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Department Of Electronics &Telecommunication Engineering

EXPERIMENT NO.: 01

TITLE :To study General/Technical Specification of

mobile

EXPECTED DATE OF EXPERIMENT: ___________________________

ACTUAL DATE OF PERFORMANCE: ____________________________

Grade with DATE : ____________________________

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C. Hardware
1. Processor
2. Processor make
3. RAM
4. Internal storage
5. Expandable storage
D. Camera
1. Rear camera
2. Rear autofocus
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3. Rear flash
4. Front camera
5. Pop-up camera
6. Front autofocus
7. Front flash
E. Software
1. Operating system
F. Connectivity
1. Wi-Fi
2. Wi-Fi standards supported

3. GPS

4. Bluetooth
5. Radio
6. NFC
7. USB
8. Number of SIMs
9. Active 4G on both SIM cards
10. Number of antennas
(Single or MIMO)
11. Type of antennas
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G. SIM1
1. SIM Type
2. 3G
3. 4G/LTE
4. 5G
5. Supportsof4Gin India(Band
40)
H. SIM2
1. SIM Type
2. 3G
3. 4G/LTE
4. 5G
5. Supportsof4Gin India(Band
40)
I. Sensors
1. Face unlock
2. Fingerprint sensor
3. In-display fingerprint sensor
4. Compass/Magnetometer
5. Proximity sensor

6. Accelerometer Yes

7. Ambient light sensor Yes

8. Gyroscope Yes

J. Pricing (with different

RAM and storage)
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K. Frequency bands and

power
1. GSM900:35dBm
2. GSM1800:32dBm
3. UMTS band1/8: 25.7dBm
4. LTE
band1/3/7/8/20/28/34/38/40:
25.7 dBm
5. 5GNR bandn1/n3/n7/n28/n78:
<25dBm
6. Bluetooth:<20dBm
7. Wi-Fi2.4G:<20 dBm
8. Wi-Fi5G:<23 dBm
9. NFC:<42dBuA/m at10m
1. IMEI number of SIM1
2 IMEI number of SIM2(if any)
L. Any other feature not
mentioned above (add
rows as required)

Activity

● What is the use of hotspot & tethering in mobile phone?

● What happens when airplane mode of mobile is activated? And why?
● A smart phone A, B, and C has refresh rate of 90Hz,120Hz and60Hz
respectively which phone is better and why?
● Which type of antennas is used in smart
phones?

● Answer the questions below in short:

o What are the elements in the motherboard of mobile phone?
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O What makes mobile camera of higher resolution?

● Answer the question below:

o What do 10-digit MSISDN of your mobile phone represents? The
SISDN is used for routing calls to the subscriber.

● Read the following article and answer the question below:

o Match the column

1 Excellent signal strength A < -70 dBm
2 Good signal strength B -60to 70 dBm
3 Fair signal strength C >=-50dBm
4 Weak signal strength D -50to 60 dBm

Discussion/Conclusion

Signature of Faculty in-charge

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EXPERIMENT NO.: 02

TITLE : To study & find co-channel cells and find cell

clusters within a geographic area.

EXPECTED DATE OF EXPERIMENT: ___________________________

ACTUAL DATE OF PERFORMANCE: ____________________________

Grade with DATE : ____________________________

 Permanently Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering
Title: Cellular frequency reuse concept.

Objectives:
1. To find the co-channel cells for a particular cell.
2. To find the cell clusters within certain geographic area.
OUTCOME: Student will able to understand and analyse the parameters of the mobile
Communication system

THEORY:
1. Frequency Reuse
• In mobile communication systems a slot of a carrier frequency / code in a carrier frequency
is a radio resource unit. This radio resource unit is assigned to a user in order to support a
call/ session. The number of available such radio resources at a base station thus determines
the number of users who can be supported in the call.
•Since in wireless channels a signal is "broadcast" i.e. received by all entities therefore one a
resource is allocated to a user it cannot be re assigned until the user finished the call/ session.
Thus, the number of users who can be supported in a wireless system is highly limited.
• In order to support a large no. of users within a limited spectrum in a region the concept of
frequency re-use is used. The signal radiated from the transmitter antenna gets attenuated
with increasing distance. At a certain distance the signal strength falls below noise threshold
and is no longer identifiable. In this region when the signal attenuates below noise floor the
same radio resource may be used by another transmission to send different information.
• In term of cellular systems, the same radio resource (frequency) can used by two base
stations which a sufficient spaced apart. In this way the same frequency gets reused in a
layer- geographic area by two or more different base station different users simultaneously.
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1.1 Cellular Frequency Reuse:

Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels to be used within a week
small geographic area called a cell. Base stations in adjacent cells are assigned channel
groups which contain completely different channels than neighbouring cells. Base station
antennas are designed to achieve the desired coverage within a particular cell.
By limiting the coverage area within the boundaries of a cell, the same group of channels
may be used to cover different cells that are separated from one another by geographic
distances large enough to keep interference levels within tolerable limits.
The design process of selecting and allocating channel groups for all cellular base stations
within a system is called frequency reuse or frequency planning.
1.3 Cell Cluster:
Considering a cellular system that has a total of S duplex radio channels. If each cell is
allocated a group of k channels (k < S) and if the S channels are divided among N cells into
unique and disjoint channel groups of same number of channels, then,

S = kN
The N cells that collectively use the complete set of available frequencies is called a cluster.
If a cluster is replicated M times within the system, the total number of duplex channels or
capacity,
C = MkN = MS

