LEGAL MEDICINE

Abortion
- is the termination of pregnancy by the removal or expulsion from the uterus of a
fetus or embryo before viability.
Algor mortis (Latin: algor - coldness; mortis- death)
– reduction in body temperature following death.
Rigor mortis (Latin: rigor - stiffness, mortis- death")
- one of the recognizable signs of death, caused by chemical changes in the
muscles after death, causing the limbs of the corpse to become stiff and difficult to
move or manipulate.
Importance of Rigor Mortis
- Rigor mortis is utilized to approximate the time of death. Generalized muscular
contractions occur from 3 to 6 hours until 36hours.
Autopsy
- a post-mortem examination to discover the cause of death or the extent of disease.
Autopsy is derived from the Greek word "autos" - oneself and "opsis" -sight/view.

Who are Authorized to Perform Autopsy 

1. Health officers;
2. Medical officer of law enforcement agencies;
3. Members of the medical staff of accredited hospitals;

When is Autopsy Performed

1. Written request of nearest kin to ascertain cause of death;
2. Order of competent court, mayor, prosecutor;
3. Written request of a law enforcement officer;
4. When required by special law;
5. Sol. Gen., prosecutor to determine cause of death

Principal Aim of Autopsy 

1. To determine the cause of death;
2. To determine the state of health of the person before he or she died;
3. To determine whether any medical diagnosis and treatment before death was
appropriate.

Types of Autopsies
1. Medico-Legal Autopsy or Forensic or coroners; – autopsies that seek to find the
cause and manner of death and to identify the decedent;
2. Clinical or Pathological Autopsies - performed to diagnose a particular disease
or for research purposes;
3. Anatomical or Academic Autopsies - are performed by students of anatomy for
study purpose only;
4. Virtual or Medical Imaging Autopsies - are performed utilizing imaging
technology only, primarily magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed
tomography (CT).

Forensic Autopsy
- is used to determine the cause and manner of death.
Anatomy
- the branch of science concerned with the bodily structure of humans, animals,
and other living organisms, especially as revealed by dissection and separation of
parts. 
Biochemistry
- the branch of science concerned with the chemical and psycho-chemical
processes and substances which occur within living organisms.
Cadaveric Spasm
- also known as postmortem spasm, instantaneous rigor, cataleptic rigidity, or
instantaneous rigidity, is a rare form of muscular stiffening that occurs at the
moment of death, persists into the period of rigor mortis and can be mistaken for
rigor mortis. Cadaveric spasm occurs immediately after death and is useful to
ascertain the circumstances of death.
Cerebral Concussion
– brief loss of consciousness and sometimes memory after a head injury that
doesn’t cause obvious physical damage.
Cerebral Contusion
– bruises to the brain, usually caused by a direct, strong blow to the head. They are
more serious than concussions.
Circulatory System
- also called the cardiovascular system, is an organ system that permits blood to
circulate and transport nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen,
carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from cells in the body to nourish
it and help to fight diseases, stabilize body temperature and pH, and to maintain
homeostasis.
Contempt of Court
- any willful disobedience to or disregard of a court order or any misconduct in
the presence of a court action that interferes with a judge's ability to administer
justice or that insults the dignity of the court. Punishable by fine or imprisonment
or both.
Contusion
- also called a bruise, is a type of hematoma of tissue in which capillaries and
sometimes venules are damaged by trauma, allowing blood to seep, hemorrhage, or
extravagate into the surrounding interstitial tissues.
Death
- complete cessation of all cardio-pulmonary (heart-lungs) and/or cessation of
brain activity. Death is the termination of all biological functions that sustain a
living organism.
Kinds of Death
1.Somatic or Clinical Death
- permanent cessation of all vital bodily functions.
2. Molecular or Cellular Death
- refers to the death of cells 3 to 6 hours after cessation of life.
3. Apparent Death or State of Suspended Animation
- a state in which the processes of the body (such as blood circulation) stop or
become very slow for a period of time while a person or animal is unconscious.

Leading Causes of Death in The World

1. Ischemic heart disease;
2. Stroke (cerebrovascular diseases);
3. Lower respiratory infections4. Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease.

Signs Of Death
1. Cessation of heart action and circulation;
2. Cessation of respiration;
3. Cooling of the body (Algor Mortis) – The temperature of 15 – 20 degrees
Fahrenheit is considered as ascertain sign of death;
4. Loss of motor power;
5. Loss of sensory power;
6. Changes in the skin;
7. Changes in and about the eye - There is loss of corneal reflex.

