hygrometer has two bulbs , one wet and one dry.
 Both bulbs are traditional thermometers, though one is covered with a wet
towel.
 After a period of time, the water on the wet bulb evaporates and at that time, the
temperature is measured on each bulb.
 The difference between the temperatures is noted.
 Then each is used on a chart to find the relative humidity of that temperature
and area.
 A small difference between the temperature of the bulbs shows a high relative
humidity coming from a low evaporation rate.
 In dry air, evaporation happens faster showing a large difference in temperature
thus giving you a low relative humidity.

Relative Humidity
 Humidity refers to the amount of moisture (water vapor) in the surrounding
air.
 Relative Humidity is a measure of the amount of moisture in the air

compared with the amount of moisture the air can hold.
 Relative humidity is expressed as a percentage of how much moisture the air

could possibly hold at the temperature it happens when you measure it.
 The "wetter or damper" you feel,, the higher is the relative humidity.
 If you feel the air is dry around you, the relative humidity is low.

Relative Humidity
 We are very sensitive to humidity. Sweating keeps our body cool
and maintain its current temperature.
 If the air is at 90% relative humidity, sweat will not evaporate into
the air. As a result, we feel much hotter than the actual temperature
when the relative humidity is high.
 If the relative humidity is low, we can feel much cooler than the
actual temperature because our sweat evaporates easily, cooling the
body.

Relative Humidity
 How relative humidity (RH) is measured?
 Humidity is measured by means of a hygrometer.

 There are different types of hygrometers.
 The most common hygrometers are Wet- and Dry- Bulb Psychrometer and Hair
Hygrometer.
How relative humidity (RH) is measured?

 Wet- and Dry Bulb Psychrometer
• It consists of two identical mercury thermometers, one of which has a wet cotton or
linen wick around its bulb.
• Evaporating water from the wick absorbs heat from the thermometer bulb, causing
the thermometer reading to drop.
The difference between dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures is compared on psychometric

Dry air: the water will evaporate quickly and cause a large drop in the wet-bulb
temperature.
This makes the difference in readings on the 2 thermometers greater.
 Moist air: little water will evaporate from the wet-bulb and the temperature
decrease will be small.
The difference between the wet bulb and dry bulb will be small.
When the Wet bulb temperature = the dry bulb

temperature………
100% HUMIDITY!!!

Relative Humidity
How relative humidity (RH) is measured? Wet- and Dry Bulb Psychrometer
Wet - and Dry Bulb Psychrometer

Relative Humidity
Wet- and Dry Bulb Psychrometer Psychrometric Chart.
 If the difference between wet and

dry bulb is 6º F and the
temperature is 72º F (dry bulb),
then the RH is 54%.

How relative humidity (RH) is measured
Hair Hygrometer
 Humidity stretches the hair (human / animal / synthetic) while dryness
shortens it.
 The hygrometer has the job of

stretching a hair between a fixed
and a movable point to measure
10/12/22 Dessie Fentaw humidity over time. 185
Relative Humidity
 Other kinds of hygrometers use materials with electrical

resistance /capacitance that varies with the amount of moisture
absorbed.
 With such hygrometers, a measurement of electrical resistance

/capacitance can be calibrated as a humidity measurement.

Electronic Capacitive Sensors
 A capacitor is like a short term battery where

static charge can be built up and stored
between two metal plates.
 Depending on the moisture between the two
plates, more or less charge can be built up
between them. This amount of charge is
referred to as the Dielectric Constant

Electronic Capacitive Sensors
 For a electronic capacitive hygrometer, this relation between energy storage and
humidity can be calibrated to an accuracy of +/- 2% between 5 and 95% humidity
( Electronic Capacitive Sensors are low-cost, small, and durable.
 They perform well in environments where temperatures fluctuate frequently.

Electronic Resistive Sensors
 The famous concept where salt water conducts
electricity to turn a light on is utilized in a
electronic resistive sensor.
 As humidity decreases, the salt concentration
increases causing the resistivity of the circuit to
decrease.
 Thus, resistance is directly proportional to
humidity.
Since voltage changes are much smaller when dealing with small humidity
differences, precise measurement equipment must be used making these
sensors less practical.
Temperature variation also produces varied results during constant
humidity and must be taken into account when measuring from this sensor.
Electronic Resistive Sensors
 Since voltage changes are much smaller when dealing with

small humidity differences, precise measurement equipment
must be used making these sensors less practical.
 Temperature variation also produces varied results during
constant humidity and must be taken into account when
measuring from this sensor.