Fig:
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In this example,
• The cluster size N = 7 and the frequency reuse factor is 1/7 since each cell contains one-
seventh of the total number of available channels.
• The capacity is directly proportional to M. The factor N is called the cluster size and is
typically 4, 7 or 12. If the cluster size N is reduced while the cell size is kept constant, more
clusters are required to cover a given area and hence more capacity is achieved from the
design viewpoint, the smallest possible value of N is desirable to maximize capacity over a
given coverage area. The frequency reuse factor of a cellular system is 1/N, since each cell
within acluster is assigned 1/N of the total available channels in the system.
1.4 Co-channel Cells:
A larger cluster size causes the ratio between the cell radius and the distance between co-
channel cells to decrease reducing co-channel interference. The value of N is a function of
how much interference a mobile or base station can tolerate while maintaining a sufficient
quality of communications.
Since each hexagonal cell has six equidistant neighbours and the line joining the centres of
any cell and each of its neighbours are separated by multiples of 60 degrees, only certain
cluster sizes and cell layouts are possible. To connect without gaps between adjacent cells,
the geometry of hexagons is such that the number of cells per cluster, N, can only has values
that satisfy,

N=i2 + ij + j2
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In this example, N = 19 (i.e., i = 3, j = 2)

Where, ‘i’ and ‘j’ are non-negative integers.
To find the nearest co-channel neighbours of a particular cell

• Move ‘i’ cells along any chain of hexagons then,

• Turn 60 degrees’ counter-clockwise and move ‘j’ cells.

Post Laboratory Questions:

1) Explain the significance of reuse ratio in cellular system designed.
The Frequency reuse ratio is the ratio of distance between two co-channel cell using
same set of frequency and the radius of the cell (D/R). As Q decreases, D decreases
and co-channel interference as well as larger capacity increases. This leds to an
increment in number of repetition of the cell (M).

2) Why the cluster size can be of a fixed number only?

In general terms cluster size are fixed it depends on i and j. Using different cluster size will
result in high interference or waste system resources by insuring a very low interference
level that is much lower than the maximum acceptable value (such as 27).
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3) How is the capacity of cellular system dependant on cluster size?

Since Q=D/R or √3𝑁

As Q N D and co-channel interference and large capacity and so does M
Conclusion:
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Exp : Frequency Reuse

Discussion:
Studied the concept of frequency reuse by selecting i=3, j=2 for cluster size N=13

Fading Channels & Mobile Communications IIT Kharagpur

Date: 28 Jul 2021

(Signature of Faculty)
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Exp : Frequency Reuse

Discussion:
Studied Concept of Cellular Cluster for N=7

(Signature of Faculty)
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Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

EXPERIMENT NO.: 03

TITLE :To find cluster size for minimum s/i

EXPECTED DATE OF EXPERIMENT: ___________________________

ACTUAL DATE OF PERFORMANCE: ____________________________

Grade with DATE : ____________________________

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Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering
Title: Effect of interference on system capacity. Cell-site transmitter power after cell splitting
Objective:
o To find cluster size for minimum requiredS/I.
o To find number of sectors to maximize systemcapacity.
o To determine base station transmitter power after cell splitting

OUTCOME: Student will be able to understand and analyze parameters

PARTA

Simulate a program for following

If signal to interference ratio(S/I) of x dB is required for satisfactory

forward channel performance of GSM, what is cluster size that should be
used for maximum capacity if path loss exponent is ȵ? Which
sectorization is preferred?Why?

THEORY
● Frequency reuse implies that in a given coverage area, there are several
cells that use same set of frequencies. These cells are called co-channel
cells and interference between signals from these cells, is called as co-
channel interference.

IfR-Radius of cell
D-Co-channel Distance
● By increasing the ratio of(D/R)=Q, spatial separation between co-
channel cells relative to coverage distance of a cell is increased. Thus
interference is reduced. Q is called as co-channel reuse ratio.
Q=√(3N)

● Small Q provides large capacity, since cluster size N is small. Large Q

improves transmission quality. Trade off must be made between set
objectives.
● Let i0 be no of co channel interfering cells. S/I for mobile
receiver which monitors forward channel can be expressed as

Where S is desired signal power from desired base station. it is

interference power caused by ith interfering co-channel cell base station.
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● When transmit power of each base station is equal and path loss exponent
is same throughout the coverage area, S/ I for mobile can be approximated

as
● Considering only first layer of interfering cell, if all interfering base
station areEquidistant (D) fromdesiredbasestation,then

Sectoring:
● The technique for decreasing co-channel interference and thus increasing
system capacity by using directional antenna is called sectoring. The factor
bywhich co- channel interference is reduced depends on amount of sectoring
used.A cell is normally partitioned into three 120 0 sectors or six 60 0 sectors
asshownin figure.

● When sectoring is used, the channels used in a particular cell are broken down
into sectored groups and are used only within a particular sector.
● Assuming 7-cell reuse, for a case of 120 0sectors, the numbered of interferers
inthefirsttieris reduced from6 to 2.
● This is because only 2of6co-channel cells receive interference with a particular
sectored channel group. Refer following figure, consider interference
experienced by a mobile located in the right most sectors in the centred
celllabelled‘5’.
● There are 3co-channelcellsectorslabelled‘5’totherightofcentredcell,and3 to the
left of centred cell. Out of these 6 co-channel cells, only 2 cells have sectors
with antenna pattern which radiate into centred cell.
● Hence mobile in centred cell will experience interference on forward link from
only these two sectors.
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Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

● Thus SIR at cell edge can be improved. Since a service does not require
anSIRgreater than a certain threshold, therefore by using sectoring the cluster
size canbe reduced thereby increasing capacity. Since sectoring reduces the
coverage area of a particular group channels, the number of handoff increases.

PART-B
Simulate a program for following

For an identical received power at the boundaries of original larger cell with
radius Ro, and the new split cell with radius Ro/2, prove that the base station
transmitter power of the split cell must be 12dB less than the base station
transmitter power of the original larger cell. Assume path loss exponent as 4 in a
typical mobile environment.