Declaration of Tokyo
- is a set of international guidelines for physicians concerning torture and other
cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment in relation to detention and
imprisonment, which was adopted in October 1975 during the 29th General
assembly of the World Medical Association.
Defloration
- is the laceration or rupture of the hymen as a result of sexual intercourse.
Dermis
- the thick layer of living tissue below the epidermis which forms the true skin,
containing blood capillaries, nerve endings, sweat glands, hair follicles, and other
structures.
Digestive System
- digestive system is a group of organs working together to convert food into
energy and basic nutrients to feed the entire body.
Dr. Pedro P. Solis
- Philippines’ father of Legal Medicine.
Ecchymosis
- a discoloration of the skin resulting from bleeding underneath, typically caused
by bruising.
Endocrine System
- refers to the collection of glands of an organism that secrete hormones directly
into the circulatory system to be carried towards a distant target organ.
Epidermis
- the outermost layer of the skin of a human or other vertebrate animal.
Euthanasia
- Meaning good death (well or good), refers to the practice of ending life in a
painless manner. Deliberate intervention undertaken with the express intention of
ending life, to relieve intractable suffering.
Excretory System
- is a passive biological system that removes excess, unnecessary materials from an
organism, so as to help maintain homeostasis within the organs and prevent
damage to the body.
Homeostasis
- means remaining stable or remaining the same.
Firearm identification
- used to determine whether the gun that is subject of the investigation has the
same gun used or fired.
Forensic Medicine
- application of medical science to elucidate legal problems.
Forensic Science
- involves the application of the sciences to answer questions of interest to the
legal system.

Four (4) Signs of Inflammation

1. Rubor – redness;
2. Calor – heat;
3. Tumor – swelling;
4. Dulor - pain.

Fracture
- comes from the Latin word “fractura” which means a break in the continuity of
the bone. It is also a combination of a break in the bone and soft tissue injury.
Frostbite
- injury to body tissues caused by exposure to extreme cold, typically affecting the
nose, fingers, or toes and often resulting in gangrene.
Frostnip
- the initial stages of frostbite.
Gynecology 
- the branch of physiology and medicine which deals with the functions and
diseases specific to women and girls, especially those affecting the reproductive
system.
Hematoma
- is a collection of blood outside of a blood vessel.
Incision
- a surgical cut made in skin or flesh.
Injury
- is the damage to a biological organism caused by physical harm.
Coup Injury 
- injury at the site of application of force.
Contre - Coup Injury 
- injury opposite the site of application of force.
Coup – Conre - Coup Injury 
- injury at the site and opposite the site of application of force.
Locus Minoris Resistentiae
- injury not at the site and not opposite the site of application of force but at the site
offering least resistance.
Extensive Injury
- injury on greater area more than the site of application of force.
Integumentary system
- is the organ system that protects the body from various kinds of damage, such as
loss of water or abrasion from outside. The system comprises the skin and
its appendages, including hair, scales, feathers, hooves, and nails.
Laceration
- a deep cut or tear in skin or flesh. A wound that is produced by the tearing of soft
body tissue. This type of wound is often irregular and jagged.
Lazarus Syndrome
 - is also called Lazarus Phenomenon, is the spontaneous return of circulation after
failed attempts at resuscitation.
Lazarus Sign
- or Lazarus reflex, is a reflex movement in brain dead patients, which cause them
to briefly raise their arms and drops them crossed on their chests.
Legal Medicine
- Branch of medicine which deals with the application of medical knowledge to the
purpose of law and in the administration of justice. Application of medicine to
legal cases.
Livor Mortis
- is a settling of the blood in the lower (dependent) portion of the body, causing a
purplish red discoloration of the skin. From the latin word "livor" – bluish color
and "mortis" - of death. Also known as post-mortem lividity.
Mayhem
- intentional maiming of another person.
Mechanical Trauma
- is an injury to any portion of the body from a blow, crush, cut,or penetrating
wound.
Medical Evidence
- is the means sanctioned by the rules of court of ascertaining in a judicial
proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact.
Types of Evidence
1. Real Evidence/Autoptic
- made known to the senses caused by mechanical trauma, heat and cold, electrical
discharges, changes in pressure, and radiation.
  