Accelerometer Transducers
 The variety of accelerometers used results from different applications with
requirements of range, natural frequency, and damping.
 In this section, various accelerometers with their special characteristics are
reviewed.
 The basic difference is in the method of mass displacement measurement.
 In general, the specification sheets for an accelerometer will give the

natural frequency, damping coefficient, and a scale factor that relates the
output to an acceleration input.
 The values of test mass and spring constant are seldom known or required

Working principle
 A Potentiometric accelerometer employs a seismic mass, spring arrangement,
dashpot, and a resistive element.
 The seismic mass (potentiometer) is connected between spring and dashpot.
 The wiper of the potentiometer is connected to the mass.
 In the presence of vibration or acceleration, vibrational displacement of
seismic mass takes place with respect to the housing of the device.
 The displacement of mass is transferred to the potentiometers through the
wiper. Therefore the resistance of the potentiometer changes.
 This change in resistance gives the value of displacement and hence the
acceleration.

 The displacement of the spring-mass system is linked mechanically to a wiper arm,
which moves along a potentiometer.
 The system can use gas, viscous, or magnetic damping to minimize acoustic noise
caused by contact resistance of the wiper arm.
 Potentiometric accelerometers typically have a frequency range from zero to 20 -
60 Hz, depending on the stiffness of the spring, and have a high-level output signal.
 They also have a lower frequency response than most other accelerometers, usually
between 15 - 30 Hz.

LVDT
LVDT type accelerometer
 A second type of accelerometer takes
advantage of the natural linear displacement
measurement of the LVDT to measure mass
displacement.
 In these instruments, the LVDT core itself is
the seismic mass.
 Displacements of the core are converted
directly into a linearly proportional ac voltage.
 These accelerometers generally have a natural
frequency less than 80 Hz and are commonly
used for steady-state and low-frequency
vibration.

Accelerometer Types
Capacitive Operating Principle
Utilizes frequency modulation technique through varying capacitor bridge
Power Ground Signal
Fixed Capacitors Built-In Electronics

~
Insulator
Sensing Capacitor
#1
Flexure Mass
Sensing Capacitor
Insulator #2

Quartz and Rochelle salt exhibited the most piezoelectricity.
Converse piezoelectricity was mathematically deduced from
fundamental thermodynamic principles by Lippmann in 1881.
The Curies immediately confirmed the existence of the
"converse effect," and went on to obtain quantitative proof of
the complete reversibility of electro-elasto-mechanical
deformations in piezoelectric crystals. (1)
“Wikipedia”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezoelectricity
Piezoelectric Notions
 Piezoelectricity is the ability of certain crystals to generate a voltage in response to
applied mechanical stress.
 The word is derived from the Greek piezein, which means to squeeze or press.
 The piezoelectric effect is reversible in that piezoelectric crystals, when subjected to

an externally applied voltage, can change shape by a small amount.
 The deformation, about 0.1% of the original dimension in PZT, is of the order of
nanometers, but nevertheless finds useful applications such as the production and
detection of sound, generation of high voltages, electronic frequency generation,
and ultra fine focusing of optical assemblies.
 In a piezoelectric transducer, the acceleration acts on the seismic mass that develops
a force on piezoelectric quartz, or ceramic crystal, or on several crystals. The force
causes charges on the crystals proportional to the acceleration.

Acceleration Sensing Notions
 Direct measurement: this is done by sensing the
acceleration directly.
 Indirect measurement: this is done differentiating the
velocity. In the real world is more common
integrating a measurement than differentiating it.
 The applicability of these techniques depends on the
type of motion (rectilinear, angular, or curvilinear
motion) or equilibrium centered vibration. For
rectilinear and curvilinear motions, the direct
measurement accelerometers are preferred. However,
the angular acceleration is usually measured by
indirect methods
Major Applications
 Piezoelectric accelerometer are good sensing device for the application
were is needed
 high bandwidth
 low power consumption
 ruggedness
 As acceleration acts on the mounting

surface of a flat plate shear sensing
configuration, the piezoelectric
ceramic element is put into shear
relative to the attached mass

Applications
 Machine Monitoring. Bearing and gear mesh wear typically have

characteristic frequencies in the 210 kHz range.
 Shock Detection. For applications such as shipment monitoring,

impact detection, or drop testing.
 Vehicle Dynamics. handling parameters such as ride smoothness,

vehicle performance, cargo transport, and asset tracking in vehicle.
 Structural Dynamics: detect fatigue, resonance, and response to load.