THEORY:
● For the split cells of smaller size, the transmitter power of this cell must be
reduced for an identical received power at the boundaries of the cells.
● The transmit power of the new split ells with radius half that of the original
cells can be computed by examining the received signal power, Part the cell
boundaries of the original and split cell respectively, and then setting them
equal to each other.
● This is necessary to ensure that the frequency reuse plan for the new split cells
behaves exactly as for the original cells in order to maintain the co-channel
interference levels.
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● Let Pto be the base station transmitter power of the larger original cell
with radius Ro, then at the cell boundary of the original cell,

● Let Pt1 be the base station transmitter power of the smaller split ell with
radius Ro/2,then at the cell boundary of the split cell,

● Equating above equation we can find Pt1

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OUTPUT:
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Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering
 OUTPUT:

Conclusion:
Frequency reuse implies that in a given coverage area, there are several cells that use same
set of frequencies. For the split cells of smaller size, the transmitter power of this cell must be
reduced for an identical received power at the boundaries of the cells.

Signature of faculty in-charge

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EXPERIMENT NO.: 04

TITLE : CALCULATE PATH LOSS FOR URBAN, SUB URBAN &

RURAL ENVIORNMENT USING HATA

EXPECTED DATE OF EXPERIMENT: ___________________________

ACTUAL DATE OF PERFORMANCE: ____________________________

Grade with DATE : ____________________________

TITLE: Implementation of Okumura/ Hata Model

AIM: Calculation of path loss for Urban, sub-urban and Rural Environment.
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1. Introduction
Okumura is one the most widely used models for signal prediction in
urban areas.The model is applicable to frequencies in the range of 150
MHz to 1920 MHz, The main result of Okumura's work was a set of
curves, giving the median attenuation, relative to free space, as a function
of frequency, distance, heights and several path-specific correction
factors. This model is considered to be among the simplest and best in
terms of accuracy in path loss prediction. It has become a standard for
system planning in modern mobile radio systems.

With the aim to make this method easy to apply, Hata defined a series of
empirical relationships describing the graphical method proposed by
Okumura. Such expressions, which are of empirical nature, are known as
the Okumura-Hata model, also called as Hata model.
The main result provided by the model is the median value of the basic
propagation loss, as a function of frequency, distance, base station height
and mobile antenna height. Although it does not include any of the path-
specific correction factors which are available in Okumura's model, the
expressions proposed by Hata have significant practical value.

The Okumura-Hata model is restricted to the following limits:

-f :150 to 1500 MHz

-hb :30 to 200 m
- hm:1 to10 m
- d:1 to 20 km
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2. Development
The Okumura-Hata model expresses the basic propagation loss, Lb, as follows:

wherea(hm) is the correction factor for mobile antenna height and is computed as follows:

1) For urban areas:

a) For a small or medium-sized city:

where1≤hm≤10m

b) For a large city:

2) For suburb an areas:

3) For rural areas:

Generally this model is quite good in urban and sub urban environments, but not as good in
rural areas, due to the fact that it does not take into account neither terrainundulationn nor the
effects derived from the degree of urbanization along the propagation path.
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1. Objective
One of the main objectives of cellular systems is to achieve high capacity (increase the number
of user). This objective can be realized by creating a distinctive way by which the limited
frequency spectrum assigned to the cellular systems is exploited efficiently. The concept of
frequency reuse in which a segment of specific frequency spectrum can be used several times is
the key to achieve an efficient exploit of the assigned spectrum. One of these models is the
Okumura/ Hata model which is recommended for being used to estimate the path-loss in the
cellular systems that employing micro-cells. The main objective in this project is to provide a
guide line for path-loss estimation analysis using Okumura/ Hata model. Matlab software was
used to perform this analysis. Compared with free space model in which frequency and
separation distance are the only contributors for path loss, more accurate estimation can be
achieved when Okumura/ Hata model is used as it includes further correction factors, such as
mobile station antenna height and base station antenna height.

CODE:

OUPUT:
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Conclusion: This model is quite good in urban and sub urban environments, but not as good in
rural areas, due to the fact that it does not take into account neither terrain modulation nor the
effects derived from the degree of urbanization along the propagation path.

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EXPERIMENT NO.: 05

TITLE : SPREADING AND DE SPREADING OF CDMA

EXPECTED DATE OF EXPERIMENT: ___________________________

ACTUAL DATE OF PERFORMANCE: ____________________________

Grade with DATE : ____________________________

 Permanently Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Title: Spreading and

Despreading of CDMA
signal.Objectives
1. Understand advantages of spreading and dispreading of CDMA signal
2. Calculation of PN sequence of desired length
OUTCOME: Students should able to understand 2G and 3G mobile communication standards

Theory:

 In Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) systems all users

transmit in the same bandwidth simultaneously. Communication
systems following thisconcept are "spread spectrum systems''.
 In this transmission technique, the frequency spectrum of a data-
signal isspread using a code uncorrelated with that signal. As a result,
the bandwidth occupancy is much higher than required.
 The codes used for spreading have low cross-correlation values and
are unique to every user. This is the reason that a receiver which has
knowledge about the code of the intended transmitter is capable of
selecting the desired signal.
 Because of the difficulty to jam or detect spread spectrum signals, the
first applications were in the military field. However nowadays spread
spectrum systems are gaining popularity also in commercial
applications.
 The main parameter in spread spectrum systems is the processing gain:
the ratio of transmission and information bandwidth which is basically
the "spreading factor''. The processing gain determines the number of
users that can be allowed in a system, the amount of multi-path effect
reduction, the difficulty to jam or detect a signal etc. For spread
spectrum systems it is advantageous to have a processinggain as high
as possible.
 There exist different techniques to spread a signal: Direct-Sequence
(DS), Frequency-Hopping (FH), Time-Hopping (TH) and Multi-Carrier
CDMA (MC- CDMA). It is also possible to make use of combinations
of them.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum: -

 Direct Sequence is the best known Spread Spectrum Technique. The
data signal is multiplied by a Pseudo Random Noise Code (PN code). A
PN code is a sequence of chips valued -1 and 1 (polar) or 0 and 1 (non-
polar) and has noise-like properties. This results in low cross-correlation
values among the codes and the difficulty to jam or detect a data
message. Several families of binary PN codes exist.
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 A usual way to create a PN code is by means of at least one shift-register. When

the length of such a shift-register is n, the following can be said about the period N
DS of the above mentioned code-families:

In direct-sequence systems the length of the code is the same as the spreading-factor
with the consequence that:

 This can also be seen from figure 1, where we show how the PN code is combined
with the data-signal, in this example N DS=7. The bandwidth of the data signal is
now multiplied by a factor N DS. The power contents however stay the same, with
the result that the power spectral density lowers.
 The generation of PN codes is relatively easy; a number of shift-registers is all that
is required. For this reason, it is easy to introduce a large processing-gain in Direct-
Sequence systems.