  
2. Testimonial Evidence
- oral testimony under oath;
3. Experimental Evidence;
4. Documentary Evidence.

Medical Jurisprudence
- knowledge of law in relation to the practice of medicine.
Medico-Legal officer
- (medical examiner) a physician who determines the cause of injury/death/disease
by examining the patient/cadaver and testify in court to aid in the administration of
justice.
Mental Deficiency 
- or mental retardation, is sub average intellectual ability present from birth or
early infancy. Intelligence is both determined by heredity and environment. In
most cases of mental deficiency, the cause is unknown.

Classification of Mental Deficiency 

1. Idiot;
– The idiot’s intelligence never exceeds that of a normal child over 2 years old.
The IQ is between 0 – 20. This is usually congenital;
2. Imbecile
– the imbecile’s intelligence is compared to a normal child from 2 –7 years old and
the IQ is 20 – 40;
3. Feeble Minded
– his mentality is similar to that of a normal child between 7 – 12 years old and an
IQ of 40 – 70.

The Legal Importance of determining the person’s state of mind are the following:
1. In Criminal law, insanity exempts a person from criminal liability;
2. In Civil law, Insanity is a restriction of the capacity of a natural person to act as
provided in Article 38 of the Civil Code;
3. Insanity modifies or limits the capacity of a natural person to act as provided in
Article 39 of the Civil Code;
4. Insanity at the time of marriage of any or both parties is a ground for the
annulment of marriage.

Mental Health Disorders 

– include disturbances in thinking, emotion, and behavior. There is a complex
interaction between the physical, psychological, social, cultural and hereditary
influences.

Factors that Contribute to the Development of Mental Disorders

1. Heredity  
– the most frequent factor that contributes to insanity and a good history will reveal
the ascendants afflicted with the same;
2. Incestuous Marriage 
– The mental illness is accentuated when they are bloodrelative;
3. Impaired Vitality 
– Stress, tension, worry, or grief that may predispose to insanity;
4. Poor Moral Training and Breeding
– Corrupt moral upbringing in the family due to immorality of the parents;
5. Psychic Factors
– Factors like love, hate, rage, anger, passion disappointments;
6. Physical Factors
a. Non toxic factors
– exhaustion resulting from severe physical and mental strain and traumatic
injuries to the head;
b. Toxic factors
– drug addiction, infections of the brain.
Kinds of Mental Health Disorders
1. Psychosomatic disorders 
– physical disorders caused by psychological factors;
2. Somatiform disorders 
– encompasses several psychiatric disorders in which people report physical
symptoms but deny having psychiatric problems;
3. Generalized Anxiety Disorders;
4. Panic Attacks and Panic Disorder;
5. Phobic Disorders
a. Agoraphobia;
b. Specific phobias;
c. Social phobia;
6. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder;
7. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder;
8. Depression and Mania;
9. Bipolar Disorder;
10. Suicidal Behavior;
11. Eating Disorders
a. Anorexia nervosa;
b. Bulimia nervosa;
c. Binge eating disorder;
12. Personality Disorders
a. Paranoid;
b. Schizoid;
c. Histrionic;
d. Narcissistic;
e. Antisocial;
f. Borderline;
g. Avoidant;
h. Dependent;
i. Obsessive
– Compulsive;
j. Passive Aggressive;
k. Dissociative;
13. Schizophrenia
– a serious mental disorder characterized by loss of contact with reality
(psychosis), hallucinations, delusions (false beliefs), abnormal thinking, disrupted
work and social functioning.

Types of Schizophrenia
a. Paranoid
- is a mental disorder characterized by paranoia and a pervasive, long-standing
suspiciousness and generalized mistrust of others;
b. Hebephrenic
- it is characterized by disorganized behavior and speech, as well as disturbances in
emotional expression;
c. Catatonic
- does not respond to external stimuli characterized by a marked lack of movement,
activity, or expression;
14. Delusional Disorder
15. Psychological Incapacity 
– a wastebasket diagnosis because it is so broad a term, that it covers all possible
Mental Disorders.