Basics Principles
 These devices utilize a mass in direct contact with the piezoelectric
component or crystal as shown in When a varying motion is applied to
the accelerometer, the crystal experiences a varying force excitation
(F = ma), causing a proportional electric charge q to be developed

across it.
 So, where q is the charge developed and dij is the piezoelectric
coefficient of the material. As this equation shows, the output from the
piezoelectric material is dependent on its mechanical properties, dij.

Basics Principles
 These accelerometers are useful for high-frequency
applications. The roll-off typically starts near 100 Hz.
 These active devices have no DC response.
 Since piezoelectric accelerometers have comparatively low

mechanical impedances, their effect on the motion of most
structures is negligible.

Basics Principles
 Mathematically, their transfer function approximates a third-order system
that can be expressed as
 where Kq is the piezoelectric constant related to charge , τ is the time

constant of the crystal, and s is the Laplace variable.
 It is worth noting that the crystal itself does not have a time constant τ,
but the time constant is observed when the accelerometer is connected to
an electric circuit, for example, an RC circuit.

 The low-frequency response is limited by the piezoelectric
characteristic τs / (τs + 1), while the high frequency response
is related to mechanical response.
 The damping factor  is very small, usually less than 0.01 or
near zero. Accurate low-frequency response requires large τ,
which is usually achieved by use of high-impedance voltage
amplifiers.
 At very low frequencies thermal effects can have severe
influences on the operation characteristics.

Piezoelectric Accelerometer Design
Shear Compression Bending
Advant - low temperature - high sensitivity-to-mass - best sensitivity-to-mass
age transient ratio ratio
sensitivity - robustness
- low base strain - technological
sensitivity advantages
Disadva - lower sensitivity- - high temperature - fragile
ntag to-mass ratio transient sensitivity - high temperature
e - high base strain transient sensitivity
sensitivity

Advantages of piezoelectric accelerometer

Gyroscope

Gyroscope
 A gyroscope is a device for measuring or maintaining orientation, based on the
principles of angular momentum. Mechanically, a gyroscope is a spinning
wheel or disc in which the axle is free to assume any orientation.
 Although this orientation does not remain fixed, it changes in response to an
external torque much less and in a different direction than it would without the
large angular momentum associated with the disc's high rate of spin and
moment of inertia.
 The device's orientation remains nearly fixed, regardless of the mounting
platform's motion, because mounting the device in a gimbal minimizes external
torque.

 A Gyroscope is a device for measuring or maintaining orientation,
based on the principles of conservation of angular momentum.

 A Gyroscope is essentially a spinning wheel or disk whose axle
is free to take any orientation.
 This orientation changes much less in response to a given
external torque than it would without the large angular
momentum associated with the gyroscope's high rate of spin.

Processional Angular Motion

After a short interval of time δt, let the disc be spinning about the new axis of spin
‘OX’with an angular velocity (ω + δω).
Using the right hand screw rule, initial angular velocity of the disc (ω) is
represented by vector ox; and the final angular velocity of the disc (ω + δω) is
represented by vector ox′.

The vector xx′ represents the change of angular velocity in time δt
i.e. the angular acceleration of the disc. This may be resolved into
two components, one parallel to ox and the other perpendicular to
ox.
Component of angular acceleration in the direction of ox;

Since δθ is very small, therefore
substituting cos δθ = 1, we have;
In the limit, when δt →0 ,
Component of angular acceleration in

the direction perpendicular to ox,

Since δθ in very small, therefore substituting sin δθ = δθ,
we have;
In the limit when δt → 0,
∴ Total angular acceleration of the disc

= vector xx′ = vector sum of αt and αc


Transducer Note

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TRANSDUCERS/

10/12/22 Dessie Fentaw 1

Pressure, Transducer Voltage or

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Precision without Accuracy without Precision and

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The transducers can be classified as

II. Analog and digital transducers.

III.On the basis of transduction principle used.

IV.Primary and secondary transducer

V. Transducers and inverse transducers.

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These transducers do not need any external source of power for

I. The active transducer are self generating devices which operate

II.As the output of active transducers we get an equivalent

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 Some transducers contain the mechanical as well as electrical

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•Ref fig in which the diaphragm act as primary

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•In inductive transduction, the measurand is converted

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•In piezoelectric induction the measurand is converted

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•In photovoltaic transduction the measurand is converted to

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•In photoconductive transduction the measurand is

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•Transducers convert non electrical quantity to

• Inverse transducers convert electrical quantity to a

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Inductive transducers are mainly used for displacement measurement.

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