Pseudo-Random Noise Codes

A PN code used for DS-spreading exists of N DS units called chips, these chips can have
two values: -1/1 (polar) or 0/1. As we combine every data symbol with a complete PN
code, the DS processing gain is equal to the code-length.

Shift-Register sequences and Gold code

 Shift-Register sequences are not orthogonal, but they do have a narrow
autocorrelation peak. The name already makes clear that the codes can be created
using a shift-register with feedback-taps. By using a single shift-register, maximum
length sequences (M-sequences) can be obtained. Such sequences can be created
by applying a single shift-register with a number of specially selected feedback-
taps. If
the shift-register size is n, then the length of the code is equal to 2 n-1. The number
of possible codes is dependent on the number of possible sets of feedback-taps that
produce an M sequence.
 Combining two M-sequences which form a "preferred pair'' leads to a so-called
Gold- code. By giving one of the codes a delay with respect to the other code, we
can get different sequences. The number of sequences that are available is 2 n+1
(thetwo M- sequences alone, and a combination with 2 n-1 different shift positions).
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 If we combine a Gold-code with a decimated version of one of the 2 M-sequences

that form the Gold-code, we obtain a "Kasami-code'' from the large set. It is
important to have a large code-set: the number of available codes determines the
number of different code addresses that can be created. Also, a large code-set
enables us to select those codes which show good cross-correlation characteristics.

CODE:
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OUTPUT:
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Conclusion:

In this experiment, we learned the concept of Spreading and De-spreading of CDMA

signal. First the transmitted and received signal is checked to see whether it is same by
getting data from user which is then converted into polar form. It is then multiplied
with PN sequence which is also converted to polar form given by user to generate the
transmitted sequence. This process is then reversed at the receiver end to generate the
received sequence.
PN sequence is generated with the help of three flip-flops which gives us 8 different
states to choose from (We don’t use the state where all outputs of flip-flops are zero).
Waveforms for all the signals are generated as well.

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EXPERIMENT NO.: 06

TITLE : TO UNDERSTAND THE HAND OFF MECHANISUM

EXPECTED DATE OF EXPERIMENT: ___________________________

ACTUAL DATE OF PERFORMANCE: ____________________________

Grade with DATE : ____________________________

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TITLE: Hand off Mechanism

AIM: To understand the handoff mechanism.
OUTCOME: To study the effect of handover threshold and margin on SINR and call
drop probability and handoff probability.

Aim:
To understand the handoff mechanism.

Objectives:
To study the effect of handover threshold and margin on SINR
and call drop probability and handoff probability.

Theory:

In mobile communication system, continuation of an active call is one of

the most important performance determining key parameter. The hand-off
process enables a cellular system to provide such a facility by transferring
an active call from one cell
to another cell automatically as and when the need arises. The transfer of
current communication channel could be in terms of frequency band, time
slot, or code word to a new cell-site. Hand-off occurs when a received
signal from its serving cell becomes weak and another cell-site can provide
a stronger signal to the mobile subscriber. If the new cell-site has some free
voice channels, then it assigns one of them to the handed-off call.

If all of the voice channels are busy at the hand-off time there are two
possibilities: to drop the call or to delay it for a while till the voice channel
becomes available.
Thus, hand-off refers to the process of transferring an ongoing call from
one channel connected to one cell to another channel connected to an
adjacent cell without interruption when the mobile subscriber is moving
from one cell to another cell. In a cellular system, all mobile calls may not
be completed within the boundary of a relatively small cell.

Consider the figure below Initially say the mobile M is quite close to the
base station A and hence receives signal strength from A PArx>PBrx. As
the mobile moves away from the base station.A and goes towards B then
the signal strength from A keeps falling (pathloss increases).
Let there be a minimum sensibility level P0rx for the mobile, i.e., if the
signal from the B.S.to which the mobile is connected falls below P0rx then
the call drops. In order to prevent call drop the mobile monitors receive
signal strength from the neighboring 3-6 B.S.Theseneighbori
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Thus, some hysten's condition is used for h. If PTrx (T= target B.S.) >Phrx
higher h/o threshold and Pcrx (c=current B.S.) <Phrx minimum h/o
threshold the execute h/o to BST from B⋅Sc. Thus, it is threshold
impeditive to study in part of the handoff process.

Δγ=Phrx−Plrx

A successful handoff is one where the call gets from and continuous
without call or in other words the h occurs before h/o Pcrx becomes <P0rx.
If Pcrx<P0rxthen call drop event occurs. One would like to minimize the
no of handoff events as well as minimize call drop probability. The
experiment provides opportunity to study the inherent of these three
parameters on h/o.

Further the averaging window for calculating PTrx and Pcrx also plays a
role in the process. In the experiment small scale fading is not considered
and hence the averaging taken into account only shadowing. Students
performing the experiment are expected to study the impact of these on
h/0. Students are encouraged to simulate the experiment for several sets of
values of these parameters and draw conclusion.
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Fig: Handoff
illustrations

Conclusion: As mobile speed was increased from usual value the number of call drops
and number of handoffs increased in urban micro areas. For suburban area the number of
handoffs and call drops is zero.