Some Manifestations of Mental Disorders

1. Disorders of Cognition (Knowing)
a. Illusion;
b. Hallucination;
2. Disorders of Memory 
a. Dementia
3. Disorders in the Content of Thought
A. Delusion;
a. Delusion of grandeur;
b. Delusion of persecution;
c. Delusion of reference;
d. Delusion of Self
– Accusation;
e. Delusion of infidelity;
f. Nihilistic delusion;
g. Delusion of poverty;
h. Delusion of control;
i. Delusion of depression;
B. Obsession
4. Disorders in the trend of thought
a. Mania;
b. Melancholia;
5. Disorders of Emotions or Feelings
– a disorder in the state of mind, fervor, or sensibility, not in accord with reality;
6. Disorders of volition or conation (doing)

Conation
- the mental faculty of purpose, desire, or will to perform an action; volition.

Kinds of Conation
A. Impulsion or Impulse (Compulsion)
– a sudden and irresistible force compelling a person to the conscious performance
of some action without motive or forethought.

Types of Compulsion
a. Pyromania
- from the Greek word "pyr" -fire, is an impulse control disorder in which
individuals repeatedly fail to resist impulses to deliberately start fires in order to
relieve tension or for instant gratification;
b. Kleptomania
- is the inability to refrain from the urge to steal items and is done for reasons other
than personal use or financial gain;
c. Dipsomania
- an uncontrollable craving for alcoholic liquors;
d. Homicidal Impulse
- occurs when one person kills another suddenly and without premeditation
or planning;
e. Sex Impulse
- a sudden strong and unreflective urge or desire to have sex;
f. Suicidal Impulse
- recurring thoughts of or preoccupation with suicide.

Mortal Wound
- capable of causing death.
Muscular System
- is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles. It permits
movement of the body, maintains posture, and circulates blood throughout the
body.
Mutilation
- or maiming is an act of physical injury that degrades the appearance or function
of any living body.
Nervous System
- consists of the brain, spinal cord, sensory organs, and all of the nerves that
connect these organs with the rest of the body.
Obstetrics
- branch of medicine that deals with pregnancy, childbirth, and postpartum period,
including care of the newborn.
Paraffin test or Dermal Nitrate test 
– present on the skin of the hand or site of the wound of entrance. This test is not
conclusive because fertilizers, cosmetics, cigarettes, urine and other nitrogenous
compounds with nitrates will give a positive reaction. A negative test is also not
conclusive. The test usually gives a positive result even after a lapse of 3days or
even if the hands are subjected to ordinary washing.
Pathology 
- the science of the causes and effects of diseases, especially the branch of
medicine that deals with the laboratory examination of samples of body tissue for
diagnostic or forensic purposes.
Paulus Zacchias
- (1584 – 1659) is the Father of Forensic Medicine.
Petechiae 
– a circumscribe extravasation of blood in the subcutaneous tissue.
Physical Injury 
- is the effect of some stimulus on the body. It includes those caused by mechanical
trauma, heat and cold, electrical discharges, changes in pressure, and radiation.
Mechanical trauma
- is an injury to any portion of the body from a blow, crush, cut, or penetrating
wound.
Physics
- The subject matter of physics includes mechanics, heat, light and other radiation,
sound, electricity, magnetism, and the structure of atoms.
Physiology
- the branch of biology that deals with the normal functions of living organisms
and their parts.
Post-Mortem
- (meaning after death) internal examination of the dead to determine the cause of
death.
Ante-Mortem
- before death.
Post-Mortem Caloricity 
- is the rise of temperature of the body after death due to rapid and
early putrefactive changes, usually in the first two hours.
Post Mortem Lividity 
- it occurs in most extensive areas of the most dependent portions of the body.
Puncture Wound
- is usually caused by a sharp pointy object such as a nail, animal teeth, or a tack.
This type of wound usually does not bleed excessively and can appear to close up.
Putrefaction
- or decomposition is the final stage following death, produced mainly by the
action of bacterial enzymes, mostly anaerobic organisms derived from the vowel.
Other enzymes are derived from fungi and sometimes from insects.

Kinds of Putrefaction
1. Mummification
- is the preservation of a body;
2. Saponification 
- also called Adipocere Formation;
3. Maceration
- Softening of the tissues after death by autolysis.

Reproductive System
- or genital system isa system of sex organs within an organism which work
together for the purpose of sexual reproduction. Many non-living substances such
as fluids, hormones, and pheromones are also important accessories to the
reproductive system.
Respiratory System
- (or ventilatory system) is a biological system consisting of specific organs and
structures used for the process of respiration in an organism. The respiratory
system is involved in the intake and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
between an organism and the environment.
Scald
- is a type of burn injury caused by hot liquids or gases.
Sex Crimes
- generally, involve illegal or coerced sexual conduct by one person towards
another.
Chaste 
- An unmarried woman who has had no carnal knowledge with men or that she
never voluntarily had unlawful sexual intercourse. These also denotes purity of
mind and innocence of heart.
Virgin 
- A woman who has had no carnal knowledge of man. Her genital organs have not
been altered by carnal connection.
 