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Input
Parameters
Reuse: 9 ,Model: Urban Micro Pt(dBm): 41

fc(GHz): 2.5 Beam Width(deg): 70

Rotate(deg): 30 Cell Radius(m): 116

hT(m): 10 hM(m): 1.5

Sigma(dB): 4 Vertical Tilt(deg): 12

SNR(dB): 15 Band Width(MHz): 5

Noise Figure(dB): 7 Noise Power(dBm): -100.01

Pr0(dBm): -85.01 Time Slot(s): 20

Exp.
Results
SN No.Cal No.Ha Delta1 Delt Readi Outag % Alp
R ldr nd a2 ng e Outag ha
ops offs Time( Time( e
ms) ms)
5.0 0.0 1.0 3.0 3.0 20384. 0.0 0.0 0.1
0
15.0 0.0 1.0 3.0 3.0 20384. 0.0 0.0 0.1
0
15.0 0.0 1.0 3.0 3.0 20384. 0.0 0.0 0.1
0
15.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 3.0 27648. 0.0 0.0 0.1
0
15.0 65.0 71.0 3.0 3.0 20016. 1620 80.98 0.1
0 8.0

Observation
As Mobile speed was increased from usual value the number of calldrops and number of
handoff incresed in Urban Micro area.
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Input
Parameters
Reuse: 9 ,Model: Suburban Pt(dBm): 44
Macro
fc(GHz): 2.0 Beam Width(deg): 70

Rotate(deg): 30 Cell Radius(m): 1000

hT(m): 35 hM(m): 1.5

Sigma(dB): 8 Vertical Tilt(deg): 12

SNR(dB): 50 Band Width(MHz): 5

Noise Figure(dB): 7 Noise Power(dBm): -100.01

Pr0(dBm): - Time Slot(s): 20

50.010000000000005

Exp.
Results
SN No.Cal No.Ha Delta1 Delt Readi Outag % Alp
R ldr nd a2 ng e Outag ha
ops offs Time( Time( e
ms) ms)
50.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 3.0 31250. 31250. 100.0 0.1
0 0
50.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 3.0 17305 173056. 100.0 0.1
6.0 0
50.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 3.0 23064. 23064. 100.0 0.1
0 0
50.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 3.0 20016. 20016. 100.0 0.1
0 0
50.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 3.0 20625. 20625. 100.0 0.1
0 0
50.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 3.0 20625. 20625. 100.0 0.1
0 0
50.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 3.0 20625. 20625. 100.0 0.1
0 0

Observation
For semiurban area the number of handoffs and calldrops is zero.The antenna used is
omnidirectional and mobile speed is 500mps
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Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

(Signature of Faculty)
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Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Input
Parameters
Reuse: 9 ,Model: Urban Macro Pt(dBm): 44

fc(GHz): 2.0 Beam Width(deg): 70

Rotate(deg): 30 Cell Radius(m): 288

hT(m): 25 hM(m): 1.5

Sigma(dB): 6 Vertical Tilt(deg): 12

SNR(dB): 5 Band Width(MHz): 5

Noise Figure(dB): 7 Noise Power(dBm): -100.01

Pr0(dBm): -95.01 Time Slot(s): 20

Exp.
Results
SN No.Cal No.Ha Delta1 Delt Readi Outag % Alp
R ldr nd a2 ng e Outag ha
ops offs Time( Time( e
ms) ms)
5.0 0.0 33.0 3.0 3.0 20016. 0.0 0.0 0.1
0

Observation
For Urban macro the handoffs incresed as we went for sectoring. The mobile speed was
300mps.

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Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

EXPERIMENT NO.: 07

TITLE : To study the effect of delay spread on

frequency selectivity
EXPECTED DATE OF EXPERIMENT: ___________________________

ACTUAL DATE OF PERFORMANCE: ____________________________

Grade with DATE : ____________________________

 (Permanently Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Aim: To study the effect of delay spread on frequency selectivity.

OUTCOME: To study the concept of frequency selective fading.

Aim: To study the effect of delay spread on frequency selectivity.

Theory:

Fading in Wireless Channels In an urban environment, the height of the

mobile antennas is well below the height of the surrounding structures.
As a result, a Line of Sight (LOS) propagation path may or may not exist
between the Base Station (BS) and the Mobile Station (MS). The radio
waves transmitted from the BS, therefore, arrive at the MS after
reflection, diffraction and scattering from the natural and man-made
objects situated between the BS and the MS.

The incoming radio waves arriving from different directions have

different propagation delays. These multipath components, having
randomly distributed amplitudes, phases, and angles of arrival, combine
vectorially at the receiver antenna causing the received signal to distort or
fade. Thus, fading is the rapid fluctuations in the amplitude phase and the
multipath delays of a radio signal over a short period of time so that large
scale path loss effects can be neglected. Even when the MS is stationary,
fading is caused by the movement of the surrounding objects.

The changes in the environment or the motion of the MS result in spatial

variations of amplitudes and phases manifest themselves as temporal
variations. The mobile radio channel can be modeled as a linear filter
having a time varying impulse response h(t, τ ) The filtering nature of the
channel is caused by the summation of amplitudes and delays of
multiples arriving waves at the same instant of time.

Fig.1 shows different snapshots of (t, τ) where t varies into the page and
the multipath delay axis is quantized into excess delay bins of width Δ t.
Excess delay is the relative delay of the ith multipath component as
compared to the first arriving component and is denoted by i. The first
arriving multipath component has an excess time delay τ 0 = 0 the
propagation delay between the transmitter and the τ i = i Δ t.
 (Permanently Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering
Any number of multipath signals received within the ith bin is represented by a single resolvable multipath
component having the delay i. The maximum excess delay of the channel is given by N, where N is the total
number of multipath components. The baseband impulse response of a multipath channel can be expressed as
the vector sum of phase shifted replicas of the transmitted signal.

Fig: Time varying impulse response of a multipath radio channel.

Hence,

Frequency Selective Fading: The type of fading experienced by a signal propagating through a
mobile radio channel depends on the nature of the transmitted signal with respect to the
characteristics of the channel. If the bandwidth of the transmitted signal has a bandwidth greater than
bandwidth over which the frequency response of a wireless channel has a constant gain and linear
phase, then it undergoes frequency selective fading. In such cases, the multipath delay spread is
greater than the symbol interval. Consequently, the received signal contains multiple versions of the
transmitted waveform which are attenuated and delayed in time and hence the received signal is
distorted. Thus, frequency selective fading is a result of the time dispersion of the transmitted
symbol within the channel. The symbol gets spread out in time resulting in Inter symbol Interference
(ISI). In the frequency domain, it is observed that different components have different gain than the
others. Fig.3 illustrates the characteristics of a frequency selective fading channel. a series of
delayed,

Conclusion: The changes in the environment or the motion of the MS result in spatial variations
of amplitudes and phases manifest themselves as temporal variations.
 (Permanently Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Exp: Frequency Selective Fading

Result
s
Environme Mean RMS Bc(>0.5)MHz Bc(>0.9)MHz Max.Tow(uS
nt Excess Delay(uS) )
Delay(uS
)
UMi(LoS) Actual:0.118 Actual:0.122 Actual:1.63 Actual:0.163 Actual:0.4
9 1 8 8 2
Entered:0.11 Entered:0.10 Entered:1.9 Entered:0.19 Entered:00.
61 04 92 92 42
UMi(NLoS) Actual:0.14 Actual:0.16 Actual:1.18 Actual:0.11 Actual:0.
36 94 06 81 73
Entered:0. Entered:0 Entered:1 Entered:0. Entered:
24 .2 .6 16 0.5
UMa(LoS) Actual:0.1 Actual:0.18 Actual:1.07 Actual:0.10 Actual:0.6
12 67 12 71 4
Entered:0. Entered:0. Entered:1 Entered:0. Entered:0.
25 23 .2 12 45
UMa(NLoS Actual:0.37 Actual:0.4 Actual:0.44 Actual:0.04 Actual:1.8
) 77 48 64 46 85
Entered:0. Entered:0. Entered:1 Entered:0. Entered:0.
19 13 .1 11 55
Rural Actual:0.02 Actual:0.04 Actual:4.93 Actual:0.49 Actual:0.
Macro(L 42 05 83 38 2
oS) Entered:0 Entered:0 Entered:1 Entered:0. Entered:
.4 .5 .2 12 1.1
Rural Actual:0.04 Actual:0.05 Actual:3.53 Actual:0.3 Actual:0.
Macro(NL 05 65 98 54 22
oS) Entered:0. Entered:0. Entered: Entered: Entered:
06 05 5 0.5 0.2
Suburb Actual:0.1 Actual:0.21 Actual:0.93 Actual:0.09 Actual:0.9
an 62 44 28 33 6
Macro(L Entered: Entered:0 Entered:1 Entered:0. Entered:0.
oS) 0.3 .2 .5 15 24
Suburba Actual:0.08 Actual:0.09 Actual:2.17 Actual:0.21 Actual:0.
n 82 21 16 72 77
Macro(NL Entered:0. Entered:0 Entered: Entered:0 Entered:
oS) 21 .2 1 .1 0.5
Suburban Actual:0.05 Actual:0.07 Actual:2.69 Actual:0.26 Actual:0.3
Macro(Outdo 19 43 18 92 05
or- Indoor) Entered:0. Entered:0 Entered: Entered:0 Entered:
12 .1 3 .3 0.8

Discussion:
Studied the characterstics of delay profile under various enviroment.

(Signature of Faculty)
Power Delay Profile 0 Power Delay Profile
- 0
5
-5

Power(dB)
-
10 -10
- -15
15 -20
-
20
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75
-25
tow(uS)
0.00 0.25
tow(uS)
 Power Delay Profile -20
0 -25
-5 0.00 0.25 0.50

Power(dB)
-10 tow(uS)
-15

UMi(LoS) UMi(NLoS) UMa(LoS)

Power Delay Profile Power Delay Profile Power Delay Profile

0 0.0
-5
Power(dB)

-2.5
Power(dB)

Power(dB)
-10 -5.0
-15
-7.5
-20
-10.0

0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.2

tow(uS) tow(uS)
-5

-10

-15

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5

tow(uS)
UMa(NLoS) Rural Macro(LoS) Rural Macro(NLoS)

Power Delay Profile 0 Power Delay Profile

0
-
Power(dB)

-5
10
-10
- -15
-20
20
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75
-30
tow(uS)
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75
1.00
tow(uS)
Power(dB)

Power Delay Profile -15 tow(uS)

0 -20
-5

Power(dB)
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
-10

Suburban Macro(LoS) Suburban Macro(NLoS) Suburban Macro(Outdoor to Ind

(Signature of Faculty)
Power(dB)

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 EXPERIMENT NO.: 08

TITLE : To generate a PN sequence of length N.

EXPECTED DATE OF EXPERIMENT: ___________________________

ACTUAL DATE OF PERFORMANCE: ____________________________

Grade with DATE : ____________________________

Permanently Affiliated to University of Mumbai)

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

Experiment No. 08
AIM: - To generate a PN sequence of length N.
 Objective: To design and implement a PN Sequence Generator for given length and
verify its properties.

Outcome: Students will be able to understand the concept of PN Sequence Generator

and also understand the properties of a PN Sequence.