Kinds of Virginity 
1. Moral virginity
– the state of not knowing the nature of sexual life and not having experience
sexual relation.
2. Physical Virginity
– A condition whereby a woman is conscious of the nature of sexual life but has
not experienced sexual intercourse.
3. Demi – virginity
– This term refers to a condition of a woman who permits any form of sexual
liberties as long as they abstain from rupturing the hymen by sexual act.
The woman allows sexual intercourse, but only inter femora or even inter labia, but
not to the extent of rupturing the hymen.
4. Virgo intacta
– A truly virgin woman. There is no structural change in her organ notwithstanding
the fact of a previous sexual intercourse.

Carnal Knowledge
- is the act of a man in having sexual bodily connection with a woman. There is
carnal knowledge if there is the slightest penetration in the sexual organ of the
female by the sexual organ of the male.
Shrapnel
- fragments of a bomb, shell, or other object thrown out by an explosion.
Skeletal System
- gives the body its basic framework, providing structure, protection, and
movement.
Subpoena
- order issued by the court to a person to appear in court.
Subpoena ad Testificandum
- is a court summons to appear and give oral testimony for use at a hearing or trial.
Surgery
- is an ancient medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental
techniques on a patient to investigate and/or treat a pathological condition such as
disease or injury, to help improve bodily function or appearance or to repair
unwanted ruptured areas.
Topinard and Rolet
- two french anatomists who devised a formula for the determination of the height
for male and female.
Toxicology
- the branch of science concerned with the nature, effects, and detection of poisons.
Trauma
- injury, a physical wound to the body caused by an external source.
 Virginity
- A condition of a female who has not experience sexual intercourse and whose
genital organs have not been altered by carnal connection and whose hymen is still
intact.
 Virgo Intacta
- literally the term refers to a truly virgin woman; that there are structural changes
in her organ to infer previous sexual intercourse and that she is a virtuous woman.
 Virtuous Female
- If her body is pure and if she has never had any sexual intercourse with another
though her mind and heart is impure.
 Vital Reaction
- the response of living body tissues to injury.
 Wound
- in legal medicine, it means strictly a solution of continuity. An injury to living
tissue caused by a cut, blow, or other impact, typically one in which the skin is cut
or broken. 

Open Wound
- there is a break in the continuity of the skin.
1. Abrasion
- a wound consisting of superficial damage to the skin. Scratch, friction mark.
2. Bruise
- is a common skin injury that results from the breakage of tiny blood vessels
leaking under the skin. Blood from damaged blood vessels beneath the skin
collects near the surface of the skin to appear as what we recognize as a black and
blue mark. Caused by a blunt injury to the tissues which damage blood vessels
beneath the surface, allowing blood to extravasate or leak into the surrounding
tissues.
3. Incised Wound
- caused by a clean, sharp-edged object such as a knife, razor, or glass splinter.
4. Stab Wound
- is a specific form of penetrating trauma to the skin that results from a knife or a
similar pointed object that is "deeper than it is wide".
5. Punctured Wound
- is a deep wound caused by something sharp and pointed, like a nail. The opening
on the skin is small, and the puncture wound may not bleed much. Puncture
wounds can easily become infected.
6. Perforating Wound
- a wound with an entrance and exit opening.
7. Lacerated Wound
- that occurs when skin, tissue, and/or muscle is torn or cut open. Lacerations may
be deep or shallow, long or short, and wide or narrow. Most lacerations are the
result of the skin hitting an object, or an object hitting the skin with force.
8. Bite
- is a wound received from the teeth of an animal, including humans.
9. Gunshot Wound (GSW)
- (Ballistic Trauma) is a form of physical trauma sustained from the discharge of
arms or munitions.

Barotrauma
- wound/injury caused by a change in atmospheric pressure.
Defense Wound
- or self-defense wound is an injury received by the victim of an attack while trying
to defend against the assailant. often found on the hands and forearms, where the
victim has raised them to protect the head and face or to fend off an assault, but
may also be present on the feet and legs where a victim attempts defense while
lying down and kicking out at the assailant.