APPARATUS: MATLAB software or Scilab

THEORY: PN sequence

An ideal spreading sequence would be a random sequence of binary ones and zeros. However, because it is required that
transmitter and receiver must have a copy of the random bit stream, a predictable way is needed to generate the same bit
stream at transmitter and receiver and yet retain the desirable properties of a random bit stream. This requirement is met by a
PN generator. A PN generator will produce a periodic sequence that eventually repeats but that appears to be random. The
period of a sequence is the length of the sequence before it starts repeating.
PN sequences are generated by an algorithm using some initial value called the seed. The algorithm is deterministic and
therefore produces sequences of numbers that are not statistically random. However, if the algorithm is good, the resulting
sequences will pass many reasonable tests of randomness. Such numbers are often referred to as pseudorandom numbers,
or pseudo noise sequences.
An important point is that unless you know the algorithm and the seed, it is impractical to predict the sequence. Hence, only a
receiver that shares this information with a transmitter will be able to decode the signal successfully.
PN sequences find a number of uses in computers and communications, and the principals involved are well developed. We
begin with a general description of desirable properties of PNs and then look at the generation method typically used for
spread spectrum applications.
Properties of a PN Sequence:
1. Balance property:
The occurrence of 0 and 1 in the sequence should be approximately the same. More precisely, in a maximum length sequence
of length (2¿¿ n−1) ¿ , there are (2¿¿ n−1)¿ one’s and (2¿¿ n−1)¿ zeros. The number of ones equals the number of
zeros plus one, since the state containing only zeros cannot occur.
2. Run property:
Of all the "runs" in the sequence of each type (i.e. runs consisting of "1"s and runs consisting of "0"s):
 One half of the runs are of length 1.
 One quarter of the runs are of length 2.
 One eighth of the runs are of length 3.
A "run" is a sub-sequence of "1"s or "0"s within the MLS concerned. The number of runs is the number of such sub-
sequences.

3. Correlation property:
If the sequence is shifted by any non-zero number of elements, the resulting sequence will have an equal number of
agreements and disagreements with the original sequence.
 1
R (τ )= [ Number of agrrements−Number of disagreements]
N
Correlation is concept of determining how much similarity one set of data has with another. It is defined in the range -1 to 0 to 1.
For m-sequence correlation should be close to zero make it suitable for synchronization by receiver.
Correlation Value Interpretation
1 The second sequence matches the first sequence exactly
0 There is no relation at all between the two sequences.
-1 The two sequences are mirror images of each other.

Linear Feedback Shift Register Implementation

The PN generator for spread spectrum is usually implemented as a circuit consisting of XORgates and a shift register, called a
linear feedback shift register (LFSR). The LFSR is a string of 1-bit storage devices. Each device has an output line, which
indicates the value currently stored, and an input line. At discrete time instants, known as clock· times, the value in the storage
device is replaced by the value indicated by its input line. The entire LFSR is clocked simultaneously, causing a 1-bit shift along
the entire register.

The circuit is implemented as follows:

1. The LFSR contains n bits.
2. There are from 1 to (n - 1) XOR gates.
3. The presence or absence of a gate corresponds to the presence or absence of a term in the generator polynomial
(explained subsequently, P(X), excluding the Xnterm.

Two equivalent ways of characterizing the PN LFSR are used. We can think of the generator as implementing a sum of XOR
terms:

Bn= A 0 B0 A 1 B1 A 2 B2 … … … . A n−2 Bn−2 A n−1 Bn−1

Figure illustrates this equation. An actual implementation would not have the multiply circuits; instead, for Ai= 0, the
corresponding XOR circuit is eliminated.

Fig: Binary Linear Feedback Shift Register Sequence Generator

Figure is an example of a 4-bit LFSR that implement the equation B3=B0 B 1 .

The shift register technique has several important advantages. The sequences generated by an LFSR can be nearly random with
long periods, which aids in making the spread signal appear noise like. In addition, LFSRs are easy to implement in hardware
and can run at high speeds; this is important because the spreading rate is higher than the data rate.

It can be shown that the output of an LFSR is periodic with maximum period N=2n−1. The all-zeros sequence occurs only if
either the initial contents of the LFSR are all zero or the coefficients in Equation of B n are all zero (no feedback). A feedback
configuration can always be found that gives a period of N; the resulting sequences are called maximal-length sequences, or m-
sequences. The m-sequences are important in enabling synchronization by the receiver and in use in multiple access techniques,
such as CDMA.

State B3 B2 B1 B0 B0B1 Output

Initial=0 1 0 0 0 0 0 (MSB)
1 0 1 0 0 0 0
2 0 0 1 0 1 0
3 1 0 0 1 1 1
4 1 1 0 0 0 0
5 0 1 1 0 1 0
6 1 0 1 1 0 1
7 0 1 0 1 1 1
8 1 0 1 0 1 0
9 1 1 0 1 1 1
10 1 1 1 0 1 0
11 1 1 1 1 0 1
12 0 1 1 1 0 1
13 0 0 1 1 0 1
14 0 0 0 1 1 1(LSB)

PN sequence generated is: 0001 0011 0101 111

Table shows the generation of an m-sequence for the LFSR of Figure a. The LFSR implements equation with an initial state of
1000 (B3= 1, B2= 0, B1= 0, B0 = 0). Table shows the step-by-step operation as the LFSR is clocked one bit at a time. Each row of
the table shows the values currently stored in the four shift register elements. In addition, the row shows the values that appear at
the output of the exclusive-OR circuit. Finally, the row shows the value of the output bit, which is just B0. Note that the output
repeats after 15 bits. That is, the period of the sequence, or the length of the m-sequence, is 15 = 24 - 1. This same periodic m-
sequence is generated regardless of the initial state of the LFSR (except for 0000), as shown in Table. With each different initial
state, the m-sequence begins at a different point in its cycle, but it is the same sequence.

Table: The 15 PN sequences with different initial states

Serial Number Initial state Output Sequence

1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000 0001 0011 0101 111
9 1001
10 1010
11 1011
12 1100
13 1101
14 1110
15 1111
16 0000 0000000000000 (Note)

For any given size of LFSR, a number of different unique m-sequences can be generated by using different values for the Aiin
Equation of Bn.Table shows the sequence length and number of unique m-sequences that can be generated for
LFSRs of various sizes.

An equivalent definition of an LFSR configuration is a generator polynomial.

The generator polynomial P(X) has the form
2 n−1 n
P( X )= A 0 + A 1 X + A2 X +...+ A n−1 X +X

One useful attribute of the generator polynomial is that it can be used to find the sequence generated by the corresponding LFSR,
by taking the reciprocal of the polynomial. For example, for the three bit LSFR with P(X) = 1 + X + X3, we perform the division
1/(1 + X + X3 ). The result of division is

1+ X + X + ( 0 × X ) + X + ( 0× X ) + ( 0× X )
2 3 4 5 6

after which the pattern repeats. This means that the shift register output is
1110100
Because the period of this sequence is 7 = 2 3 - 1, this is an m-sequence. Notice that we are doing division somewhat differently
from the normal method. This is because the subtractions are done modulo 2, or using the XORfunction, and in this system,
subtraction produces the same result as addition.

Necessity to synchronize the PN sequence at the receiver to the transmitter:

Spread spectrum signals are demodulated in the same way as DSBSC signals using a product detector. Importantly, the
product detectors local carrier signal must contain all the sine waves that make up transmitter’s pulse train at the same frequency
and phase. If this is not done, the tiny demodulated signals will be at the wrong frequency and phase and so they won’t add up to
reproduce the original message. Instead, they’ll produce a garbage signal that looks like noise. The only way to obtain the right
number of sine waves at the right frequency and phase at the receiver is to use a pulse train with an identical sequence to that
used by the transmitter that is the PN sequence. The PN sequence at the receiver acts as a ‘key’ to the transmission. It must not
only have the same clock and bit pattern; it must be aligned properly with the sequence at the transmitter. That is it must be
synchronized. This issue gives spread spectrum another of its advantages over other modulation schemes. The transmitted signal
is effectively encrypted.

ALGORITHM:

1. Take input from the user.

2. Take number of stages (m) from the user
3. Calculate N=2m−1.
4. Take initial sequence from the user.
5. Create an empty array for storing output of PN sequence generator.
6. Create a loop which iterates N number of times.
7. Compare first and last element of the generated output if both are equal then make temp=0 else make temp=1
8. For each iteration update previous element of the sequence with the value of the next element and update last element
with value of temp.
9. For every iteration store the last element value in an array created earlier to get the output sequence.

PROGRAM:

Output:
Conclusion;

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Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

EXPERIMENT NO.: 09

TITLE : Implement and Simulate Okumura Model in MATLAB

EXPECTED DATE OF EXPERIMENT: ___________________________

ACTUAL DATE OF PERFORMANCE: ____________________________

Grade with DATE : ____________________________

 Permanently Affiliated to University of Mumbai)
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

EXPERIMENT NO: 9

Name of the Experiment: - Implement and Simulate Okumura Model in MATLAB.

Objective: - To stimulate and implement Okumura Model in MATLAB

Outcome: - Students will be able to understand the principle of Okumura Model
SOFTWARE:MATLAB 2011

THEORY:Okumura's model is one of the most widely used models for signal prediction in urban areas.
This model is applicable for frequencies in the range 150 MHz to 1920 MHz
(althoughitistypicallyextrapolatedupto3000MHz)anddistancesof1kmto100km.Itcan be used for base
station antenna heights ranging from 30 m to 1000 m. Okumura developeda
setofcurvesgivingthemedianattenuationrelativetofreespace(Arnu),inanurbanareaover aquasi-
smoothterrainwithabasestationeffectiveantennaheight(hte)of200mandamobile
antennaheight(hre)of3m.Thesecurvesweredevelopedfromextensivemeasurementsusing vertical omni-
directional antennas at both the base and mobile, and are plotted as a function of frequency in the range
100 MHz to 1920 MHz and as a function of distance from the base station in the range 1 km to 100 km.
To determine path loss using Okumura's model, the free space path loss between the points of interest is
first determined, and then the value of Amu (f, d) (as read from the curves) is added to it along with
correction factors to account for the type of terrain. The model can be expressedas
L50(dB) = LF + Amu (f, d) - G(hte) – G(hre) - Garea
where L50 is the 50th percentile (i.e., median) value of propagation path loss, LF is the free
spacepropagationloss,Amuisthemedianattenuationrelativetofreespace,G(hte)isthebase
stationantennaheightgainfactor,G(hre)isthemobileantennaheightgainfactor,andGAREA is the gain due to
the type of environment. Note that the antenna height gains are strictly a function of height and have
nothing to do with antenna patterns. Plots of Amu (f, d) and GAREA for a wide range of frequencies are
shown in Figure 3,23 and Figure 3.24. Furthermore, Okumura found that G(hte) varies at a rate of 20
dB/decade and G(hre) varies at a rate of 10 dB/decade for heights less than 3m.
 Other corrections may also be applied to Okumura's model. Some of the important terrain related
parameters are the terrain undulation height (A/i), isolated ridge height, average slope of the terrain and the
mixed land-sea parameter. Once the terrain related parameters are calculated, the necessary correction
factors can be added or subtracted as required. All these correction factors are also available as Okumura
curves. Okumura's model is wholly based on measured data and does not provide any analytical
explanation. For many situations, extrapolations of the derived curves can be made to obtain values outside
the measurement

range, although the validity of such extrapolations depends on the circumstances and the smoothness of
the curve in question. Okumura's model is considered to be among thesimplest and best in terms of
accuracy in path loss prediction for mature cellular and land mobile radio systems in cluttered
environments. It is very practical and has become a standard for system
planninginmodernlandmobileradiosystemsinJapan.Themajordisadvantagewiththemodel
isitsslowresponsetorapidchangesinterrain.therefore,themodelisfairlygoodinurbanand
suburbanareas,butnotasgoodinruralareas.Commonstandarddeviationsbetweenpredicted and measured
path loss values are around 10 dB to 14dB.

Programs for Okumura model:

a. Path loss for Variable distance d

Program:
Output:
b. Path loss for Variable cutoff frequency

Program:
Output:
c. Path loss for Variable receiver Antenna Height
Program:
Output:
d. Path loss for Variable Transmitting Antenna Height
Program:
Output:

Conclusion: