Journal of Environmental & Earth Sciences

Editor-in-Chief
Prof. Shuanggen Jin

Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, China
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Volume 2 Issue 2 · October 2020 · ISSN 2661-3190(Online)
Journal of
Environmental & Earth
Sciences
Editor-in-Chief
Prof. Shuanggen Jin
Volume 2 ｜ Issue 2 ｜ October 2020 ｜ Page1-68
Journal of Environmental & Earth Sciences
Contents
ARTICLE
1 Assessment of the Protective Capacity of Vadoze Zone over Aquifer Systems Using Secondary
Geoelectrical Parameters: A Case Study of Kaltungo Area North East, Nigeria
E.Y. Mbiimbe I.B. Goni J.M. El-Nafaty A.U. Yuguda
12 Morphologic Response of a River Channel to Sand Mining in River Tyaa, Kitui County, Kenya
Philip Gathogo Muiruri Joy A. Obando Ishmail O. Mahiri
19 Influence of Temperature and Relative Humidity on Air Pollution in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Mulu Fikeraddis Lake Endeshaw
26 The Environmental Impact of Plastic Waste

Boyu Jiang Jiming Yu Yihang Liu
36 Sustainability Assessment of the Groundwater Quality in the Khoyrasole Block, Birbhum District,
West Bengal to Achieve Rural Water Security
S. K. Nag Shreya Das
47 Achievable Sustainable Use and Management of Water Resources for Irrigation in Nigeria
Moses Oghenenyoreme Eyankware Ezekiel Obinna Igwe Christopher Ogwah Ruth Oghenerukevwe
Eyankware Ulakpa
REVIEW
56 Methane and Hydrogen Storage in Metal Organic Frameworks: A Mini Review
Oghenegare Emmanuel Eyankware Idaeresoari Harriet Ateke
Copyright
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Journal of Environmental & Earth Sciences | Volume 02 | Issue 02 | October 2020

https://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.php/jees
ARTICLE
Assessment of the Protective Capacity of Vadoze Zone over Aquifer
Systems Using Secondary Geoelectrical Parameters: A Case Study of
Kaltungo Area North East, Nigeria
E.Y. Mbiimbe1* I.B. Goni2 J.M. El-Nafaty2 A.U. Yuguda1
1. Department of Geology, Gombe State University
2. Department of Geology, University of Maiduguri
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
Article history An assessment of the protective capacity of the vadose zone overlying
Received: 7 January 2020 the aquifer systems in the Kaltungo area was carried out to determine its
influence on groundwater quality. Applying the schlumberger array with a
Accepted: 14 January 2020 maximum electrode spread AB/2 = 100m through VES, thirty water well
Published Online: 31 August 2020 points were surveyed using Omega terrameter (PIOSO1) resistivity meter.
The field data was first subjected to manual interpretation through curve
Keywords: marching and then digitized modeled curves using computer software. The
Assessment interpreted data revealed that the area is characterized by eleven different
curve types representing three to five geo electrical layers. In order to
Protective Capacity assess the protective capacity of the vadoze zone over the aquifer systems,
Vadose zone the longitudinal conductance (S) and transverse resistance (T) (secondary
Aquifer systems geoelectric parameters) were computed from the primary data using the
Dar Zarouk formula. The values of S obtained range from 0.0018 to 0.4056
Se c o n d a r y Ge o e le c tric P a ra me te rs a n d
ohms with a mean value of 0.0135 ohms while the values of T range from
Kaltungo Area 0.55 ohms to 1195.68 ohms with a mean value of 39.84 ohms. The values
of S and T obtained reveal that 90% of probed points has poor protective
capacity, 10 % has moderate protective capacity and 83 % has high
transmissivity, 17 % has intermediate transmissivity. The T and S values are
skewed towards poorly protective capacity thus making groundwater in the
area highly vulnerable to contamination from the surface. To achieve good
groundwater quality in the area, proper completion of newly constructed
wells should install protective casing through the entire vadose zone.
1. Introduction the bed rock and its degree of weathering. The quality of
G
water from such aquifer systems is determined by a num-
roundwater remains the most readily available al- ber of factors such as the thickness and composition of the
ternative source of supply to humanity especially materials in the overburden (vadose zone), the depth of
in areas with limited access to surface water. occurrence and the nature of human activities in the area.
Aquifer systems in geological complex terrain like crys- An effective groundwater protection is given by protective
talline basement vary in nature and extent depending on layers of the vadose zone with sufficient thickness and
*Corresponding Author:
E.Y. Mbiimbe,
Department of Geology, Gombe State University;
Email: edwinyenika2016@gmail.com
Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v2i2.1633 1

low hydraulic conductivity [18,26].

Surface geophysical measurements provide an alter-
native approach for estimation of some of the aquifer
[2]
properties . In the past 3 decades severl investigators
have studied the relations between aquifer parameters and
geoelectric properties [4,10,13,16,19,23,24].
In this study 30 VES were conducted at preselected
stations employing Schlumberger array. The points were
selected based on their proximity to existing production
wells with the aim of assessing the protective capacity of
the vadose zone to the underlying aquifers systems. The Figure 2. Geologic Map of the study area (Modified from
background to this study was conceived from the fact that Sa’ad and Baba [25])
variations in resistivity of subsurface materials is due to
variation in the geology and their characteristic composi- 2. Materials and Methods
tions. Transverse resistance (T) and longitudinal conduc- 2.1 Theoretical Basis
tance (S) (Dar Zarouk Parameters) of the vadose zone for
An effective groundwater protection is given by protec-
the study area were computed from measured field resis-
tive layers (vadose zone) with sufficient thickness and low
tivity data and used to assess the protective capacity of the hydraulic conductivity leading to longer residence time of
vadose zone over the aquifer systems. percolating water [18]. Residence time of percolating water
Geology of the Study Area into the aquifer through materials with large pore spaces
The study area is part of the Gombe sub-basin of the is shorter than that for smaller pore spaces and as a result
water moves faster leading to poor natural filtration pro-
upper Benue Trough and is geographically located be-
cess.
tween latitude 90451 and 90501N, Longitude1101511 and
110201E. The geology of the area is characterized by crys- 2.2 Data Acquisition and Processing
talline basement rocks mainly coarse porphyritic granite, The data for this study is of two sets; the field data (pri-
medium grain granite and biotite granite as well as the mary) and the processed data (secondary geoelectric
intrusion of pegmatite and basalt. The sedimentary suc- data). The primary data was generated in the field from
investigating thirty probe points using OhmegaTerrameter
cession is defined by Cretaceous sediments of the Bima
employing Schlumberger electrode configuration with a
sandstone. (Figure 1). Comprehensive geology of this
maximum spread of 200 m at (AB/2 = 100m). The field
sub-basin has been discussed in the works of Benkhelil data generated in form of apparent resistivity versus elec-
et’al [5], Zaborski et al [27], Mboringong et al [17]. trode spread was interpreted using WINRESIST computer
software to give layer resistivity and thickness for each
20
18 19
VES point. The interpreted VES results (layer resistivity
values and thicknesses) were used to compute the second-
30 17
28 29
15
21
16
ary geo-electric parameters, also known as Dar-Zarrouk
23
14
13
parameters. These parameters include the Longitudinal
22 11
24 25
10
12 Unit Conductance (S) and Transverse Unit Resistance (T).
26 9
27 8
4
2.3 Longitudinal Conductance

6 7
2 3
1 5
The longitudinal conductance (S) is the geo-electric pa-

rameter used to define target areas of groundwater poten-
tial.
Figure 1. Location map of the study area showing VES S = h/𝜌a (1)
points Where S is the longitudinal conductance, h is thickness
2 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v2i2.1633

and ρa is apparent resistivity of the aquiferous layer. For time (infiltration time)”. The second order geo-electric pa-
the purpose of this study the resistivity values of the lay- rameter (Dar Zarrouk parameter) was evaluated from the
ers overlying the perceived aquiferous zone was used to primary/first order parameters (using equation 1) (thick-
compute the S values (table 4) ness and resistivity) of the geo-electric subsurface layers
which were used in the classification of the protective ca-
2.4 Transverse Resistance pacity of the vadoze zone over the aquifer systems of the
The transverse resistance (T) is one of the parameters used area. According to Oladapo [20] the protective capacity of
to define target areas of good groundwater potential. It has the vadose zone over an aquifer can be classified based on
a direct relation with transmissivity and the highest T val- total unit conductance (∑S); Excellent (S> 5), very good
ues reflect most likely the highest transmissivity values of (5≤S<10), good (0.7≤S<5), moderate (0.2≤S<0.7), weak
the aquifers or aquiferous zones. The transverse resistance (0.1≤S<0.2) and poor (S<0.1).
(T) is correlated with aquifer transmissivity to establish As the hydraulic conductivity is directly proportion-
the functional relationship of the vadose zone and the al to the resistivity [13] and the product of the resistivity
underlying aquifer in terms of hydraulic communication. for its thickness, it is defined as being the transverse
This parameter has been used in this study to evaluate resistance (T), on a purely empirical basis and it can be
the capacity of the top soil (vadose zone) overlying the admitted that the transmissivity of an aquifer is directly
aquifer system so as to determine its ability to allow infil- proportional to its transverse resistance [12]. Clay layer
trating water to the aquifer. The assumption is that when corresponds to low resistivities and low hydraulic conduc-
geologic materials have high transmissivity, the tendency tivities, and vice versa, hence, the protective capacity of
is for them to permit high infiltration into the underlying the overburden could be considered as being proportional
aquifer systems. The values of T for each VES points to the ratio of thickness to resistivity - longitudinal con-
were computed using the formula below. ductance (S). In the present study, layers found above the
T = h.𝜌a (2) potential aquifers have generally been considered as the
Where T is the transverse resistance, h is thickness and vadose zone and as such their transmissivities (T) have
ρa is apparent resistivity of the aquiferous layer been computed using equation 2 above. Adopting Culled
2.5 Vadoze Zone Protective Caoacity 1982 classification the T values were categorized as fol-
lows: Very high transmissivity magnitude (T≥1000), High
Vadoze zone protective capacity (VZPC) is the capacity transmissivity magnitude (100≤T<1000), intermediate
of the overburden unit to impede and filter percolating transmissivity magnitude (10≤T<100), Low transmissivity
ground surface polluting liquid into the aquiferous unit. magnitude (1≤T<10), very low transmissivity magnitude
This concept was derived from Henriet’s 1976 relation- (0.1≤T<1) and imperceptible transmissivity magnitude (T<
ship that “the protective capacity of the overburden (va- 0.1)
dose zone) is proportional to its longitudinal conductance
S which in terms of aquifer protection gets a dimension of 3. Result and Discussion
Table 1. Result of Interpretation of VES Curves from the Study area
VES No. Layers No. R(Ω) Layer Thickness (m) Inferred Lithology Curves Types and % error Inferred Aquifer
1. 150 2.92 - Top soil

2. 17.4 3.25 -Weathered basement
1 HK Aquifer
3. 7188 8 - Fractured basement
4. 31.3 - Fresh basement
1. 149 1.55 - Top soil
2. 110 10 -Weathered basement
2 QH Aquifer
3. 31.6 15.6 - Fractured basement
4. 21097 - - Fresh basement
1. 49.2 5.25 - Top soil
3 2. 376 13 -Weathered basement H Aquifer
3. 27.7 - - Fresh basement
1. 86.1 - Top soil
1.48
2. 26.1 -Weathered basement
4 1.23 HA Aquifer
3. 104 - Fractured basement
8.29
4. 425 - Fresh basement

1. 163 3.84 Top soil

5 2. 388 18 -Weathered basement K Aquifer
1. 37.3 6.93 - Top soil
6 AH Aquifer
3. 237 6.68 - Fractured basement
1. 99.1 5 - Top soil
2. 55.4 13 -Weathered Basement
7 QH Aquifer
3. 16.6 17.4 - Fractured Basement
4. 10749 - - Fresh Basement
1. 24.8 2.06 - Top soil
8 HA Aquifer
1. 171 - Top soil
1.57
2. 399 -Weathered basement
9 0.66 KH Aquifer
3. 153 - Fractured basement
40.7
1. 3.9 0.142 - Top soil
10 HK Aquifer
1. 80.7 5.43 Top soil
11 2. 26.1 3.58 -Weathered basement H Aquifer
1. 251 2.46 - Top soil
2. 116 1.93 - Slightly Weathered basement
12 3. 369 4.29 -Weathered basement HKH Aquifer
1. 89.8 2.81 - Top soil
2. 220 5.63 -Weathered basement
13 KH Aquifer
1. 53.8 0.323 - Top soil
14 HK Aquifer
1. 39.3 0.9 - Top soil
2. 62.3 1.02 - Slightly Weathered basement
15 3. 23.5 2.18 -Weathered basement KHK Aquifer
1. 28.1 1.64 - Top soil
16 3. 28.3 5.86 -Weathered basement KHK Aquifer
4. 119 15.5 Fractured basement
1. 62.7 9.78 - Top soil
17 2. 10.3 13.4 -Weathered basement H Aquifer
1. 236 0.783 - Top soil
18 HK Aquifer
1. 114 0.941 - Top soil
19 QH Aquifer

1. 243 0.51 - Top soil

20 3. 27.1 4.43 -Weathered basement QHA Aquifer
1. 631.1 1.1 - Top soil
2. 81.3 14.3 - Weathered basement
21 HQ Aquifer
1. 275.7 0.8 - Top soil
22 2. 103.0 24.3 - Weathered basement H Aquifer
1. 403.5 1.8 - Top soil
1. 380.5 0.8 - Top soil
24 HQ Aquifer
1. 112.8 10.6 - Top soil
25 2. 675.2 56.2 - Weathered basement K Aquifer
1. 200.6 1.6 - Top soil
1. 231.0 3.0 - Top soil
27 HK Aquifer
1. 195.3 1.8 - Top soil
2. 24.2 3.0 - Slightly weathered
28 3. 401.9 11.0 - Weathered basement HKH Aquifer
1. 423.1 1.1 - Top soil
29 HK Aquifer
1. 435.7 0.8 - Top soil
3.1 Geo-Electric Section weathered basement, fractured basement and Fresh base-
ment. Weathered and fractured zones represented by low
The data analysis from the study area shows a three to five
layers geo-electric succession (Figure 3 and 4). This suc- and fairly high resistivity units, respectively, are considered
cession comprises of the dry topsoil, slightly weathered, to be the potential groundwater bearing zones. Dike el al. [8]
Figure 3. Geo electric Section of Ves 03, 05, 11 and 17 (3 layers)

Figure 4. Geo electric Section of Ves 22, 23 25 and 26

(3 layers)
Figure 8. A four layer type curve
Figure 5. A three layer type curve

Figure 9. Geo electric Section of Ves 12, 15, 16, 20 and
28 (5 layers)
Figure 6. Geo electric Section of Ves 1, 2, 4, 6, 7 and 8

(4 layers)
Figure 7. Geo electric Section of Ves 9, 10, 13, 14, 18 and

19 (4 layers) Figure 10. A five layer Type Curve
Table 2. Evaluation of the Longitudinal Conductance and Transverse Resistance of the Layers Obtained from each VES
Location
VES NO S1Ω S2 Ω S3 Ω S4 Ω T1 Ω T2Ω T3 Ω T4 Ω
1 0.0197 0.2443 0.0011 444.00 73.95 57504.00
2 0.0104 0.0909 0.4937 230.95 1100.00 492.96
3 0.1067 0.0346 258.30 4888.00
4 0.0172 0.0457 0.0797 127.43 33.09 862.16
5 0.0236 0.0464 625.92 6984.00
6 0.1859 0.0969 0.0282 258.64 299.68 1583.16
7 0.0505 0.2347 1.0482 495.50 720.20 288.84
8 0.0831 0.6854 0.0017 51.09 12.44 188348.48
9 0.0092 0.0017 0.2660 268.47 263.34 6227.10
10 0.0364 0.0637 0.2786 0.55 187.88 24.83

11 0.0673 0.1372 438.20 93.44

12 0.0098 0.0166 0.0166 0.5114 617.46 223.88 1583.01 175.01
13 0.0313 0.0256 0.5838 252.34 1238.60 127.87
14 0.0060 0.0680 0.0161 17.38 1468.53 5065.83
15 0.0229 0.0164 0.0928 0.0091 35.37 63.55 51.23 2385.92
16 0.584 0.0046 0.2071 0.1303 46.08 604.54 165.84 1844.50
17 0.1559 1.3009 613.21 139.36
18 0.0033 0.0299 0.1629 184.79 381.94 14.18
19 0.0083 0.3973 1.3565 107.27 338.72 179.40
20 0.0021 0.0431 0.1635 0.3076 123.93 475.65 120.05 4355.40
21 0.0017 0.1759 0.4265 694.21 1162.59 11752.8
22 0.0029 0.2559 220.56 2502.9
23 0.0045 0.2202 726.30 967.98
24 0.0021 0.0531 0.0527 304.4 192.96 60342.36
25 0.0939 0.0531 1195.68 37946.24
26 0.0079 0.2124 320.96 108.48
27 0.0129 0.3519 299.4 693.0 289.87 12450.05
28 0.0092 0.1239 0.0274 1.7174 351.54 72.6 4420.9 908.5
29 0.0026 0.0615 0.1349 465.41 509.6 6101.62
30 0.0018 0.1588 348.56 1269.48
Table 3. Evaluation of the Total Longitudinal Conductance, Total Transverse Resistance and Average Longitudinal Con-
ductance and Average Transverse Resistance each VES Location
VES NO S PL T Pt
1 0.2651 57.37 58021.95 3814.72
2 0.5950 45.78 1823.91 67.18
3 0.1413 129.16 5146.30 281.99
4 0.1426 77.14 1022.68 92.97
5 0.07 312 7609.92 348.44
6 0.1501 0.06 2141.48 112.71
7 1.3334 26.55 1504.54 42.50
8 0.7702 0.0031 18412.01 1753.52
9 0.2769 155.04 6758.91 157.44
10 0.3787 16.46 213.26 34.21
11 0.2045 44.06 531.64 59.01
12 0.5494 33.02 2599.36 143.29
13 0.6407 26.66 1618.81 94.78
14 0.0901 95.95 6551.74 355.40
15 0.1412 62.04 2536.07 289.51
16 0.4004 61.61 2659.96 107.82
17 1.4568 15.91 752.57 32.47
18 0.1961 28.98 544.91 95.88
19 1.7621 15.97 625.39 22.22
20 0.5163 89.23 5075.03 110.16
21 0.6040 13609.6 142.69 157.88
22 0.2388 2723.46 15.11 108.50
23 0.2247 1694.28 72.99 103.31
24 0.1079 60839.72 559.78 1007.28
25 0.1515 39141.92 436.96 519.27
26 0.2203 429.44 29.05 67.10
27 299.7648 13432.92 0.21 216.31
28 1.8779 5681.01 29.45 102.73
29 0.199 7076.62 177.89 0.01
30 0.1606 1618.04 93.40 107.87

3.2 Protective Capacity Evaluation of the Vadoze protection to the underlying aquifer. According to the
Zone classification of Oladapo and Akintorinwa [21], the longi-
tudinal unit conductance (S) values from the study area
The nature of the materials that overlain the mapped aqui- enabled us to classify the area into poor, (S<0.1), weak,
fers were evaluated using the layer parameters (i.e. resis- (0.1≤S<0.2), moderate (0.2≤S<0.7) and good, (0.7≤S<5),
tivity and thickness), to determine its capacity to prevent very good (5≤ S<10) and excellent(S>10) protective ca-
infiltration of unwanted fluids into the aquifer. It should pacity zones. Where the conductance is greater than 10
be noted that the earth materials act as natural filter to mhos are considered zones of excellent protective capac-
percolating fluids; therefore its ability to retard and filter ity. This study has revealed that the overburden materials
percolating ground surface polluting fluids is a measure of (vadose zone) in the VES 01, 04, 05, 08, 09,11, 12, 13, 14,
its protective capacity [22]. That is to say that the geologic 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29 and 30 have poor
materials overlying an aquifer could act as seal in prevent- protective capacity while VES 02, 03, 06, 10, 17, 21 and
ing the fluid from percolating into it. 28 are characterized by weak protective capacity. Further-
The longitudinal unit conductance (S) values of the more, the VES 07, 19 and 27 are found to have a mod-
overburden materials obtained from the study area, ranges erate protective capacity (Table 4, Figure 10). The result
from 0.0018 to 0.4056 ohms (Table 4) with a mean value revealed that 90% of VES within the study area have poor
of 0.0135 ohms. Clayey overburden, which is character- protective capacity, while 10% have weak to moderate
ized by relatively high longitudinal conductance, offers protective capacity.
Table 4. Summary of the vadoze zone protective capacity over the aquifer systems of the study area
Longitudinal Conductance
VES No No. of Overburden layers Lithology Protective Capacity
(∑S)
1 1. - Top soil 0.02 (S<0.1), (Poor)

1. - Top soil
2 0.10 (0.1 ≤S < 0.2) (Weak)
2. - Weathered basement
3 1. - Top soil 0.11 (0.1 ≤S < 0.2) (Weak)
1. - Top soil
4 0.06 (S<0.1), (Poor)
5 1. - Top soil 0.02 (S<0.1), (Poor)
6 1. - Top soil 0.19 (0.1 ≤S < 0.2) (Weak)

1. - Top soil
7 0.03 (S<0.1), (Poor)
8 1. - Top soil 0.08 (S<0.1), (Poor)
1. - Top soil
9 0.01 (S<0.1), (Poor)
1. - Top soil
10 0.1 (0.1 ≤S < 0.2) (Weak)
11 1. - Top soil 0.07 (S<0.1), (Poor)
1. - Top soil
12 2. - Slightly weathered 0.04 (S<0.1), (Poor)
1. - Top soil
13 0.06 (S<0.1), (Poor)
14 1. - Top soil 0.006 (S<0.1), (Poor)
1. - Top soil
15 0.04 (S<0.1), (Poor)
1. - Top soil
16 0.06 (S<0.1), (Poor)
17 1. - Top soil 0.16 (0.1 ≤S < 0.2) (Weak)
1. - Top soil
18 0.03 (S<0.1), (Poor)

1. - Top soil
19 0.4 (0.2≤S<0.7), (Moderate)
1. - Top soil
20 0.05 (S<0.1), (Poor)
1. - Top soil
21 0.28 (0.1 ≤S < 0.2) (Weak)
22 1. - Top soil 0.003 (S<0.1),, (Poor)
23 1. - Top soil 0.005 (S<0.1), (Poor)

1. - Top soil
24 0.06 (S<0.1), (Poor)
25 1. - Top soil 0.09 (S<0.1), (Poor)
26 1. - Top soil 0.01 (S<0.1), (Poor)

1. - Top soil
27 0.36
2. - Weathered basement (0.2 ≤ S < 0.7) (Moderate)
1. - Top soil
28 2. - Slightly weathered 0.16 (0.1 ≤S < 0.2) (Weak)
1. - Top soil
29 0.06 (S<0.1), (Poor)
30 1. - Top Soil 0.002 (S<0.1) (Poor)
and aquifer transmissivity. The transmissivity values ob-

tained within the area of study range from 0.55 to 1195.68
Ώ2 with a mean value of 72.47. The results as presented
in (Table 5) and figure 11 show that the vadose zone in
the study area majorly offers less protection to the un-
derlying aquifer systems. Generally from the analysis
it shows that 80% of the points investigated have High,
3.3% Very High, 13.3% intermediate and 3.3% very low
Transmissivity magnitude. The points with high to very
high values of T also corresponded with those with poor
to weak protective capacity as represented by table 4 and
figure 9. These two parameters have thus revealed that the
Legend: underlying aquifer systems are highly vulnerable to any
contaminants emanating from surface activities.
Table 5. Vadoze zone Transmissivity in relation to Trans-

(0.2 ≤ S < 0.7) Moderate Protective Capacity verse Resistance within the VES locations
VES Ῥa of the
Thickness Transmissivity Comment
NO vadoze zone
(0.1 ≤S < 0.2) Weak Protective Capacity
1 150 2.96 444.00 High
2 149 1.55 230.95 High
3 49.2 5.25 258.30 High
(S<0.1) (Poor) Poor Protective Capacity
4 86.1 1.48 127.43 High
Figure 11. Vadoze zone protective capacity Map
5 163 3.84 625.92 High
3.3 Vadose Zone Transmissivity 6 37.3 6.93 258.64 High
7 99.1 5 495.50 High
The transmissivity values of the Vadoze zone were eval-
uated using a relationship between transverse resistance 8 24.8 2.06 51.09 Intermediate

9 171 1.57 268.47 High 4. Conclusion

10 3.9 0.142 0.55 Very Low
An assessment of the protective capacity of the vadose
11 80.7 5.43 438.20 High zone overlying aquifer systems in kaltungo area was car-
12 251 2.46 617.46 High ried out using secondary geo-electric parameters comput-
13 89.8 2.81 252.34 High ed from VES data generated from 30 points in the field.
14 53.8 0.323 17.38 Intermediate
The parameters considered here are longitudinal conduc-
tance (S) and Transverse Resistance here synonymous
15 39.3 0.9 35.37 Intermediate
with Transmissivity (T) computed based on established
16 28.1 1.64 46.08 Intermediate relation between geo-electric resistivity and aquifer pa-
17 62.7 9.78 613.21 High rameters (Dar Zarouk Parameters) thus;
18 236 0.78 184.79 High S = h/𝜌a (1)
19 114 0.94 107.27 High
T = h.𝜌a (2)
The results from the two parameters as presented in
20 243 0.51 123.93 High
tables 4 and 5 revealed that the vadose zone (overburden
21 631.1 1.1 694.21 High
materials) in the study area offer poor protection to the
22 275.7 0.8 220.56 High underlying aquifer systems. The study has confirmed that
23 403.5 1.8 726.30 High using geo-electric parameters can be useful in groundwa-
24 380.5 0.8 304.40 High ter quality studies. The relation between electrical resis-
tivity, layer thickness and aquifer properties has also been
25 112.8 10.6 1195.68 Very High
confirmed by this study hence combining geophysical
26 200.6 1.6 320.96 High
resistivity methods and other groundwater quality vulner-
27 231.0 3.0 693.00 High ability mapping can form a good basis for groundwater
28 195.3 1.8 351.54 High sustainability studies.
29 423.1 1.1 465.41 High
Acknowledgement
30 437.7 0.8 348.56 High
The Authors are grateful to the staff of Holocene Engi-
neering Nigerian limited for providing equipment and
man power for field work and the management of Gombe
State University for sponsoring part of the data collection.
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ARTICLE
Morphologic Response of a River Channel to Sand Mining in River
Tyaa, Kitui County, Kenya
Philip Gathogo Muiruri* Joy A. Obando Ishmail O. Mahiri
Department of Geography, Kenyatta University, Kenya, 43844, Nairobi
Article history Over 40 billion tons of sand is mined worldwide every year which is
Received: 29 May 2020 estimated to be higher than the natural replacement rates. In Kenya, the
rate of sand mining is raising concerns over its environmental effects since
Accepted: 22 June 2020 it is not regulated. This paper presents findings on the geomorphic effects
Published Online: 31 October 2020 of sand mining in the ephemeral River Tyaa channel in Kitui County. The
study adopts the concept of feedback response mechanism of a natural
Keywords: geomorphic system. Through purposive sampling River Tyaa was selected
Channel incision for the study, where rampant sand mining was reportedly taking place.
Random sampling on the five sand mining sites identified came up with a
Ephemeral stream representative site namely Kanginga on which systematic sampling was
Morphologic response applied while collecting data at both the active and control sites. Data
Sand mining on channel width, depth and slope angles was obtained through physical
measurements while data on quantity of sand mined was obtained from
Sustainable development
Mwingi Sand Mining Cooperative. Multiple logistic regression analysis
was used to analyse data whereby the model compared active and control
sites. Test results indicated that sand mining had significantly increased
river channel’s width (O.R. =1.531), depth (O.R. =1.527) and slope angles
(O.R. =1.634) at active mining sites compared to control sites as deduced
from the respective Odds Ratios. It concluded that sand mining had altered
channel’s morphology resulting to adverse environmental effects such as
loss of riparian vegetation and channel incision. It recommended curbing
of illegal sand mining through licencing operators and reducing quantity of
sand mined by closing some mines. Furthers, it recommended monitoring
through regular Environmental Impact Assessment (E.I.A) and Audit (E.A)
to inform protection of the river system from degrading.
1. Introduction According to [2], sand mining from river channels in the
R
world at the moment is unsustainable as it is estimated to
iver sand mining is an activity that have been on- exceed the natural replacement rates. The current annual
going over centuries, with increasing frequency global sand consumption rate slightly exceed 40 billion
and intensity rising over time [1]. The activity has tonnes [2], which is estimated to be twice as much as the
been exacerbated by the rising need for grade sand in the annual total amount of sand transported by rivers of the
rapidly growing construction industry across the world. world as calculated by [3]. In line with that, [4] posits that
Philip Gathogo Muiruri,
Department of Geography, Kenyatta University, Kenya, 43844, Nairobi;
Email: philipogathogo@gmail.com

sand extraction rates from river channels exceeding the study in River Tyaa. Additionally, need to achieve sus-
natural replenishment lead to adverse environmental ef- tainable development dictates environmental friendly
fects. Sand mining, just like bank protection and damming exploitation of natural resources at our disposal to ensure
of the river intercepts sediments flow in a river channel constant supply both for current and posterity needs as
which creates a sediment deficit downstream [5]. well as minimal disruption of the ecosystem. In line with
In some instances, instream sand mining may be im- that and in light of the rampant nature in which sand
portant to some human activities such as river transport mining is taking place in Kenyan rivers, this study set
because it modifies the channel geometry to accommodate out to establish the geomorphic effects of sand mining in
water vessesls. Further, sand mining activities attracts River Tyaa in Kitui County. This was significant because
income to the sand miners and transprters and also pro- it informed development of sound site-specific proactive
motes the contruction industry across the world [6,7]. How- rather than reactive sand mining strategies which captures
ever, studies have indicated that sand mining often yield the spirit of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
negative environmental effects, with extent dependent particularly the one emphasizing need for sustainable pro-
on the method of mining adopted as well as the intensity duction and consumption, hence prioritization of ecologi-
at which it is carried out [8, 9]. On ephemeral rivers, one cal conservation while exploiting natural resources [20].
of which is focused on in this study, two main methods Conceptual Model of the Study
may be applied namely dry-pit and bar skimming mining The conceptual model of this study is anchored on the
methods. Dry-pit mining method may result into environ- feedback response mechanism of geomorphic systems. In
mental effects such as lowering of the alluvial water table, a geomorphic system such as a river channel, various el-
contamination of water impounded in the alluvial aquifer ements interact in a complex and interdependent manner.
as well as alteration of river channel dimensions. On the When a change is introduced in one element of a system,
other hand, bar skimming yields least negative environ- it may trigger either a positive or a negative feedback re-
mental effects if done in a controlled way [10]. sponse. According to [21], negative feedback occurs when
The river channel morphology is a factor of it’s cum- the effect of the change introduced in a geomorphic sys-
mulative seasonal or annual discharge and amount and tem triggers a series of responses that cause it to progres-
nature of load supplied from the drainage basin over sively diminish thus sending the system back to a state of
time [11]. Anthropogenic interventions such as sand min- stable equilibrium. On the other hand, positive feedback
ing in such natural and stable channels creates pits which occurs when a change introduced in a geomorphic system
tampers with the dynamic equilibrium of a river channel. triggers responses that progressively magnify it leading to
[4]
explains that sand mining causes incresed gradient of a great extent of instability in the system.
the channel on the upper side of the mine, which in turn As illustrated in Figure 1, sand mining is the change
induces channel incision on the upstream stretch. On the that has been introduced to the stable natural system of
other hand, the in-channel pits created filters sedimets ephemeral River Tyaa channel. If high rates of sand min-
from the channel flow thus releasing sediment deficient ing which exceed the natural replacement rate is carried
water (hungry water) which causes erosion leading to out, a positive feedback occurs leading to increased width,
channel incision downstream. depth and slope angles of the channel. As a result, the
In most countries in Africa, sand mining is taking place river channel will experience faster flows during the rainy
uncontrolled. For instance [12,13] indicate that rampant sand season which will in turn cause more erosion in the chan-
mining is taking place in most river channels in Nigeria. nel thus making it even more unstable. More bank erosion
More precisely, [14] reported that unregulated sand mining will lead to loss of the riparian vegetation while channel
in river Kano in Nigeria had resulted into modification bed erosion will lead to river incision, hence a degraded
of the river channel dimensions. In Botswana, [15] docu- channel.
mented widespread illegal sand mining thriving in most On the other hand, if sustainable rates of sand mining is
river channels resulting to negative environmental effects. exercised, negative feedback results whereby the channel
Elsewhere in Kenya, [16-19] unanimously point out that sand dimensions of slope angles, width and depth will be sus-
mining is proceeding in Kenyan rivers unregulated mainly tained thus ensuring a self-regulating channel. Since sand
to supply the rising sand demand in the rapidly growing is a crucial resource in the construction industry, there is
construction industry. need to harness it in a sustainable way to promote sustain-
As [14] points out, sand mining results obtained in one able development. In order to ensure Stable River chan-
site lack application in another due to variation in many nels are sustained, there is need for intervention through
local and regional factors, and this necessitated a local policy formulation and implementation to control rampant

sand mining.
Figure 1. A Conceptual Model of River Channel’s Re-

sponse to Sand Mining
Source: Modified from Huggett (2007)
Figure 2. Study Area Showing River Tyaa in Kitui
2. Methodology County, Kenya
2.1 Study Area Source: Cartographic Unit, Department of Geography, Kenyatta Univer-
sity, 2019
River Tyaa which is a tributary of River Tana and in
2.2 Sampling Design
which this study was carried out lies in Kitui County,
Mwingi Sub-County, Kenya. Kitui County forms part The study adopted a multistage sampling technique
of the Central Eastern Mozambique belt in Kenya [22]. whereby purposive sampling helped come-up with River
As illustrated in Figure 2, its sub-catchment is bound by Tyaa in which unregulated sand mining activities were
longitude 37055’E and 38005’E and latitude 010 05’S and reportedly taking place. From the five active sand mining
040 45’S. The area experiences hot and dry climate, with sites identified along River Tyaa as illustrated in Figure 3,
temperature ranging between 24-260C and rainfall ranging random sampling was used to come up with one represen-
between 400-800 mm per annum [23]. Owing to the little tative site namely Kanginga which measured 500 meters.
seasonal rainfall and the high temperature experienced in
the area, most rivers are seasonal in nature, including Riv-
er Tyaa.
Geologically the area is characterized by metamorphic
rocks such as leucocratic gneisses, biotite gneisses and
granulite’s [24]. Over the years, these rocks have weathered
through chemical and physical processes leading to devel-
opment of a thick crust of loose highly drained sediments
lying over the bedrock. The area’s main economic activity
is dry-land agriculture mainly goat rearing, fruit farming
(Mangoes) and selected grain cultivation such as millet
and sorghum. Following presence of limited economic
options in the area, the poverty index is high averaging
at 61% [25]. As a matter of necessity, the inhabitants have
turned their focus on the natural resource available in the
area to complement their low income. As a result, river
sand mining activities have been established in the sea- Figure 3. Active Sand Mining Sites along River Tyaa
sonal streams in Mwingi-Sub County, remarkably so in Source: Author, (2019)
River Tyaa due to its ease of accessibility. Systematic sampling was used to collect data on vari-

ables of interest at predetermined intervals of 10 meters

on the active site and on the control sites as illustrated in (1)
Figure 4. The control sites comprise the upper and lower
stretches of Kanginga site, each measuring 500 meters re- In the equation, Y is the river morphology, e is the ex-
spectively. This enabled adequate coverage and a detailed ponential value, α is the intercept value in the normal lin-
study of the river channel and comparison of the active ear regression model, ß1 is the gradient for an independent
and control sites, a concept that was employed by [26] to variable X1 while ßnxn represents the gradient values mul-
determine the morphometric response of the river channel tiplied by the respective independent variables considered
to sand mining. in this case, up to the last variable.
A data set with dependent variable namely the river
morphology and the independent variables namely the
altitudes, sand volume in tonnes leaving the site fort-
nightly for two months duration, the river channels depth
and width, and channel slope angles was used. The data
was imported into R-geostatistical software whereby it
got divided into model training data (70%) and model
testing data (30%) as guided by [27]. Training data was
used to develop a Multiple Logistic Regression model as
well as optimizing its accuracy, while the testing data was
used to test the accuracy of the model. The model testing
results indicated that the model was able to predict the
categorical placements of the data with an accuracy of
87%. The results from the analysis clustered the effects
Figure 4. Active Sand Mining Site and the Control Sites of the independent variables of the river morphology into
three categories denoted 1, 2 and 3 which implies normal,
Source: Author, (2019)
moderately modified and highly modified as well as their
2.3 Data Collection respective odds ratios.
Data collection involved both quantitative and qualitative 3. Results and Discussions
methods which entailed undertaking physical measure-
ments, a desktop survey and taking photographs. Data on The model compared data from the active sand mining
variables namely the river channels depth and width was site with that of the control sites. It gave out odds ratios
obtained through physical measurements by use of a G.P.S which indicated the level of significance of each variable
and a tape measure respectively while the channel bank in influencing morphology of the River Tyaa channel.
slope angles were obtained by use of an Abney Level. The results pointed out that sand mining had significantly
Measurements were undertaken fortnightly just after the affected the river channel’s width, depth and slope angles.
rains for a duration of two months. This enabled measure- Table 1 shows the logistic regression outputs for individu-
ments to be taken when sand reserves have been replen- al variables as predicted by the model.
ished by the seasonal stream flow, and later monitor the
Table 1. The Multiple Logistic Regression Model Output
alterations inflicted by mining at the said time intervals
for the whole period of time. Data on the quantity of sand Model Odds Confidence Interval
Variables
mined on the site fortnightly for a period of two months Coefficients Ratio 2.5 % 97.5 %
was obtained from Mwingi sand mining cooperative. Channel Width 0.2078 1.531 0.012457e-05 1.235645e-02
Channel Depth 0.3556 1.527 0.0025456e-03 0.1255678e-02
2.4 Data Analysis
Channel Slope
0.4910 1.634 0.2651254e-06 0.2154579e-03
Angles
The multiple logistic regression analysis was carried out
to establish the geomorphic effects of sand mining to the
3.1 The Effect of Sand Mining on the Channel
River Tyaa channel. This technique categorizes subjects
Width
based on a set of predictor variables. See equation 1 show-
ing the multiple logistic regression model. Sand mining was established to cause increased width of

the river channel as inferred from the odds ratio obtained high rates of sand mining distorts the alluvial aquifer on
as seen in Table 1. As deduced from the odds ratio, a unit the river beds and flood plains thus causing a downshift of
increase in sand mined led to an increase in odds ratio for the water table hydrologically connected to the river. The
increased width of the river channel by 53.1% compared implication of this is drying up of the riparian vegetation
to the control stretches of the river channel. The findings which may no longer access underground water which in
corroborated with those of [14,16] who unanimously deter- turn exposes the river banks to more erosion and instabili-
mined that sand mining had caused statistically significant ty leading to further distortion of the channel geometry.
alteration of the river channel’s width. In a study by [1]
sand mining rates that exceed the natural replacement
rates lead to instability of the river channel. In this case,
undercutting of the river banks curtesy of sand mining has
made the banks unstable causing them to collapse as illus-
trated in Plate 1. In turn, this has caused widening of the
river channel hence loss of riparian vegetation which pro-
gressively lead to environmental degradation. Presence of
these effects is a clear indicator that sand mining is taking
place at high and unsustainable rates in River Tyaa.
Plate 2. Influence of Sand Mining on River Channel’s

Depth and Slope Angles
Source: Author, February (2019)
3.3 Influence of Sand Mining on the Channel’s

Slope Angles
The test results indicated that sand mining had con-
tributed to increased channel slope angles as shown in
Plate 1. Effects of Sand Mining on Channel Width table 1. This imply that a unit increase in sand mined
Source: Author, February (2019) led to 63.4 % increase in odds ratios of channel slope
angles at the active site compared to the control sites.
3.2 The Contribution of Sand Mining to the Following that, it is inferable that high rates of instream
Channels Depth dry pit sand mining as practiced in River Tyaa may distort
The results indicate that sand mining had caused a statis- the stable equilibrium profile of the stream channel. [30, 31]
tically significant increase in channels depth as shown by argues that dry pit excavation creates a steep gradient on
the odds ratio in Table 1. Compared to the control sites, it the river bed on the upper end of the pit, which increases
is clear that a unit increase in sand mined at the active site the flow velocity thus exacerbating head ward erosion up-
led to 52.7% increase in odds ratio for increased depth of stream. According to [5, 10], this results to channel incision
the channel compared to the control sites. Similar findings which may extend upstream for several kilometres. On
were arrived at by [28] who established that uncontrolled the other hand, pits left on the river bed traps sand from
sand mining led to depletion of sand deposits on the riv- the stream flow thus releasing sediment deficient water
er bed hence increased depth. Further, [14] remarked that downstream. [4] refers to such waters as hungry water
alteration of river channels depth comes about where the which erodes the river bed to regain some load leading to
sand mining rates exceed the natural replacement rates. river incision on the lower stretches of the active site of
As depicted in Plate 2, sand mining in River Tyaa has mining for several kilometres.
caused increase in depth of the channel, a factor that in- Channel incision leads to induced lowering of the
dicates that sand mining is taking place at a higher rate stream channel hence establishment of a new base level
compared to the natural replacement. As explained by [29,9], which is consequently transferred to the tributaries of

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4. Conclusions and Recommendations Stony Creek, California. Environmental Geology and
Water Science, 1993, 21: 256-269.
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ARTICLE
Influence of Temperature and Relative Humidity on Air Pollution in
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Mulu Fikeraddis Lake Endeshaw*
Department of Physics, Worabe University, Worabe, Ethiopia
Article history In this paper we access the effects of two atmospheric variables (temperature
Received: 19 August 2020 and relative humidity) on two important pollutants in the atmosphere
(Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and carbon monoxide (CO)) by using one year
Accepted: 3 September 2020 (2016) data of Addis Ababa. Temperature has impact on atmospheric
Published Online: 30 October 2020 mixing and cause for the reduction of NOx as temperature increases.
There are positive correlation between temperature and CO concentration
Keywords: from January to April with (R2 = 0.69), negative correlation from May
Atmospheric pollutants to August with (R2 = 0.92) and no correlation for the remaining months.
NOx and CO have moderate positive and negative correlation with relative
Carbon monoxide humidity during the months January-April (R2 = 0.294 for NOx and R2 =
Nitrogen oxides 0291 for CO) and in the months May-August are R2 = 0.97 and R2 = 0.15
Relative humidity for NOx and CO respectively. But there are no clear correlation between
the NOx and CO with relative humidity from September-December.
Temperature
NOx concentrations during wet season was almost about twice that of the
dry season, but no such difference was observed in the case of CO. The
seasonal average air temperature in wet season is relatively lower than dry
season. NOx exhibited positive and CO negative seasonal correlations with
relative humidity.
1. Introduction in transportation, dispersion and natural cleaning of the
M
air pollutants in the atmosphere [4,5,6,7]. The most important
eteorological parameters such as temperature role of meteorological parameters are in the dispersion,
and relative humidity play a significant role in
transformation and removal of air pollutants from atmo-
affecting air pollutants in urban environment
sphere [8,9,10]. High pollution levels can be expected during
[1]
. Air pollution occurs within the atmospheric planetary fair weather conditions resulting from local wind system
boundary layer under the combined effects of meteoro- and strong temperature inversions [11,12].
logical factors, earth surface topographic features and In developing countries like Ethiopia, the transport
[2,3]
the release of air pollutants from various sources . sector accounts for 49% of NOx emissions and the power
Meteorological parameters are having great importance sector 25%, the industrial sector 11%, the residential com-
Lake Endeshaw,
Department of Physics, Worabe University, Worabe, Ethiopia;
Email: endeshawlake@gmail.com

mercial sectors 10% and other sources 5% [13,14,15,16]. Nitro- trations. Hence, this study has a wide range of significant
gen oxides (NOx) are mixes of gases that are composed for the researcher, city administer, Addis Ababa Environ-
of nitrogen and oxygen. Two of the most toxicologically mental Protection Authority (AAEPA), Federal Transport
significant nitrogen oxides are nitric (NO) and nitrogen Authority (FTA), National Meteorological Service agency
dioxide (NO2) and collectively represented as NOx, which (NMSA) and for the society.
are emitted by vehicles. The reaction of nitrogen dioxide
with chemicals produced by sunlight leads to the forma- 2. Data and Methods
tion of nitric acid which is a major constituent of acid Addis Ababa is a capital city of Ethiopia and the city has a
rain. Nitrogen dioxide also reacts with sunlight which complex mix of highland climate zones with temperature
leads to the formation of ozone and smog conditions in differences of up to 10°C (18°F), depending on elevation
the air we breathe. Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless and prevailing wind patterns [40]. Addis Ababa is located at
and odorless gas that can be harmful when inhaled in large geographic location in 9.00o N and 38.80o E and it is one
amounts and its greatest sources are cars, trucks and other of the most traffic-related pollutant cities in Ethiopia. The
vehicles or machinery that burn fossil fuels (petrol), wood main contributors to air pollution in the city are domestic
and coal (from home heating and industry) [17,18,19,20,21]. Car- heating, private cars and public vehicles. In this study, the
bon monoxide is the primarily pollutant which is emitted data of NOx and CO concentrations was collected from
from its sources directly to the atmosphere [22,23,24,25,26]. Ethiopian Meteorological Agency at Addis Ababa station
Nowadays, vehicles and factories are increasing in as secondary data. Meteorological parameters (temperature
Addis Ababa and many of vehicles are second-hand (old) and relative humidity) were also obtained from the Na-
with out emission controls and they are considered as ma- tional Meteorological Services Agency (NMSA) of Ethi-
jor air polluters of the city . According to National Mete- opia. The data was recorded during the year 2016 from
orological Agency (NMA) of Ethiopia most vehicles have Ethiopian Meteorological Agency at Addis Ababa station.
no emission controls and about 53% of the total vehicles The data of meteorological parameters (temperature
in Addis Ababa are more than 20 years old. Old vehicles and relative humidity) and concentrations of NOx and CO
emit hydrocarbons and smoke to the atmosphere up to five were organized using Microsoft Excel and the averaged
times the rate of emissions from new vehicles [27,28,29,30]. value of pollutant concentrations and meteorological pa-
Such interventions require appropriate policy framework rameters were averaged to obtain seasonal values over the
and institutional capacity for implementation. In this re- entire year. Time series of monthly and seasonal variabili-
gard, the Roads Transport Authority (RTA) has power to ty of the concentrations of NOx and CO were plotted using
prepare standards relating to smoke gas and vapor emitted Matlab software. Regression analyses between concen-
from the exhaust pipes of vehicles, as per the requirements trations of NOx and CO and air temperature and relative
of Environmental Policy of Ethiopia (EPA). EPA on the humidity were also determined by using Matlab software.
other hand is expected to formulate Air Quality Standards
(AQS) in consultation with the RTA. 3. Results and Discussions
Thus, this study focuses on the influence of temperature
3.1 Influence of Temperature and Relative Hu-
and relative humidity on concentrations of NOx and CO in
midity on Monthly-averaged Concentration of
one year data (2016) of Addis Ababa. Air pollutants such
NOx and CO
as nitrogen dioxide has been linked to increases in asthma
symptoms and reduced lung development and function The influence of temperature on monthly-averaged NOx
in children[31]. Nitrogen dioxide can decrease the lungs’ and CO concentrations are shown on Figure 1. The plots
defenses against bacteria, making them more susceptible show weak negative correlation (R2 = 0.30) and no collec-
to infections. Carbon monoxide is readily absorbed by tion (R2 = 0.01) for NOx and CO respectively. Similarly,
the lungs and interferes with the blood’s ability to carry Hosseinibalam and Hejazi [33] have found that weak nega-
oxygen. Therefore knowing concentrations of these two tive collection (R2 = 0.18) in Isfahan at Azadi station. The
gases are a paramount importance [29,32]. Besides, finding relative humidity shows weak negative correlation (R 2
meteorological parameters that have influences on their = 0.14) and (R2 = 0.07) for NOx and CO respectively as
concentrations is also necessary to control their concen- shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Influences of temperature and relative humidity on monthly-averaged NOx and CO concentrations in the year 2016
Despite the weak correlation the negative slope man- factory correlation with R2 = 0.73 between the NOx and
ifests inverse linear relationship as shown in Figure 2, temperature. It is obvious that NOx concentrations de-
which is less concentration (more dispersion) as tempera- crease with increasing temperature but what Akkaya and
ture increases. Similar weak correlation was also obtained Pazarlhoglu [38] have observed for pre and post monsoon
by Bathmanaban [4] in between the NOx and temperature. seasons is contrary to this result. However, their result for
Ocak and Demircioglu [37] have obtained a more satis- the rainy seasons agree with this finding.
Figure 2. Linear regression between temperature and monthly-averaged NOx concentration using averaged data of months
3.2 Influence of Temperature on NOx and CO temperature and CO and found regression coefficients that
Concentrations varied between 0.68 and 0.73. Observation of Figure 3
reveals positive correlation between temperature and CO
As shown in Figure 3 the daily-averaged data of CO
over the entire year shows no correlation between CO concentration from January to April with (R2 = 0.69), neg-
concentration and temperature. But other studies such as ative correlation from May to August with (R2 = 0.92) and
Witz and Moore [34] showed the relationships between the no correlation for the remaining months.

Figure 3. Correlations between temperature and concentrations of NOx and CO
3.3. Correlation between Concentrations of NOx between both gases and RH as shown in Figure 4. But
and CO with Relative Humidity (RH) according to Ocak [39] relative humidity is a moderately
linked parameter to concentrations of NOx and CO pollut-
Correlation between NOx concentrations and relative
ants.
humidity is very weak correlation (R2 = 0.15). This is in
The results of the regression analysis revealed that NOx
agreement with Jayamurugan et al. [35] have no significant
and CO have moderate positive and negative correlation
correlation was found between humidity and NOx in all
with relative humidity during the months January-April (R2
seasons. The correlation R2 = 0.15 shows that the indepen-
= 0.294 for NOx and R2 = 0291 for CO) respectively. As
dent variable of relative humidity included in the model
are able to explain 15% of the variation in the dependent shown in Figure 4, the relative humidity is a moderately
variable of NOx. The NOx concentration has a very weak linked parameter to concentrations of NOx and CO pollut-
dependence and this means that 15% of NOx depends on ants. The correlations in the months May -August are R2
relative humidity and 85% is indeterminate. The correla- = 0.97 and R2 = 0.15 for NOx and CO respectively. But
tion between CO and relative humidity over days of the from September-December there are no clear correlation
year 2016 was investigated by linear regression analysis between the NOx and CO with relative humidity. The
and the scatter plots are shown in Figure 1. There is no concentration of CO decreases with increasing relative
correlation between CO concentration and relative humid- humidity and the concentration of NOx increases with in-
ity. However, monthly bar plots show some sort of pattern creasing relative humidity as observed by [37].
Figure 4. Monthly-averaged concentrations of NOx and CO shown with relative humidity in the year 2016

3.4. Seasonal Variations of Temperature, Relative relatively dry and wet seasons.
Humidity, NOx and CO Concentrations The seasonal average air temperature in wet season is
relatively lower than dry season. Since temperature and
Seasonal variability (in this case the relatively dry and NOx concentrations are negatively correlated (however
wet seasons) is important to understand the influences of weak it may be), this must have resulted in increase of
moisture in the atmosphere on pollutant concentrations. NOx concentration during the wet season. This is in agree-
Relatively dry months are October, November, Decem- ment with Bathmanaban [4] work since they also obtained
ber, January and February and relatively wet months are negative correlation between the temperature and NOx
March, April, May, June, July, August and September [36]. during the rainy season. CO exhibited only slightly small
Figure 5 depicts how the concentrations of both gases seasonal correlation with temperature. Both NOx and CO
change with temperature and relative humidity during exhibited positive and negative seasonal correlations with
relatively dry and wet seasons. As shown in the Figure 5, relative humidity respectively. The concentrations of the
there is a difference between NOx concentration during two gases are also positively correlated.
Figure 5. Variability of seasonally-averaged concentrations of NOx and CO in the year 2016 and correlation with tem-
perature (oc) and relative humidity (%) in relatively dry and wet seasons
4. Conclusions ing and that is the cause for the reduction of NOx as tem-
perature increases. Both gases showed correlations with
Temperature and relative humidity is responsible for verti- relative humidity, but at different rates during relatively
cal mixing of atmospheric pollutants. They also responsi- wet and wet seasons. For NOx the dependence on relative
ble for different atmospheric stability conditions. Nitrogen humidity is stronger during wet season and that could
oxides (NOx) and carbon monoxide (CO) are considered also be the reason for the doubling of NOx concentration
as air pollutants their concentrations are assumed to be during wet season. CO correlation with relative humidity
influenced by temperature. More NOx concentration was is relatively weak and the slopes are also small in both
observed during wet season compared to the dry sea- dry and wet seasons. The low dependence of CO on both
son. There seems to be other sources of NOx during the temperature and relative humidity could be the reason
rainy season on top of those emitted from vehicles or the for uniformity of the concentration of this gas during both
reduction during the dry season could be due to better seasons.
atmospheric mixing. The CO concentration did not show Finally, the authors suggest that in order to decrease the
much change between wet and dry seasons. This can be effects of air pollution in city the concerned body may be :
due to relatively long residence time of this gas in the (1) Import new vehicles with out tax or reduced tax,
atmosphere. Temperature has impact on atmospheric mix- which burn fuel efficiently and reduce importing old vehi-

cles or appreciate and support machineries in the country Modelling surface ozone during the 2003 heat-wave
(like Marathon Motor Engineering PLC and others). in the UK. Atmos Chem Phys., 2010, 10(16): 7963-
(2) Participate and initiate green legacy campaign in 78.
Ethiopia and tree-planting in Addis Ababa (such as in En- https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-7963-2010
toto Park, Sheger Project and others) and preserve them, [8] Aneja VP, Agarwal A, Roelle PA, Philips SB, Tong
which absorbs air pollutants in the city. Q, Watkins N. Measurements and analysis of criteria
(3) Use vehicles appropriately such as use a less pollut- pollutants in New Delhi, India. Environment Interna-
ing and more fuel-efficient vehicles; drive at smooth ac- tional, 2008, 27: 35-42.
celerate and moderate speed; check up and made regular [9] Ravishankara AR, Dawson JP, Winner DA. New di-
maintenance of vehicles and avoid unnecessary driving rections: Adapting air quality management to climate
vehicles or drive less. change: A must for planning. Atmos Environ., 2012,
50(0): 387-89.
Acknowledgments https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.12.048
[10] Dawson JP, Bloomer BJ, Winner DA, Weaver CP.
We would like to acknowledge the National Meteorolo-
Understanding the meteorological drivers of U.S.
gy Agency Service of Ethiopia (NMASE), Addis Ababa
particulate matter concentrations in a changing cli-
Environmental Protection Authority (AAEPA), Central
mate. Bull Am Meteorol Soc., 2013, 95(4): 521-32.
Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and Federal Transport https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00181.1
Authority (FTA) for providing valuable information and [11] Geddes JA, Murphy JG, Wang DK. Long term
data. changes in nitrogen oxides and volatile organic com-
pounds in Toronto and the challenges facing local
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ARTICLE
The Environmental Impact of Plastic Waste
Boyu Jiang1* Jiming Yu2 Yihang Liu3
1. Public health and Preventive Medicine, Health Inspection and Quarantine, North China University of Science and T
echnology, Tangshan, Hebei, 063210, China
2. Process Equipment and Control Engineering, University of Science and Technology LiaoNing, Anshan, Liaoning,
114051, China
3. Preventive medicine, Public health and Preventive Medicine, North China University of Science and Technology,
Tangshan, Hebei, 063210, China
Article history The pollution caused by disposable plastic products is becoming more
Received: 1 September 2020 and more serious, and “plastic limit” has become a global consensus. This
article mainly discusses the pollution problem from the following aspects:
Accepted: 1 September 2020 Integrate all relevant important indicators to establish a multiple regression
Published Online: 30 September 2020 model of the maximum amount of disposable plastic waste to estimate
the maximum amount of disposable waste in the future without causing
Keywords: further damage to the environment; Establish an environmental safety level
Multiple egression evaluation model and analyze the impact of plastic waste on environmental
safety; Try to set the lowest level target that can be achieved by global
Fuzzy hierarchy waste at this stage, and conduct correlation analysis on the impact of
Plastic waste humans, enterprises, and the environment; Select several countries based
Environmental safety on their comprehensive strengths, conduct a comparative analysis of their
plastic production, economic strength, and environment, and try to explore
their responsibilities.
1. Introduction radation of plastic products, “white pollution” has become
P
more and more serious. The large amount of disposable
lastic is a commonly used material with huge so-
plastic products and the low recycling rate have caused
cial benefits. With the development of the world
serious pollution to the soil environment and the marine
economy, the output of garbage around the world
is also increasing rapidly, especially the use of plastic environment. The world is facing an environmental crisis
products is becoming more and more widespread, and dis- caused by plastic waste. Currently, “Limiting plastic” has
posable plastic are most commonly used in people’s lives. become a global consensus, and many countries and re-
Disposable plastic products have brought convenience to gions have launched actions to limit plastic and ban plas-
people’s production and life, but due to the difficult deg- tic. For example, in 2018, the European Parliament will
Boyu Jiang,
Public health and Preventive Medicine, Health Inspection and Quarantine, North China University of Science and Technology, No.
21 Bohai Avenue, Caofeidian District, Tangshan, Hebei, 063210, China;
Email: jbyu0621@163.com

issue a decree. Starting from 2021, the EU will complete- Symbol Meaning
ly prohibit member states from using 10 disposable plas-
Y Maximum amount of disposable plastic waste.
tic products such as drinking straws, cutlery and cotton
A Recycling of disposable plastic waste.
swabs. A variety of disposable plastic products, including
tableware and straw. B Amount of incineration of disposable plastic waste.
Therefore, in order to solve the problem of plastic Z Environmental safety level.

waste, it is important to understand the current severity of M Environmental safety level impact criteria.
plastic waste worldwide and mitigate the impact of plastic N Environmental safety level impact indicators.
waste on the environment.
E Environmental safety level.
2. Assumptions and Symbols S Environmental safety level score
P Correlation coefficient.
2.1 Assumptions
(1) It is assumed that the moderate incineration of dis- 3. Multiple Regression Model for Maximum
posable plastic waste and proper treatment will not cause Amount of Disposable Plastic Waste
damage to the environment.
(2) It is assumed that all disposable plastic products 3.1 Establishment of Maximum Amount Index
produced each year are converted to waste. Affecting Disposable Plastic Waste
(3) Assume no breakthrough in science and technology First, we consider the factors that affect the maximum
in the treatment of plastic waste. amount of disposable plastic waste, and consider the fol-
lowing three aspects from the sources of plastic waste,
2.2 Symbols
the way to deal with plastic waste, and the availability of
Here are the symbols and their meanings in this article : resources for processing plastic waste.
Figure 1. A diagram of the factors affecting the maximum amount of disposable plastic waste
From our collection of plastic use distribution data for and it will cause serious “white pollution”, so land re-
various industries in 2015, packaging is the main use of sources have certain restrictions on the landfill of plastic
disposable plastic, and more than 42% of plastic are used waste; meanwhile, incineration of plastic waste will Waste
for packaging. At the same time, disposable consumer of petroleum resources. According to statistics, nearly
goods are the main source of disposable plastic. Such as 4% of the world’s petroleum resources are used for the
disposable tableware, disposable straw and so on. Because
incineration of plastic waste, and oil is a non-renewable
of the excessive use and waste of disposable plastic, a
resource. The global stock is not very optimistic. There-
large amount of disposable plastic waste has been accu-
fore, petroleum resources are also a certain constraint on
mulated. However, current treatment methods for dis-
the incineration of plastic waste [2].
posable plastic waste are still relatively simple, including
disposal, landfill, incineration, and recycling [1]. Among In summary, under the premise of not causing further
them, disposal of landfill and incineration is limited by deterioration of the environment, we finally selected the
disposal resources. For example, excessive land resources amount of disposable plastic waste recovery, incineration,
are used to discard plastic waste. Landfill, and the natural and resource constraints as indicators that affect the maxi-
degradation of plastic in the soil takes hundreds of years, mum amount of disposable plastic waste.

3.2 Establishment and Solution of Multiple Re- 3.3 Model Result Analysis
gression Model
According to Figure 2, under the prediction of the mul-
Based on 3.1, we select the recovery rate, incineration tivariate regression model of the maximum amount of
rate, and resource constraints of disposable plastic waste disposable plastic waste, the maximum amount of dis-
as indicators that affect the maximum amount of dispos- posable plastic waste that the environment can withstand
able plastic waste, so as to establish a multiple regression is increasing year by year without further environmental
model of the maximum amount of disposable plastic damage, while the maximum amount of disposable plastic
waste. The following equation: waste The increase is affected by the amount of incinera-
Yn+1=αAn+βBn-γCn （1) tion and recovery each year, because the amount of incin-
Among them, Yn+1 is the maximum amount of dispos- eration and recovery has gradually increased since 1980,
able plastic waste in the following year, An is the recycled as shown in Figure 3.
amount of disposable plastic waste in the year, Bn is the
incinerated amount of disposable plastic waste in the year,
and Cn is the resource (such as petroleum resources, petro-
leum resources, Environmental load, energy, etc.). α and
β are the regression coefficients of An and Bn. γ is the limit
coefficient of resources on the amount of recovery and in-
cineration.
Based on the collected data, the regression coefficient
is calculated using the least squares method as
α=1.1404
β=1.1404
Figure 3. Estimated share of global plastic waste by dis-
Through the regression test, the correlation coefficient
posal method
of α is R2=0.9993, and the correlation coefficient of β is
R2=0.9997, both of which are close to 1, indicating that As of 2015, an estimated 55% of plastic waste world-
the correlation with Y is valid. wide have been discarded, 25% have been incinerated, and
Because there are many influencing factors on the 20% have been recycled [2]. The discarded plastic waste
amount of resource restrictions, it is not possible to quan- will cause further damage to the environment. Therefore,
tify and consider it at this time, so the forecast does not the maximum amount of disposable plastic waste can
consider the amount of resource restrictions at this time. only be assessed by changing the amount of incineration
The regression coefficient is substituted into (1) to predict and recycling without further harming the environment.
the maximum amount of disposable plastic waste in the However, the amount of incineration will be controlled by
future. petroleum resources. About 4% of the world’s petroleum
resources are used in plastic incineration. If excessive use
of petroleum resources, it will also cause the lack of pe-
troleum resources and cause unnecessary troubles. At the
same time, excessive incineration will also it will cause
damage to the atmospheric environment; and the amount
of recycling is controlled by the current level of science
and technology. Advances in science and technology can
enable more plastic waste to be recycled and reduce envi-
ronmental damage. On the contrary, if the level of science
and technology stagnates, it will also cause the recovery
rate of plastic waste to stop growing, which will have
Figure 2. Multivariate regression model prediction charts a negative impact on the disposal of throwaway plastic
for the maximum amount of disposable plastic waste waste [3]. Therefore, after considering resource constraints,
(without resource restrictions) it should be fixed in Figure 4.

framework and the analytic hierarchy process as the car-

rier to establish an environmental safety index system, as
showed in Figure 5.
Figure 4. Multivariate regression model prediction charts

of the maximum amount of disposable plastic waste (with
resource constraints)
4. DPSIR Environmental Safety Evaluation

Model Based on F-AHP
4.1 Model Introduction
4.1.1 Analytic Hierarchy Process
The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) combines qualita-
tive description and quantitative analysis organically. This
process adopts systematic planning and evaluation, and
finally expresses and reflects complicated phenomena and
decision thinking process systematically, modeled, and Figure 5. Index system diagram of environmental safety
assessment
quantitatively. Through the analytic hierarchy process,
researchers can analyze the research objects precisely and 4.1.3 Fuzzy Comprehensive Evaluation Method
understand the relative major and minor influencing fac-
tors. The importance scale used in calculating the weight The fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method is a system-
is shown in Table 1. atic evaluation of the fuzzy phenomenon of possibility
and uncertainty, that is, a fuzzy evaluation of the evalua-
Table 1. Importance scale table tion object, such as “good, better, average, worse, worse”,
etc., is more important in fuzzy mathematics. The concept
Importance scale Meaning
of membership, that is, the degree of membership, means
1 Both elements are equally important the probability or degree of likelihood of the assessment[5].
3 The former is slightly more important than the latter We consulted the literature and collected data to judge the
13 indicators of the selected countries. After establishing
5 The former is clearly more important than the latter
an evaluation index system and calculating the weight of
7 The former is more important than the latter each index, after consistency testing, the test formula is as
9 The former is far more important than the latter follows.
γ -1
2,4,6,8 Intermediate values corresponding
to a scale of 1-9 CI= max (2)
n-1
1/k,k=1,..9 The two elements are more important than the former Evaluate the country’s level of environmental safety
according to four levels: very safe, safe, more dangerous,
4.1.2 DPSIR Model and dangerous.
The DPSIR model is a conceptual model of the evaluation 4.2 Establishment and Solution of Environmental
index system commonly used in environmental systems.
Safety Evaluation Model
It divides the evaluation index of natural systems into five
types, including Driving Forces, Pressure, State, Impact Through our literature review and data collection, we
and Responses. And each type is divided into several in- learned that in the 2018 Global Environmental Perfor-
dicators[4]. We will use the DPSIR model as the research mance Index (EPI) ranking released by Yale University in

the United States, Australia ranked first in many scoring All the above judgment matrices have passed the con-
items and ranked first overall, so Australia Known as the sistency check, so the ownership reassignment is satisfac-
“most suitable area for human habitation”, we chose Aus- tory.
tralia as the best level of environmental safety.
At the same time, China is the largest developing 4.2.2 Solution of Fuzzy Comprehensive Evalua-
country in the world. In recent years, China has played an tion Method
important role in the development of the world economy. (1)Establish a set of evaluation indicators.
However, China’s environmental security level is not very N=(N1,N2,N3,N4,N5,N6,N7,N8,N9,N10,N11,N12,N13)
optimistic. Therefore, we chose China as the research ob- =(Economy,technology,…,existing policies and imple-
ject to analyze China and environmental security. The best mentation)
level is the gap between Australia . (2)Create a Judging Set
4.2.1 Establishment and Solution of AHP Model E=(E1,E2,E3,E4)=(very safe, safe less secure and dan-
gerous)
(1) According to the analysis, the following matrix is (3)We judged 13 indicators in Australia and China by
obtained: consulting the literature and collecting data.
(4)Establish a single factor evaluation matrix R.
R=(rij)13×4 （3）
Among it，rij= ，
Cij is the score for the i-th index and the j-th evaluation
Matrices for Australia and China can be obtained sepa-
rately:
R1
R2
(2) Indicator weight calculation

The weight of each indicator is determined according Using the weights obtained by the analytic hierarchy
to the basic method of the analytic hierarchy process, and process as the weight vector of the fuzzy comprehensive
the weight of the first-level indicator obtained is. evaluation index, the different weights of Australia and
(M1,M2,M3,M4,M5)=(0.0624,0.0986,0.2618,0.4161,0.1611) China in the four levels of very safe, safe, less secure and
The weight of the secondary indicator is dangerous can be obtained through calculation, that is Ta-
(N1,N2,N3,N4)=(0.2771,0.4658,0.1611,0.0960) ble 3.
(N5,N6)=(0.6667,0.3333)
(N7,N8,N9)=(0.5390,0.1638,0.2972) Table 3. Comprehensive weight table of Australian and
(N10,N11)=(0.3333,0.6667) Chinese environmental safety levels
(N12,N13)=(0.6667,0.3333) Environmental safety level. very safe safe less secure dangerous
All the above judgment matrices have passed the con-
Australian comprehensive weight. 0.5515 0.2711 0.1269 0.0508
sistency check, so the ownership reassignment is satisfac-
tory. As shown in table 2. Chinese comprehensive weight. 0.2035 0.3274 0.3117 0.1576
Table 2. Index weight table Finally, we define the score, (very safe, safe, less secure
and dangerous)=(4,3,2,1), Substitute the comprehensive
Index N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 weights of Australian and Chinese environmental safety
Weight 0.0173 0.0291 0.101 0.0060 0.6557 0.0329 0.1411 levels in Table 3 to get the final scores of the two coun-
tries.
Index N8 N9 N10 N11 N12 N13
S1=3.3237
Weight 0.0429 0.0778 0.1387 0.2775 0.1074 0.0537
S2=2.5773

4.3 Model result analysis plastic, which has greatly promoted the development of
the plastics industry.
Australia’s final environmental safety rating is 3.3237, In terms of policy and implementation, the Chinese
which is at a safe level, and China’s final environmental government issued a “plastic restriction order” in 2007,
safety rating is 2.5773, which is at a relatively dangerous which clearly stipulates that the production, sale, and use
level. From this comparison, we can see that there is still of plastic shopping bags with a thickness of less than 0.025
a certain gap between China and the environmental safety mm are nationwide; in all supermarkets, shopping malls,
level. and trade fairs The market and other commodity retail
It can be seen from the matrix listed above that China’s establishments implement a system of paid use of plastic
environmental safety level is significantly different from shopping bags. Plastic shopping bags are not permitted
Australia’s in various aspects. Because this article mainly to be provided free of charge. Although China proposed
discusses the impact of plastic waste on environmental the policy of restricting the use of plastic very early, there
safety, we will only focus on plastic waste. Analyze the were problems in the implementation. In the early stage of
gap between China and Australia and how to close it. implementation of the Plastic Restriction Order, the effect
was very significant. However, with the development of
Table 4. Comparison of Australian and Chinese plastic
the time, there has been a saying that Plastic Restriction
waste (2010) [2]
makes the name exist. The “white pollution” is not simply
Total plastic World Plastic waste
Plastic
Improper
disappeared, but has become increasingly widespread.
waste per
Index
waste output share of entering the
capita (kg
waste Depending on statistics, from 2008 to 2015, the consump-
(million undertreated ocean (million management
tonnes) plastic waste tonnes)
per person
in countries tion of plastic bags in China’s express delivery industry
per day)
increased from 8.268 billion to about 14.7 billion [6].
Australia 0.9 0% 0.01~0.25 0.112 0.04%
Therefore, China needs to solve the problem in terms
China 59.08 74% >5.00 0.121 27.7%
of people’s environmental awareness, technical methods
From Table 4, China has a huge gap in Australia in for processing plastic waste, and implementation of poli-
terms of total plastic waste production, inadequately treat- cies that restrict the use of plastic. It must pay more atten-
ed plastic waste, plastic waste entering the ocean, and im- tion to reducing the gap with environmental safety.
properly managed waste.
From an economic point of view, as a developing coun- 5. Relevance to Minimum Levels of Goals and
try, China’s economic development has enabled various Impact
industries to choose plastic products that are widely used,
5.1 Set Minimum Goals
easy to process, and inexpensive under the principle of
maximizing economic benefits. Increasing demand has In order to eliminate plastic waste and minimize the nega-
led to the rapid development of the plastic manufacturing tive impact of plastic waste on the environment and human
industry, so the output of plastic waste is huge. beings, we plan to set a goal at the lowest level at this stage.
From a technical perspective, in 1921, China began to In an ideal state, we hope that the annual output of
industrialize plastic plastic products. Scientists are con- plastic waste is zero, that is, no more plastic waste is
stantly searching for new plastics manufacturing technol- produced every year, and humans no longer use any sin-
ogy, and globalization has enabled the technology to be gle-use or disposable plastic products. The plastic waste
exchanged and improved in various countries, making the generated can be fully recycled, and plastic waste will not
production and widespread use of plastic possible. be recycled. Any negative impact on the environment, so-
In terms of consumption, economic development has ciety and humanity.
increased consumption and increased domestic demand, However, it is clear that at the current stage of human
and people’s daily consumption has also promoted the science and technology or economic level, the ideal state
development of the plastics industry. Consumers have a cannot be achieved. At this stage, human beings still need
tendency to choose convenient plastic bags when shop- a large number of plastic products. Some plastic products
ping for neat and clean product packaging. Because cannot be replaced by other substitutes, such as used in
of its strong corrosion resistance, durable, waterproof, plastic products in packaging, construction or other fields,
lightweight, and easy to shape, plastic has been the first as showed in Figure 6
choice for packaging materials in the express delivery and They have the irreplaceable advantages in various
takeaway industries. The emergence of e-commerce and fields, and the generation of some non-recyclable plastic
food delivery has dramatically increased the demand for waste cannot prevent that. Therefore, we have to find the

Figure 6. Plastic waste generation by industrial sector, 2015 [2]
amount of non-recyclable plastic waste in the world at this We calculate the correlation coefficient P between Chi-
stage as the minimum level of plastic waste at this stage. na’s per capita annual consumption level, the annual op-
It can be consulted on Figure 3 Estimated share of erating profit of the plastic industry, and EPI and China’s
global plastic waste by disposal method in 3.3. As of plastic output.
2015, it is estimated that 55% of plastic waste worldwide Pearson correlation coefficient (Pearson Correlation
is discarded, 25% are incinerated, and 20% are recycled. Coefficient) is used to measure whether two data sets are
Among them, 80% of plastic waste discards and inciner- on a line. It is used to measure the linear relationship be-
ated. According to collect data, the output of plastic waste tween distance variables, that is, the correlation strength.
in 2015 was about 302 million tons. The formula is as follows:
In the end, through calculation, we set a minimum lev-
el of disposable plastic waste at the current stage of 241.6 （4）
million tons. Correlation coefficients of the three are obtained
through calculation
5.2 Correlation Analysis P1=0.681
When the world reaches the minimum level of plastic P2=0.824
waste at this stage, we will discuss the impact from three P3=0.472
aspects: human, business, and the environment. In terms All the per capita consumption and plastic production
of impacts on humans, we consider the impact of plastic showed significant significance. The correlation coeffi-
production on average consumption levels; in terms of cient value was 0.681, ranging from 0.6-0.8, showing a
impacts on enterprises, we consider the impact of plastic strong correlation, and the correlation coefficient value
production on the operating profit of plastic enterprises; was greater than 0, meaning that there was a positive cor-
in terms of environmental impact, we consider the impact relation between per capita consumption and plastic pro-
of plastic production on Impact of Environmental Perfor- duction relationship.
mance Index (EPI). The plastic industry’s operating profit and plastic out-
We select China as the research object of this problem put all show significant significance. The correlation coef-
and collect relevant data. As shown in Table 5: ficient value is 0.824, which is between 0.8-1.0, showing
a strong correlation, and the correlation coefficient value
Table 5. China’s relevant data from 2012 to 2017 [7] is greater than 0, which means the plastic industry’s op-
Per capita annual Annual profit of the Plastic
erating profit there is a positive correlation with plastic
Year consumption level plastics industry EPI production production.
/ yuan / yuan / 10,000 tons
The correlation coefficient value between EPI and
2012 14699 0.96×1011 42.24 2730.3
plastic output is 0.472, ranging from 0.4 to 0.6, which is
2013 16190 1.12×1011 6878.8
11
moderately correlated, and the correlation coefficient val-
2014 17778 1.18×10 43 7485.8
11
ue is greater than 0, which means that there is a definite
2015 19397 1.20×10 7860.7
correlation between EPI and plastic output.
2016 21285 1.29×1011 65.1 7267.5 After calculation of the correlation coefficient, it was
11
2017 22902 1.35×10 7515.5 found that the plastic output has the greatest impact on the

plastic industry, with a correlation coefficient of 0.824, Table 6. Comparison of relevant data for Australia, China,
because plastics are commonly used in building materials India and Guinea [9]
and engineering products. They have excellent perfor- Plastic
Percentage of Per capita amount
mance and low cost, and are the best choice for basic Country
GDP per
EPI mismanaged of plastic waste
consumption
capita ($) (million
materials of industrial enterprises. The demand for plastic plastic waste generated (kg)
tonnes)
in the commercial and industrial fields also promotes the Australia 57200 65.7 0% 0.11 16.5
rapid development of the plastics industry, which can
China 9770 49 74% 0.12 80
occupy an important position in the light industry. There-
fore, when we achieve the objective of the lowest level India 2010 48.3 85% 0.01 14.56
of waste, the plastics industry will be greatly impacted. Guinea 880 44.4 84% 0.03 0.27
There will be a big gap in profits. At the same time, the Comparing the indicators of Australia, China, India and
plastic industry will also face the opportunity to reform Guinea, we get Figure 7:
technology and seek breakthroughs.
The impact of plastic output on per capita consumption
levels is also strong, with a correlation coefficient of 0.681,
because economic development has increased consump-
tion and increased domestic demand, and people’s daily
consumption has also promoted the development of the
plastic industry. Consumers tend to choose convenient
plastic bags when shopping for neat and clean product
packaging. Because of its durable corrosion resistance,
durable, waterproof, lightweight, and easy to shape, plas-
tic has become the first choice for packaging materials
in the express delivery and takeaway industries. The
emergence of e-commerce and food delivery has dramat-
Figure 7. Comparison chart of indicators in Australia,
ically increased the demand for plastic, which has greatly China, India and Guinea
promoted the development of the plastics industry. There-
fore, when we achieve the objective of the lowest level of Australia is a developed country with high per capita
waste, the level of per capita consumption may decline to GDP, leading productivity level, high level of industrial-
some extent. ization, and high level of national education. Therefore,
the amount of plastic waste per capita is high, but the EPI
The impact of plastic production on EPI is relatively
is high, and the proportion of plastic waste management
general, with a correlation coefficient of 0.472, because
is extremely high. The emphasis on wasting management
EPI uses 10 policy categories and 25 environmental indi-
has led to high national environmental performance.
cators for evaluation, and the “white pollution” caused by
China and India are at the same time developing coun-
plastic waste is part of all environmental pollution, and
tries, and they are ranked one or two in the world’s popu-
there is a certain Relevance, but it didn’t play a vital role.
lation. The difference in EPI is small. China’s industrial-
Therefore, when we achieve the goal of the lowest level
ization level is higher than India, and plastic consumption
of waste, the EPI will increase to a certain extent and will
is significantly higher than India. With the continuous
not be particularly affected.
improvement of industrialization level and people’s living
6. Fairness of the Global Environmental Crisis the level of plastic waste per capita in China is constant-
ly improving. Although the proportion of improperly
Depending on the data on income levels of countries in managed plastic waste in China is still astronomical, it is
the world provided by the World Bank[8], select high-in- observed that the proportion of plastic waste in China is
come countries-Australia, high- and middle-income coun- lower than that in India and Guinea. It can be seen that
tries-China, low- and middle-income countries-India, and China’s management of plastic waste is effective. but
low-income countries-Guinea. The proportion of improp- there is still plenty of room for further improvement.
erly managed plastic waste, the amount of plastic waste Guinea is located in Africa, its productivity is lagging,
per capita, and national plastic consumption are used as its economy is dominated by agriculture and mining, its
reference indicators. Table 6 is generated to analyze the industrial base is weak, plastic consumption is low, and
fairness of the global environmental crisis. the amount of plastic waste per capita is small, but the

proportion of improperly managed plastic waste is high, 8. Conclusions

reflecting the great expectations Control.
To ensure the fairness of countries in the global environ- (1) The multiple regression model was used to estimate
mental crisis, the following solutions are recommended: the maximum amount of plastic waste in the environmen-
Each country signed a plastic waste management agree- tal carrying range, and the factors affecting the maximum
ment, imposed restrictions on the country’s plastic produc- amount of plastic waste were analyzed from three aspects:
tion and plastic waste volume, strengthened the research the source of the plastic waste, the current severity, and
and development and productivity of plastic alternatives, the treatment method.
and implemented strong single-use or disposable plastic (2) Select Australia and China, use Australian environ-
control policies within the country. As developed countries mental quality as the environmental safety level standard,
and use the DPSIR environmental safety evaluation model
have reached the current high level, they have completed
based on fuzzy analytic analysis to score the two coun-
the process of industrialization and achieved primitive
tries, with score of 3.3237 and 2.5773, respectively. It
accumulation, but in the process have caused irreversible
analyzes the gap between China and Australia on the level
damage to the environment. Therefore, compared with de-
of environmental safety.
veloping countries, developed countries Higher responsibil-
(3) On the basis of the multiple regression model of
ities and obligations should be assumed. Developed coun-
question 1, set the current minimum level of global waste
tries should provide technical, equipment, and financial
that can be reached at 241.6 million tons per year, and
assistance to countries with low productivity, so that coun-
through correlation analysis, get the plastic output to hu-
tries with low productivity can realize the industrialization
mans, enterprises, and the environment. The correlation
process as soon as possible, and help them minimize the
coefficients are 0.681, 0.824, and 0.472, respectively.
production and use of disposable plastic. At the same time,
(4) Select four high-income, high-middle-income,
with the help of developed countries, developing countries
low-middle-income, and low-income countries, Australia,
should strive to improve the production process of plastic
China, India, and Guinea, and analyze the gaps between
and the process of waste disposal, and improve the level of
the four countries’ plastic waste issues through various
national waste management.
data comparisons and propose reasonable solutions Solu-
tion: Developed countries should give developing coun-
7. Strengths and Weaknesses
tries some support and assume the responsibilities of big
7.1 Strengths countries in the global plastic crisis.
(1) In the multivariate regression model of the maxi- Expectations and Recommendations for Future
mum amount of disposable plastic waste, the constraints Global Disposable Plastic Waste
of resources on recycling and incineration have been fully
First, We analyzed the basic situation of global disposable
considered, making the model more comprehensive.
plastic waste at the current stage by consulting the liter-
(2) An evaluation method that uses DPSIR as an in-
ature and collecting data. Since 1950, the global plastic
dicator and combines the analytic hierarchy process and
output has grown rapidly. As of 2015, the annual global
fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method, making full use
plastic output has increased by nearly 200 times, reaching
of the advantages of the two methods, the weighting is
381 million tons. When the global plastic output is in-
reasonable, the calculation is relatively simple, and it has
creasing rapidly, the global plastic waste is also increasing
certain advantages and reliability.
rapidly. By 2015, 5.8 billion tons of plastic wastes have
(3) In the impact analysis of plastic waste, the correla-
been accumulated, and only 9% of it has been recycled.
tion is used to determine the magnitude of the impact with
These accumulated plastic wastes have produced a global
the strength of the correlation, making the analysis more
environment. Serious damage.
concrete and concrete.
Then, we comprehensively considered the sources, se-
7.2 Weaknesses verity, and treatment of unnatural waste, and established a
multiple regression model to predict the maximum amount
(1) No consideration of the impact of plastic alterna- of plastic waste that the environment can withstand in the
tives on model results. future. When the maximum amount is reached, the global
(2) The fuzzy analytic hierarchy process has certain environment will no longer be Being further these lands
subjectivity when determining the weight of the index, filled plastic waste can be safely reduced. Then, according
and lacks scientific and objective evaluation. to this model, we also found the lowest level of global

plastic waste at the contemporary stage, which is 241.6 factors that will accelerate or hinder the realization of our
million tons. We take it as our goal at this stage. In order goals. For example, more and more national governments
to predict the specific time when the global target will be have promulgated policies that restrict the use of plastic
reached at the current stage, we made a simple prediction and even ban plastic, which will accelerate the achieve-
of the global plastic waste recovery rate, incineration rate ment of our goals to a certain extent. Similarly, the devel-
and discard rate, as showed in the figure: opment of science and technology in the future may lead
to the emergence of better plastic alternatives, New break-
throughs have been achieved in the treatment of plastic
waste. On the contrary, some factors will hinder the prog-
ress of our goals. For example, the economic crisis will
greatly inhibit the development of many enterprises, in-
cluding the plastic industry. Of course, it will also limit the
consumption level of the people and reduce the purchasing
power. Obstacles in the same way, as well as the outbreak
of war, climate change and other factors will also hinder
It can be seen from the forecast chart that before 1980, the realization of our planned goals to a certain extent.
the recycling and incineration of plastic were negligible, References
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ARTICLE
Sustainability Assessment of the Groundwater Quality in the
Khoyrasole Block, Birbhum District, West Bengal to Achieve Rural
Water Security
S. K. Nag* Shreya Das
Department of Geological Sciences, Jadavpur University, Kolkata-700032, India
Article history In order to attain the water security goal, specifically in highly developing
Received: 20 October 2020 areas, delineation of pure and sustainable water resources is of utmost
priority. In the present study, a preliminary investigation of the groundwater
Accepted: 16 November 2020 chemistry was carried out. This was followed by assessing the suitability
Published Online: 30 December 2020 of groundwater to be used as an alternative and reliable resource for public
use in the Khoyrasole block, Birbhum district, India. Altogether 15(fifteen)
Keywords: samples of groundwater, were collected from bore wells spread well over
Water security the Khoyrasole block have been considered. After completing the chemical
analysis of the groundwater samples, the study revealed the quality of
Groundwater assessment groundwater. The spatial distribution of groundwater quality parameters
Groundwater quality such as pH, Total Dissolved solids (TDS), Hardness, Calcium, Magnesium,
India Sodium, Potassium, Iron, Chloride, Carbonate, Bicarbonate, Sulphate,
Nitrate and Fluoride have also been studied. High to very high levels of
iron and fluoride have been observed to be present in 67% and53% of the
samples respectively. Based upon the calculated parameters like SAR,
MAR, PI and Chloro Alkaline Indices, groundwater of Khoyrasole block
is majorly suitable for the purpose of agriculture and irrigation. Plotting of
ionic scatter plots and geochemical facies also indicate the water samples
to be of “fresh water” category, with no dominant cation or anion playing a
selectively dominant role in influencing the groundwater chemistry in the
study area.
1. Introduction available in moderate quantities have already been used
T
up and many more are on the verge of depletion. With
he human race, for its day to day sustenance on
no viable option of being able to redeem these naturally
mother Earth, makes exhaustive use of all the
available reserves, it is high time we understand the im-
available vital natural resources. Over the last few
decades, exponential growth in population, expansion of portance of sustainable development and behave accord-
urban areas, discovery of cutting edge technology and ingly. Amongst the natural resources available, water,
above all an indifferent attitude of the human race has undoubtedly is a prime necessity for one and all and is the
taken a toll on the environment. Various natural resources most sought after in almost all sectors. Water is available
S. K. Nag,
Department of Geological Sciences, Jadavpur University, Kolkata-700032, India;
Email: sisirknag@gmail.com

to us in more than one form or type such as ice, vapour available or not fully functional. Hence almost 70% of the
and water - the last being of two types - saline and fresh population in India consumes groundwater for drinking on
water. Out of the total amount of water present in this a daily basis, not by choice but by compulsion [18].
globe, a very small fraction only (~2.4%) is occurring on India is heading towards a freshwater crisis [19] mainly
the main land, and only a small portion of this amount is due to improper management of water resources and en-
available for using as fresh water. Thus the available fresh vironmental degradation. The outcomes of this crisis are
water to human being is only a small fraction (~0.3% - already evident in many parts of India, varying in scale
0.5%) of the total water available on the earth. This com- and intensity depending on the time and season of the
pels us to be judicious in use of this natural resource [1]. year [20]. Groundwater contains salt in higher proportion
The quantity of fresh water is a finite and limited resource [2]. compared to surface water due to its slow movement and
The utilization of water from very early days has led to higher residence period which ultimately is responsible
its over exploitation coupled with the growing population for increase in the soluble mineral content in water. Water
along with improved standard of living as a consequence acts as a universal solvent and also carries minerals in
of technological innovations [3,4]. Thus contamination of solution may be in small quantity, but this determines its
groundwater is not away from the evils of modernization. suitability for different purposes. Groundwater quality is
As a result, quality of groundwater is deteriorating at a different in different places and also in different stratum.
faster pace due to pollution ranging from septic tanks [5,6], It is also variable from season to season. The necessity of
land fill leachates, domestic sewage [7-9] and agricultural water quality for different purposes (e.g., drinking water,
run - off / agricultural fields [10-14] and industrial wastes [15]. industrial water and irrigation water) varies widely. In
Contamination of groundwater also depends on the geolo- present scenario, groundwater quality is equally important
gy of the area and it is rapid in hard rock areas especially as its quantity [21,22]. In the present study quality of water
in limestone regions where extensive cavern systems are w.r.t consumption has been assessed along with determi-
below the water table [16]. This is a common feature, not nation of hydrogeochemical evolution of parameters.
only in developed countries but also in developing coun-
tries like India. The changes in quality of groundwater
2. Study Area
response to variation in physical, chemical and biological The community development block Khoyrasole (Figure
environments through which it passes [17]. Groundwater 1) lies in the Suri Sadar sub division of Birbhum district.
quality is a very sensitive issue and it transcends national The geographical area of the district is 499 sq-kms. The
boundaries and the present study focuses on the quality north-western part of the district, particularly Rampurhat
and contamination of groundwater, the availability of - Nalhati blocks, the contours are above 110m - 140m
which is the key to day to day livelihood. Quality of water (MSL) while it comes down to 60-70m in eastern and
from groundwater reserves is dynamic in nature as they south eastern part around Khoyrasole - Rajnagar - Suri
are affected by various human activities, including the blocks where topography is almost flat. The Lower Gond-
expansion of cultivated and irrigated lands, industrial- wana Barakar Formation occurs with pronounced uncon-
ization, urbanization and others. Due to the fact that it is formity over the Archeans and has faulted boundaries with
the largest available source of fresh water lying beneath Archean comprising leucocratic gneisses at Rajnagar -
the ground, not only delineation of groundwater potential Khoyrasole. The ground mass comprises pebbly to coarse
zones has become crucial, but also monitoring and con- grained white feldspathic ferrugenous sandstone, grey
serving this important resource is equally prior. Ground- carbonaceous shale and coal. In Birbhum, groundwater
water is usually clear, colourless and remains relatively at occurs under both water table condition in the near surface
constant temperature, and is therefore normally superior aquifers and under confined condition in deeper aquifers.
to surface water with regard to sanitary considerations. The western part of the district around Khoyrasole, Du-
Utilization of groundwater as drinking water is a large brajpur, Rajnagar and Suri, west of Rampurhat and Nal-
scale practice especially in the semi-urban and rural parts hati area is underlain by hard rocks, which vary from ba-
of our country. Although India has made some progress in saltic (Rajmahal volcanics) rocks in the north and granite,
implementation of potable supply of water but gross dis- gneisses and schists in the south. The weathered zone of
parity still exists in the country in terms of coverage area. the hard rocks forms the main repository of ground water
A major part of India is comprised of semi - urban and rural in the area under study. In the eastern fringe of Khoyra-
areas and in these parts there still exist towns and villages, sole, Dubrajpur, Rajnagar, sediments of Gondwana Super
where well managed water transport systems like piped dis- Group form the main repository of groundwater at deeper
tribution of water and related infrastructures are either not level. Lateritic soil also forms the groundwater source in

Figure 1. Map showing study area and locations of sampling points
parts of Suri, Md.Bazar, and further east. contamination.

Khoyrasole lies between 23°42’ and 23°54’ N latitudes Parameters such as, pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC)
and 87°05’ and 87°22’ E longitudes. This block has been and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) of water samples have
mapped on Topo Sheet nos. 73M/1, 73M/5 and 73M/6 been measured on spot using the potable HI 98130 Com-
(Figure 1). Three rivers, namely Sal, Hinglo and Ajay bo pH / EC / TDS / Temperature meter by Hanna Instru-
pass through this block. Sal flows along the northern side ments. Before recording the values, calibrations were
of Khoyrasole whereas Ajay forms the southern boundary done using 4.01, 7.01 and 10.01 buffer solutions for pH
of the block. This river also forms the boundary between and 12.33 mS/cm buffer solution for electrical conductiv-
Birbhum and Bardhaman districts. River Hinglo lies midity readings. Water samples were collected and stored at
way between Sal and Ajay. In summer time, the climate moderate temperatures before carrying out chemical anal-
of the area becomes hot and dry with temperatures rising ysis. Before collection, the bore wells were pumped for a
up to 40° C and above, whereas in winter, the temperature few times and the bottles were rinsed well for 2 - 3 times.
goes down to 10° C or below. Moderate to high rainfall is Each sample has been collected in polyethylene 1,000 ml
experienced in the district, during the monsoon season. bottle after washing it thoroughly by acid. The bottle was
filled completely with water and utmost care was taken so
3. Methodology
that no air bubble remains trapped within the water sam-
The field investigation was carried out during post mon- ple. The sample bottles have been sealed with the double
soon period in December 2019 Groundwater samples plastic caps to circumvent evaporation. During transfer-
were taken from 15 bore wells distributed homogeneous- ring the collected samples to the laboratory for chemical
ly around the investigated area. Figure 1 below presents analyses, precautions were also taken to keep the samples
the location map of sampling points in the study area. away from stirring. Analyses of the water samples have
The locations from where groundwater samples were been performed immediately after transferring the sample
collected have been pre-determined so as to spread over bottles to the laboratory for major ions by employing stan-
the entire area with due attention in areas expected for dard methods [23].

Figure 2. Flow chart showing the entire methodology adopted
Survey of India (SoI) Topo sheets numbered 73 M/1, pH ranges from 6.89-7.59 with an average of 7.33 where-
73 M/5 and 73 M/6 of 1:50,000 scale and Satellite im- as TDS ranges from 221.5-896.6 mg/l with an average of
agery (IRS-IB, LISS-II) have been used to prepare the 430.31 mg/l. In case of EC, 3 samples were found to have
fundamental map where locations of investigating points values beyond the permissible limit but the average value
have been clearly demarcated. To delineate the boundaries was contained well within the WHO guideline.
of geological formations and fault lines, the GIS based
image processing software TNT Mips 2012 has been Table 1. Statistical Summary of Physico-chemical Param-
used. Concentrations of cations along with fluoride in eters Analysed
water samples were determined with an Atomic Absorp- Parameters Minimum Maximum Mean Median
Standard
Deviation
tion Spectrophotometer with a specific lamp for each of
pH 6.89 7.59 7.33 7.36 0.22
the particular elements. Average values of three replicates
EC 110 2200 600.67 320.0 593.77
were taken for each determination. The flow chart (Figure
TDS 221.5 896.6 430.31 354.5 195.06
2) represents the entire methodology adopted.
Hardness 121.52 509.6 250.43 219.52 111.56
4. Results and Discussions Calcium 18.46 112.3 53.94 50.79 28.37
Magnesium 10.1 141.57 37.34 32.3 31.97
4.1 Groundwater Chemistry Sodium 16.75 65.41 36.46 37.83 14.77
Potassium 1 4.65 1.94 1.53 1.02
For evaluation of the groundwater quality in general the
parameters considered for study and evaluated have been Iron <0.02 35.8 3.24 2.8 11.09
presented in Table 1. Table 2 presents the permissible lim- Chloride 9.7 190.12 46.82 19.4 55.78
its of the analysed parameters along with percentage of Carbonate 12.4 28.8 20.14 17.85 4.92
samples missing the mark regarding the same. Among the Bicarbonate 84.84 398.9 195.9 188.98 85.84
parameters tested in situ - pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC) Sulphate 0.96 24.65 10.95 9.56 7.78
and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) both pH and TDS where Nitrate 3.29 21.32 11.54 10.77 4.64
found to have minimum, maximum and average values Fluoride 0.96 4.75 2.04 1.52 1.16
within the desirable/permissible guidelines of WHO [24].

Table 2. WHO/BIS Standards of Analysed Parameters with % of Samples falling within the Limits along with the Phys-
iological and Industrial Effects
WHO Standard BIS Standard

% of Samples Beyond
Sl. No. Parameter Unit Effects
limit
Desirable Permissible Desirable Permissible
1. pH - - 6.5-8.5 - 6.5-8.5 0 Bitter taste
2. EC µS/cm 500 - 500 1000 13.33
3. TDS mg/l - - 500 2000 0 Gastro-intestinal irritation
4. Hardness mg/l 100 500 300 600 6.67 Scale formation
5. Calcium mg/l 75 200 75 200 0 Scale formation
Encrustation in water supply

6. Magnesium mg/l 50 150 30 100 0
pipelines
7. Sodium mg/l - 200 50 200 0 Scale formation
Interference with nervous

8. Potassium mg/l - 200 - 200 0
impulses
9. Iron mg/l - 0.1 - 0.3 66.67 Promotes bacterial growth
10. Chloride mg/l 200 600 250 1000 0 Salty taste
11. Carbonate mg/l - - - - - -
12. Bicarbonate mg/l 300 600 0 -
13. Sulphate mg/l 250 400 200 400 0 Laxative effects
Methanoglobinemia/Blue
14. Nitrate mg/l - 50 - 45 0
Baby Syndrome
15. Fluoride mg/l - 1.5 - 1.5 53.33 Dental/Skeletal Fluorosis
The cationic abundance in the groundwater of Khoy- fall in production of crop [26].
rasole followed the pattern: Ca 2+>Mg 2+>Na +>Fe>K +. The anionic abundance pattern in groundwater of Khoy-
Though the abundance shows average value of iron to rasole is as follows: HCO¯3>Cl¯>CO2¯3>NO3¯>SO2¯4>F¯.
be behind three other major cations but almost 67% of In case of the anions as well all the parameters except
the samples (10 out of 15) contain iron way above the fluoride have concentrations within the permissible limits
permissible limit of 0.3 mg/l. The average value of iron, of WHO. Bicarbonate and carbonate values, which impart
3.24 mg/l in groundwater of Khoyrasole is thus almost alkalinity to water, range between 84.84-398.9 mg/l with
10 times above the prescribed limit. The highest concen- average of 195.9 mg/l and 12.4-28.8 mg/l with an average
tration of iron in the study area has been found to be 35.8 of 20.14 mg/l respectively. Another vital parameter, chlo-
mg/l which is 100 times the permissible limit and hence ride, which is also responsible for imparting salinity to
is of immense concern. Concentrations of iron in higher groundwater ranges from 9.7-190.12 mg/l with an average
proportion is found to occur in groundwater if pyrite bear- of 46.82 mg/l, which is very well below the permissible
ing rock is found to be exposed to oxygenated water. It is guidelines of WHO as well as BIS [27]. The sulphate and
also found when ferric oxide or hydroxide minerals are in nitrate concentrations in this study area are found to be
contact with reducing substances [25]. The concentrations of no harm, with values ranging from 0.96-24.65 mg/l
of the other cations like calcium (ranging between 18.46- with average of 10.95 mg/l and 3.29-21.32 mg/l with an
112.3 mg/l with an average of 53.94 mg/l), magnesium average of 11.54 mg/l respectively. The concentration of
(ranging between 10.1-141.57 mg/l with an average of fluoride in the groundwater is although a cause of concern
37.34 mg/l), sodium (ranging between 16.75-65.41 mg/ as almost 53% of the samples (8 out of 15) contain greater
l with an average of 36.46 mg/l) and potassium (ranging than 1.5 mg/l of fluoride with the highest value going up
between 1-4.65 mg/l with an average of 1.94 mg/l) fall to 4.75 mg/l, almost thrice of the permissible level.
within the WHO limits. Presence of excess magnesium in The various types of physiological damages that can
groundwater creates adverse effects on the quality of soil be caused to the human body due to presence of the mea-
and makes it alkaline which ultimately is responsible for sured parameters in potable and drinking water beyond

Table 3. Correlation Coefficient Matrix (Presenting the Spearman Coefficients)
pH EC TDS Hardness Ca Mg Na K Fe Cl CO3 HCO3 SO4 NO3 F
pH 1.00
EC 0.35 1.00
TDS 0.25 0.04 1.00
Hardness 0.12 -0.01 0.94 1.00
Ca 0.28 0.01 0.94 0.90 1.00
Mg -0.60 -0.04 -0.03 0.02 -0.09 1.00
Na 0.32 0.23 0.81 0.79 0.79 -0.14 1.00
K -0.26 0.34 -0.56 -0.43 -0.53 0.03 -0.11 1.00
Fe -0.46 -0.11 -0.30 -0.16 -0.27 -0.14 -0.34 0.07 1.00
Cl 0.16 0.04 0.94 0.91 0.85 0.13 0.81 -0.47 -0.32 1.00
CO3 0.26 -0.06 0.38 0.41 0.36 0.03 0.52 0.06 -0.62 0.36 1.00
HCO3 0.10 0.08 0.73 0.67 0.65 -0.15 0.47 -0.35 -0.12 0.62 0.32 1.00
SO4 0.38 0.13 0.41 0.55 0.55 -0.12 0.39 -0.08 -0.28 0.31 0.45 0.29 1.00
NO3 0.07 0.36 -0.48 -0.49 -0.53 -0.17 -0.38 0.30 0.03 -0.41 -0.23 -0.19 -0.20 1.00
F 0.44 -0.26 -0.27 -0.39 -0.40 -0.40 -0.37 -0.25 -0.13 -0.24 -0.12 -0.29 -0.37 0.24 1.00
the permissible limits and the wide range of damages that also, exhibit their presence quite well.
are also caused to the piped line distribution systems put In plots 3c and 3d, HCO¯3 and HCO¯3+ SO42¯ have
in place for supply of stored groundwater have also been been plotted against Ca+Mg respectively. In 3c, the
shown in Table 2. In the particular study area, people con- samples fall majorly near the equiline indicating the
suming groundwater are thus prone to enhanced bacterial source of these alkaline earth metals in water is majorly
growth and dental fluorosis as both iron and fluoride are sourced from limestone dissolution. In case of plot 3d
present in elevated levels in the water samples analyzed. similar trends are shown which again reassures the fact
that dissolution of Ca and Mg into groundwater is not
4.2 Hydrogeochemical Evolution majorly influenced by other minerals such as muscovite or
For interpreting and understanding the role of the dom- calcite.
inant cations and anions in groundwater several scatter In the next series of scatter plots, both cations and an-
plots have been put to use. Each scatter indicates how the ions have been plotted against each other to determine the
ions involved affect and control the groundwater chemis- dominant processes active in the system and sources of
try. The concentrations of all the ions have been measured ions into groundwater. Plot 4a, where Na has been plotted
in meq/l while plotting these graphs. Table 3 presents the against Cl¯, all the samples fall above the equiline and
correlation coefficient matrix, bearing the correlation co- mostly towards Na axis indicating that salinization is not a
efficients generated through cross plotting of all the anal- dominant feature in the groundwater chemistry of this par-
ysed parameters. ticular area, which has also been reflected in low values
The scatter plots 3a and 3b have been plotted using of chloride in the water samples assessed. Plot 4b, where
the Ca+Mg against TZ and Na+K against TZ respective- Cl¯+ SO42¯ has been plotted against Na+K, majority of
ly, where TZ is the total of the concentrations of major the samples fall below the equiline, towards the Na+K
cations in groundwater. In both plots we can see that the axis - indicating that primary salinity processes - such as
samples fall near the (1:1) equiline. These trends suggest rainfall and gradual dissolution of minerals are the major
that all the four cations are dominant in the groundwater sources imparting salinity or alkalinity to the groundwater
samples and alter the groundwater chemistry in their own in the region. In case of plot 4c, where Ca has been plot-
capacity. Khoyrasole being an agriculturally dominant ted against SO42¯, we can observe that the samples are
area the presence and prominent dominance of K and Na scattered almost all over the plot indicating that the source
is well understood. On the other hand both Ca and Mg, of calcium in groundwater is almost equally sourced from
which are sourced from carbonate minerals weathering gypsum (a common source of calcium and sulphate) as

Figure 3a Figure 3b
Figure 3c Figure 3d
well as other minerals like limestone/calcite etc.
Plot 4d, presenting the scatter plot of TZ against
HCO¯3 indicates that the not geogenic and natural reasons
are a dominant factor behind controlling the hydrogeo-
chemical evolution of groundwater in the study area.
Plots 5a and 5b, where Ca+Mg and Na+K have been
plotted against Cl¯ respectively, indicate that there is no
sign of increased salinity due to secondary salinity proce-
dures in groundwater of the particular study area chosen. Figure 4c
Figure 4a Figure 4d
Figure 4b Figure 5a

explained above, have been presented in the block below,

where concentrations of all ions are have been expressed
in meq/l. Table 4 presents the range of each calculated
parameter in water samples and Table 5 presents their cat-
egories, classifications and percentage of samples falling
in each category.
Table 4. Statistical Summary of the Calculated Parameters
Figure 5b Parameters Minimum Maximum Mean Median Standard Deviation
SAR 0.29 1.4 0.97 1.03 0.33

4.3 Groundwater Suitability for Irrigation PI 13.81 76.64 49.63 50.62 14.24
For evaluation of the groundwater quality with respect to MAR 19.73 90.55 50.21 47.3 18.14
irrigational suitability parameters like SAR (Sodium Ab- Mg/Ca 0.25 9.58 1.68 0.9 2.35
sorption Ratio), Permeability Index (PI), Magnesium Ab- %Na 5.68 36.2 23.66 24.19 7.66
sorption Ratio (MAR), %Na, Mg/Ca Ratio and the Chloro CAI I -5.94 0.46 -1.64 -1.06 2
Alkaline Indices I/II have been calculated and compared. CAI II -0.61 0.42 -0.13 -0.16 0.26
If the water used in irrigation contains high sodium and
low in calcium, the ion-exchange complex may become SAR = [Na+] / {([Ca2+] + [Mg2+])} ½
saturated with sodium which demolishes the structure of PI = Na+ + [{(HCO3¯) / (Ca2++Mg2++Na+)}*100]
the soil, owing to the clay particles dispersion [28] and the
plant growth is reduced. Irrigation water with excessive MAR = (Mg2+ * 100) / (Ca2+ + Mg2+)
salinity diminishes the osmotic activity of plants [29]. If the %Na = [(Na + K) / (Ca + Mg + Na + K)] x100
Sodium percentage is greater than 50%, it should be con-
CA1 = [Cl¯ - (Na + K)] / Cl¯
sidered as a warning of sodium hazard. However, during CA2 = [Cl¯- (Na+K)]/(SO42¯+HCO3¯+CO32¯+NO3¯)
the year 1954, it was decided that the term “sodium per-
centage” is to be changed and a new name the “Sodium Table 5. Classification Levels of Calculated Parameters
Adsorption Ratio” or “SAR” came into existence as it is with % of Samples within Each Category
directly related with the adsorption of sodium by soils [30]. % of
Parameter Class Description
The salts, not only affects the plant growth directly, it also Samples
affects soil structure, permeability and aeration, which af- 0 - 10

Low sodium hazard - suitable for
100
all soils
fect plant growth indirectly [31].
Medium sodium hazard - suitable
The permeability of soil is affected by long-term use 10 - 18 0
for coarse textured soils
of irrigation water and is influenced by sodium, calcium, SAR
High sodium hazard - generally
magnesium and bicarbonate contents in soil. Another mod- 18 - 26 0
harmful for most soil types
ified criterion has evolved based on the solubility of salts Very high sodium hazard -
> 26 0
and the reaction occurring in the soil solution from cation unsuitable
exchange for estimating the quality of agricultural waters <25 Class I 6.67
[32]
. Soil permeability is affected by long-term use of irriga- PI 25-75 Class II 86.67
tion water and is influenced by - (1) Total dissolved solids, >75 Class III 6.67
(2) sodium contents and (3) bicarbonate content. ≤ 50 Suitable 66.67
MAR
The indices of Chloro - alkalinity, (CAI I and CAI > 50 Unsuitable 33.33
II), commonly known as indices of Base Exchange [33,34] <20 Excellent 20
are considered as indicators to delineate as to whether 20 - 40 Good 80
ion exchange or reverse ion exchange has taken place in %Na 40 - 60 Permissible 0
groundwater. If there is an exchange between Na and/or 60 - 80 Doubtful 0
K in groundwater with Mg and/or Ca in the aquifer ma- > 80 Unsuitable 0
terial, both of the indices are positive, indicating direct Na & K from water with Ca & Mg
Positive 20
ion exchange. When the reverse of this process occurs, in aquifer Matrix
CAI
the indices have a negative value, indicating reverse Ca & Mg from water with Na & K
Negative 80
ion exchange [35,36]. The equations used for the parameters in aquifer Matrix

4.4 Hydrogeochemical Facies Evolution in a similar range whereas the average concentration of
calcium is higher than them. Among the anions, sulphate
For evaluation of the groundwater type and a lateral com- has the lowest values in comparison with chloride and car-
parison of the major cations and anions present in the bonate. The Schoeller diagram pictorially presents that the
water samples two diagrams have been plotted - Piper parameter concentrations in almost all samples fall within
Diagram (Figure 6) and the Schoeller Diagram (Figure the “desired limit or guideline” set by WHO and BIS.
7). The Piper [37] plot allows comparisons between a large
numbers of samples and it does not portray absolute ion 5. Conclusions
concentrations. The main purpose of this plot is to show
clustering of samples and thus determine the major water From the various parameters analysed and the several fac-
type prevalent in the study area. In the present study the tors calculated, it can be concluded that among the ionic
water samples fall in the Ca-Mg-HCO3 class of the Piper concentration levels, two parameters iron and fluoride
diagram, thus denoting that the water samples fall in the pose a major and immediate threat to the physiological
“fresh water” category. well being of the residents of Khoyrasole who consume
the groundwater directly. Besides these parameters, all
other ionic concentrations fall within the permissible lim-
its and pose no threat. Hydrogeochemical studies indicate
that nor does any particular ion dominate the groundwater
chemistry in this region solely, neither are any anthropo-
genic and secondary sources responsible for contamina-
tion of groundwater. In terms of irrigational suitability,
majority of the water samples meet all criterions to be
rendered suitable for the same. Only a handful of values
indicate that a couple of samples have the potential to ren-
der low permeability to the soil in contact. Thus, sustain-
able management of water is possible in this study area if
proper measures are taken to reduce the concentrations of
iron and fluoride in groundwater. For both of parameters,
domestic level treatment of precipitation and filtering can
be adopted. Use of alum as a precipitant in case of iron
and lime in case of fluoride can be adopted as immediate
mitigation measures.
Figure 6. Piper Diagram Conflict of Interest
We do hereby certify that there is no conflict of interest in
this article.
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ARTICLE
Achievable Sustainable Use and Management of Water Resources for
Irrigation in Nigeria
Moses Oghenenyoreme Eyankware1* Ezekiel Obinna Igwe1 Christopher Ogwah1
Ruth Oghenerukevwe Eyankware Ulakpa2
1. Department of Geology, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki Ebonyi State Nigeria
2. Department of Environmental Management and Pollution Control, Nigeria Maritime University, Okerenkoko, Delta
State, Nigeria
Article history Water resource is available in Nigeria to meet water demand for domestic,
Received: 27 October 2020 agricultural and industrial use. If well enhanced and protected from various
source of pollution. However, less information is available on suitability of
Accepted: 16 November 2020 water resources for irrigation use in Nigeria. This article reviews literature
Published Online: 30 December 2020 of the past with regards to influence of geogenic and anthropogenic
activities on water resource for irrigation purpose in Nigeria and also
Keywords: to explain the current state of suitability of water resource for irrigation
Geogenic studies in Nigeria and gaps in studies. It also summarizes future ways on
water resource management and preventive measure for water resource
Anthropogenic pollution for irrigation use. Related articles were downloaded from Google
Irrigation indices scholar in water-related issues. This paper tends to review previous article
Suitability and Nigeria on water resource in Nigeria, and its suitability for irrigation. The primary
aim of this paper is to produce a synoptic overview of the water resources
in Nigeria and its suitability for irrigation use. From paper reviewed it
was observed that 89 % of water resources was considered suitable for
irrigation.
1. Introduction thropogenic activities. The hydrogeochemical characteris-
R
tics of groundwater is governed and influenced by ground-
ecent studies have shown that scientific approach
water quality and the rock/mineral-water interactions in
such statistical based approach, hydrochemical
the sub-surface aquifers and sometimes by inter mixing of
and other approach has been used for water re-
two different aquifers [6]. Johnson, et al. [7] pointed out that
sources quality assessment. With these approach, large
geological, hydrological and biological data are simplified, the most widespread forms of geogenic contamination
organized and classified to produce useful information with effect on man and crops are elevated concentrations
on water quality for various use ranging from domestic, of arsenic and fluoride. Geogenic contamination may
industrial, irrigation and other use [1-5]. As the quality of also trigger concentrations of uranium [8,9], chloride [10]
water resource is most time influenced by geogenic and an- or sulfate [11]. Grützmacher, et al. [12] stated that geogenic
Moses Oghenenyoreme Eyankware,
Department of Geology, Ebonyi State University Abakaliki Ebonyi State, Nigeria;
Email: geomoses203@gmail.com

contamination is defined as the overstepping of certain

thresholds (drinking water guidelines) in the groundwater
without direct or indirect human influence. Often it is the
result of long residence times combined with favorable
geologic conditions and mineralogy of the groundwater.
Several studies carried out has shown that hat anthro-
pogenic activities resulting in its urbanization, mining,
industrialization, landfill/dumpsite, pesticides washed off
the land by rain, leachates, heavy metals, bacteriological
pollution, overexploitation, poor recharge and chemi-
cal contamination are major concerns for groundwater
sustainability [13-16]. While in coastal area of Nigeria and
other part of the world salinization has become a threat to
groundwater quality. Numerous publication have reported Figure 1. Map showing Climatic zones in Nigeria; adapt-
salinization and potential sources of groundwater salinity ed from Akinsanola and Ogunjobi [29]
in coastal groundwater, these include evaporite mineral
dissolution [17-19], downward/upward saline groundwater 1.2 Geology Setting
seepage [20-22], brine migration [23,24], and mixing caused by Geology of the Nigeria is divided into; Basement Com-
poorly constructed wells [25], as well as seawater intrusion [26]. plex, Younger granites, and Sedimentary Basins (Figure 2)
Studies by Ocheri, et al. [27] stated that groundwater quality for more on this see Obaje [31].
in cities areas are mostly controlled by the geogenic and
geochemistry of the environment, rate of urbanization,
landfill/dumpsite leachates, industrialization, bacteriolog-
ical pollution, heavy metals, and effect of seasons. In the
vein, surface water contamination is linked to increase in
population, urbanization and industrialization. The pota-
bility of water resources for irrigation is evaluated by its
mineralogy makeup, the type of the plant and the soil to
be irrigated [28]. The objectives of this study are to review
potability of water resources in Nigeria for irrigation
based on two category:
(1) Anthropogenic; these include; mining activities, un-
lawful waste disposal, leakage of septic tanks and applica-
tion of pesticides.
(2) Geogenic factor; these include weathering and rock
water interaction.
Figure 2. Map of Nigeria showing three major geological
1.1 Climate and Vegetation component Basement, Younger Granites, and Sedimentary
Basins
The study area is grouped into five vegetation zones
Source: Nuhu [32].
namely; the coastal zone, tropical rainforest, Guinea
Savannah, Sudan Savannah and Sahel [29]. The climatic 2. Methods
zones are shown in Figure 1 and grouped following the
Articles published within the last 5-10 years were reviewed
agro-climatic zones distribution (based mainly on rainfall to evaluate the influence of anthprogenic and geogenic
and temperature) of the country, see Ayanlade, et al. [30] for activities on water resources quality and its suitability for
more information as regards this. irrigation use in Nigeria and also abate measure to reduce

water resource pollution. Omlin, et al. [33], methods was (KR) fell within excellent to very good range, hence one
adopted for this study. Article related to this study were could say groundwater for the study is considered suitable
searched by google search engines, open access journal for irrigation. Ayuba, et al [36] evaluated different rural
sites (SCOPUS, Pub-Med, Taylor Francis, Elsevier and communities wells, this positive correlation is an indica-
Springer etc.). These relevant articles and papers were tion that the ions are controlled by the same geochemical
read in full information gotten were stored in database factors. [35] further stated that based on (sodium percent-
with details of publication particulars, study location, age) Na % only one sample location has Na % less than
period, approach, methodology for assessing influence 20% and it is classified excellent water type. Irrigation
of anthropogenic and geogenic activities, results of these parameters calculated for were sodium percentage (Na
activities, and major conclusion. Furthermore, to inter- %), SAR, magnesium hardness (MAR), PI and RSC. The
pret the status and quality of work carried out in Nigeria, RSC, MH, estimated from groundwater sample revealed
Omlin, et al [33] method was employed for this study with that the values were parameters were below the guideline
some modifications to suit the aim and objectives of this of 60 % and thus, are considered to be safe and fit for irri-
paper. The steps that was adopted to evaluate the quality gation purposes. Eyankware, et al. [37] studied the suitabil-
of the articles included the following; ity of water resources for irrigation in abandoned Nkalagu
(1) Geological terrain of were each of the paper be- limestone mine pits, Ebonyi state Southeastern Nigeria.
longs to (Basement complex, sedimentary basin and Niger Indices calculated for were SSP, MAR, KR, Na %, SAR
Delta Basin) and TH. They stated that most of calculated parameters
(2) Detail description of subjective exposure of water were considered suitable for irrigation, few sampling were
resources was discussed (precipitation, water rock interac- considered unfit for irrigation and that high concentrations
tion, mining activities. of the magnesium and calcium showed that the area is of
carbonate terrain and there is evidence of water rock in-
3. Result and Discussion teraction. Oladeji, et al [38] evaluated the quality of ground-
water for irrigation at Otte village, Kwara state Nigeria
Factor that alter water resources quality for irrigation use
within two geologic formation Migmatitic and Granitic
in Nigeria (with emphasis on geogenic and anthropogenic
gnesis. They concluded that the water samples obtained
activities).
from areas underlain by the Migmatitic gneiss tends to be
(1) Geogenic (rock water interaction, weathering. e.t.c)
relatively suitable for irrigation, when compared to those
(2) Anthropogenic activities (marine pollution, sewage
underlain by the Granitic gneiss. Talabi, et al. [39] studied
disposal, leakage of septic tanks and mining).
surface water and shallow water bearing formation in Eki-
3.1 Related Article on Geogenic Factors ti state, the area falls within the Basement Complex, there
study was subjected to seasonal variation. Findings from
Aderibigbe, et al. [34] studied the potability of water re- there revealed that 90 % of TH from surface water showed
sources for irrigation. Irrigation indices that they calcu- is less than 70 mg/L this implies that surface water is con-
lated for was Na %, from their study it was observed that sidered soft, with low effect of mineralized water and no
water resources were within the excellent to permissible pronounced effect of water interaction from transient to
class, there study further revealed that the ions present in residence time. They further pointed out that irrigation in-
these water bodies are dominantly controlled by chemical dices such as; SAR, RSBC and PI showed signified good
weathering and none was assigned to precipitation pro- quality water suitable for irrigation, while MAR and Kel-
cesses. Eyankware. [35] evaluated the groundwater quality ly’s ratio were indicative of moderately suitable irrigation
at Ekaeru Inyimagu for irrigation using hydrochemical water. Aleke and Nwachukwu [40] studied the suitability of
approach and irrigation indices findings from the study basement aquifer at Abuja, Nigeria, for irrigation. They
revealed that groundwater within the area of study was were of the opinion that geochemical facies of the ground-
considered suitable for irrigation. Further results, from the water is of Ca-Cl2 water type, this implies that over a long
findings revealed that the dominant species in groundwa- period of time, water-rock interaction has altered ground-
ter is Cl¯, result from Gibbs plot, further showed that rock water chemistry. [41] Their findings revealed that the major
water interaction is the major process that influencing processes influencing groundwater are weathering, miner-
groundwater chemistry. Estimated result from irrigation al dissolution and ion exchange. Irrigation indices such as
indices showed that soluble sodium percentage (SSP), SAR, KR, TH, PI, and RSC showed that the groundwater
magnesium absorption ratio (MAR), Permeability index within the study area is suitable for irrigation, except MR
(PI), residual sodium bicarbonate (RSBC) and Kelly ratio which showed that groundwater is fairly unsuitable for

irrigation. According to Talabi [41] stated that groundwa- 3.2 Related Article on Anthropogenic Activities
ter is suitable for irrigation, and further stated that rock
water interaction influence its chemistry as it reflect on it Eyankware, et al. [48] conducted an assessment of influ-
physicochemical composition, water facies and irrigation ence of mining of water quality for irrigation at Mkpuma
quality. Hence groundwater within selected part of Ikere, Ekwaoku mining district. Parameters analyzed for were;
Ekiti is considered fit for irrigation. Omo-Irabor, et al. [42] TH, SAR, MAR, KR, Na % and SSP. From there findings,
stated that pH shows that groundwater falls within slight- it was observed that TH and Na% at some sampling points
ly acidic to basic, and are within acceptable range for were slightly above the set standard, that implies mining
irrigation purpose. They evaluated groundwater at Ibinta might have affected the suitability of water for irrigation
with emphasis on its suitability for irrigation, from hy- at those points that are above the set standard. Ethan, et
drogeochemical facies plot, the dominant water type from al. [49] evaluated of water quality for irrigation at Badeggi
piper plot is SO42¯ + Mg2+ type, from Scholler diagram and Edozigdi, indices calculated for were SAR and Na
groundwater trend in Mg2+>SO42¯>Cl¯>HCO3¯>Na+ %. They stated that the quality of water resources for ir-
>Ca+ and the Wilcox diagram showed that the groundwa- rigation falls within moderate category according to FAO
ter ranges between permissible to excellent class, Gibbs Standard [50]. Omotoso and Ojo [51] studied the quality of
plot revealed that rock water interaction is the major pro- river Niger floodplain water at Jebba central for irrigation.
cess that influence groundwater. Result from irrigation pa- Indices calculated for where SAR, MAR, RSC, permeabil-
rameters revealed that SSP, Na%, KR and TH were below ity index (PI), Potential salinity (PS) and SSP. From there
the permissible limit for irrigation, based on these ground findings, the water is of suitable for irrigation. Except for
water is considered fit for irrigation. Talabi, et al.[39] as- magnesium absorption ratio and Kelly ratio at some loca-
sessed the suitability of surface water for irrigation using tions where considered unfit for irrigation. [43], stated that
indices such as SAR, RSC, PI and KR results from their surface water (River Niger, Oshin and Ndafa) were used
study showed that surface water fell within excellent to for Josepdam irrigation scheme. From their findings water
good. [31], Gibbs plot depicted that the geochemistry of wa- show no salinity tendency from SAR value, while pH is
ter were influenced by chemical weathering controlled by within the recommended FAO standard [50]. Eyankware, et
precipitation as the major factor controlling the chemistry al. [52] evaluated groundwater quality for irrigation at War-
of the surface waters. According to Nwankwoala, et al. [43] ri, Niger Delta Region. Irrigation parameters calculated
higher percentage of groundwater model in selected part for were; SSP, MAR, SAR, PI and PS. They observed that
of Otuoke and environs, Bayelsa State were considered SSP, MAR, SAR, PI, EC, Potential salinity (PS) were be-
suitable for irrigation purpose except for KR, its suitabil- low the set standard and considered fit for irrigation pur-
ity status were assessed using irrigation models such as; pose. Except for TH and KR that were above the set stan-
SAR, PS, PI, Na %, KR, and MAR. Onyeabor and Nwat- dard at some sampling points, concluded that groundwater
alari [44] assessed surface water around Enyigba mine for is considered fairly good for irrigation. Eyankware, et
irrigation, model use for the evaluation was SAR, from al.[53] studied the suitability of groundwater for irrigation
their findings they stated that the water is fit for irrigation. at Eruemukohwarien Community, Niger Delta Region. In-
Egirani and Nomji [45] assessed groundwater in Markurdi, dices calculated for were: SAR, KR, MAR, PI, Na % and
Benue state capital. A total of eight groundwater sample SSP, their results showed that groundwater was considered
were analyzed from there finding it was observed that wa- suitable for irrigation. Eyankware [54] evaluated the impact
ter is considered suitable for irrigation. In the same vein of mining on groundwater within the Umuoghara mining
Ekpe, et al. [46] assessed surface and groundwater in select- district in Ebonyi State, southeastern Nigeria. Geological-
ed water resource in southeastern Nigeria. Their findings ly, the area lies within the Asu River Group of Southern
revealed that water resources were considered suitable Benue Trough. Irrigation parameters such as PI values
for irrigation. Eyankware, et al. [47] evaluated groundwater were below the set standard for irrigation. Values of KR,
of Oju, Benue State with emphasis on its suitability for RSBC, SSP, Na%, TH and Ec were above the set standard
irrigation, indices used to assess the suitability of sampled at some sampling points. Tsuzom, et al. [55] studied surface
water were Ec, MAR, SAR, TH, Na %, SSP, Gibbs plot water quality at Kaduna from their findings it was ob-
and plot of SAR against Ec. Their findings showed that served Ec and potassium concentration in sampled water
over 94% of sampled point where considered suitable for were above the irrigation guideline values across the sam-
irrigation, although high TH value was observed at some pling points; boron concentrations were close to guideline
and hence such points were considered unsuitable for irri- value at two sampled point, estimated values from SAR
gation. exceeded the guideline value at four of the six sampling

Table. 1. Related references on water resource studies for irrigation quality in Nigeria
Sampling Year of
Author (s) Location Geology Data Source Field of Study Title
Number Publication
Preliminary investigation of the hydro-

Egirani, and Sedimentary
Benue Journal article Water analysis 8 2002 geochemical characteristics of groundwater
Nomji [45] terrain
in parts of the Makurdi formation, Nigeria
Suitability assessment of groundwater
Oladeji, et al. [38] Kwara Basement Journal article Water analysis 12 2012 resources for irrigation around Otte Village,
Kwara State, Nigeria
Assessment of quality of river Niger
Omotoso and Ojo [51] Jebba Journal article Water analysis 2012 floodplain water at Jebba, central Nigeria:
implications for irrigation
Water Quality Assessment of Okpaukpu
Cross Sedimentary
Akpan, et al. [56] Journal article Water analysis 17 2012 River for Drinking and Irrigation Use in
River terrain
Yala, Cross River State. Nigeria.
Assessment of the Quality of Irrigation
Ethan and Yunsua [49] Niger Journal article Water analysis 2014 Water at the Badeggi and Edozighi
Irrigation Schemes
Miscellaneous Properties of Irrigation
Sedimentary
Ekpe [46] Ebonyi Journal article Water analysis 2014 Water Sources of
terrain
Ebonyi State Southeast Nigeria
Stream Water Quality Assessment for
Tsuzom, et al. [55] Kaduna Journal article Water analysis 6 2015 Irrigation at Nasarawa - Kakuri Area of
Kaduna, Nigeria.
Hydrochemical Apprasial of Groundwater
[35] Sedimentary for Irrigation Purpose; a case study of
Eyankware Ebonyi Journal article Water analysis 6 2016a
terrain Ekaeru Inyimagu and its adjoining area,
Ebonyi State, Nigeria
Use of hydrochemical Approach in
Evaluation Water Quality around the
Sedimentary
Eyankware, et al. [48] Ebonyi Journal article Water analysis 10 2016b Vicinity of Mkpuma Ekwaoku Mining
terrain
District, Ebonyi State, SE. Nigeria for
Irrigation Purpose
Hydrogeochemical Evaluation of
[54] Sedimentary Groundwater for Irrigation Purposes
Eyankware Ebonyi Journal article Water analysis 12 2017c
terrain in Mining Areas of Umuoghara Near,
Abakaliki, SE. Nigeria.
Hydrogeochemical Assessment of Ground
and Surface water of Eruemukohwarien
Sedimentary
Eyankware, et al. [53] Delta Journal article Water analysis 15 2016 Community and its Environs for Domestic
terrain
and Irrigation purpose, Western Niger
Delta Region, Nigeria.
The Suitability of Groundwater for
Talabi [41] Ekiti Journal article Water analysis 22 2017 Domestic and Irrigation Purposes: A Case
Study of Ikere Ekiti, SW-Nigeria.
Hydrochemical Studies of Surface Water
Aderibigbe, Sedimentary
Lagos Journal article Water analysis 14 2015 and Groundwater in Lagos State, Southwest
et al. [35] terrain
Nigeria.
Hydrochemical Characteristics and quality
Sedimentary
Ayuba, et al. [36] Benue Journal article Water analysis 18 2017 Assessment of Groundwater from Shallow
terrain
Wells in Gboloko Area, Central Nigeria.
Geochemical Assessment of Water Quality

Eyankware, Sedimentary for Irrigation Purpose, in Abandoned
Ebonyi Journal article Water analysis 13 2018a
et al. [37] terrain Limestone Quarry pit at Nkalagu area,
Southern Benue Trough

Hydrogeochemical Appraisal of Water

Eyankware, Sedimentary
Delta Journal article Water analysis 15 2020 Quality for Irrigation at Warri and environs.
et al. [52] terrain
Niger Delta Basin, Nigeria.
Geochemical Assessment and Modeling of
Nwankwoala, Sedimentary Water Quality for Irrigation and Industrial
Bayelsa Journal article Water analysis 14 2018
et al. [43] terrain Purposes in Otuoke and Environs, Bayelsa
State, Nigeria.
Irrigation Suitability of Surface Waters
Onyeabor and Sedimentary
Ebonyi Journal article Water analysis 6 2018 of Enyigba Ebonyi State, Southeastern
Nwatalari [44] terrain
Nigeria
Assessment and characterization of the
Aleke and Basement Basement aquifer at Idu-Karmo, area of
Abuja Journal article Water analysis 15 2019
Nwachukwu [40] Complex FCT-Abuja, Nigeria, for drinking and
irrigation
Integration of Hydrogeochemical
Analytical Methods and Irrigation
Cross Sedimentary
Omo-Irabor, et al. [42] Journal article Water analysis 15 2018 Parameters in the Evaluation of
River terrain
Groundwater Quality at Ibinta, Southern
Benue Trough Nigeria
Evaluation of the Process Governing
Oju,
[51] Sedimentary Groundwater Suitability for Irrigation at
Eyankware, et al. Benue Journal article Water analysis 14 2019
terrain Oju and its Adjourning Area, Benue State,
State
Nigeria. Using Hydrochemical Approach.
points. Their findings showed the need for the Nasarawa to surface water with 20.4 % as shown in Figure 4.
stream water to be subjected to some level of treatment
especially during the dry season when the level of dilution
by rain water will be absent and then water will be consid-
ered suitable for irrigation. Tsuzom and Olaniya [55] studied
the suitability of Nasarawa stream for irrigation in Kaduna
south local government. Irrigation indices applied for this
study were SAR, RSC and Ec. Results from their studies
revealed that indices studied were below the set standard.
Hence sampled water is considered suitable for irrigation.
Akpan, et al.[56] access the potability of Okpaku River
using SAR as irrigation indices for evaluation of sodicity
hazard for irrigation. From their findings it was observed
that sampled points were below specific standard for irri- Figure 4. Percentage of Groundwater/surface water evalu-
gation. Although, other irrigation indices was not used to ated for Irrigation in Nigeria
confirm the suitability of the sampled water for irrigation,
hence their findings was not scientific proven. 3.4 Type of Pollutant that Alter Water Quality for
Irrigation in Nigeria
3.3 Usage of Water Resource for Irrigation
Various kind of pollutant are responsible for water quality
Findings from the literature analysis revealed that ground- alteration for irrigation in Nigeria, such factors could be
water is more evaluated for irrigation purposed than sur- domestic waste, acid-rain that occur in oil and gas produc-
face water. Surface water is believed to be more prone ing region of Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. [59] suggested
to pollution when compared to surface due to the fact it that sources of surface water pollution in Nigeria are solid
exposed to all kind of pollutant i.e landfill, septic tanks mineral exploration, oil and gas, industrial effluent, hy-
and oil spill. Although groundwater is not easily polluted drogeology, domestic waste and sewage, and agriculture.
when compared to surface water, but it could be difficult They further stated that groundwater pollution in Nigeria
to remediate contaminants once pollution occurs [57,58]. It are landfill leachate, hydrogeology, industrial effluent,
was observed that groundwater was evaluated more for urbanization, poor well construction, domestic waste and
groundwater with percentage of 79.6 % when compared sewage and, oil and gas.

4. Conclusion Modeling Earth Systems and Environment, 2018.

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to anthropogenic activities and geogenic activities. From in Ngbo and environs, Ebonyi State, southeastern,
reviewed literature, it was observed that 59% of within Nigeria. Modeling Earth Systems and Environment,
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ic activities. While, within the hard rock terrain 67 % of [5] Rao, S. Spatial control of groundwater contamina-
water resources is influenced by geogenic activities, 33 % tion, using principal component analysis. J Earth Syst
is influenced by anthropogenic activities. Irrigation indi- Sci, 2014, 123(4): 715-728
ces such as SAR, TH, SSP, Na %, MAR, CAI, RSBC, KR, [6] Eyankware, M.O., Ogwah, C., Okeke, G. C. Geo-
PI Gibbs plots and PI, showed that 71% of water resource chemical evaluation of groundwater origin using
in Nigeria was considered suitable for irrigation, 29 % source rock deduction and hydrochemical facies at
is considered slightly unsuitable for irrigation, various Umuoghara Mining Area, Lower Benue Trough, SE
authors revealed that the unsuitability of water resources Nigeria. Intern. Res. Jour. of Earth Sci., 2018, 6(10):
for irrigation, could be linked to mineralogy constituents 1-11.
of water bearing units for both hard rock and sedimentary [7] Johnson et al. Geogenic contaminants. - Eawag News
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revealed that 90 % of analyzed water falls within excellent [8] Smedley et al. Uranium Occurrence and Behaviour
and good category. Various authors were of the opinion, in British Groundwater. CR/06/050N. British Geol.
that although groundwater chemistry was influenced by Survey, 2006.
weathering processes it’s has little or no influence on suit- [9] Stalder et al. Occurrence of uranium in Swiss drink-
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[10] Panno, S. V., Hackley, K. C., Hwang, H. H., Green-
Recommendations berg, S. E., Krapac, I. G., Landsberger, S., O’Kelly,
D. J. Characterization and Identification of Na-Cl
In addressing these aforementioned challenges, the fol-
Sources in Ground Water. - Ground Water, 2006, 44:
lowing recommendation should be taken into consider-
176-187.
ation;
[11] Champidi, P., Stamatis, G. Zagana, E. Groundwater
(1) Relevant law enforcement agencies should try and
Quality Assessment and Geogenic and Anthropogen-
enforce strict adherent to disposal of waste close to surface
ic Estimation in Erasions Basin (E.Attica). European
water bodies to avoid decline in surface water quality.
Water, 2011, 33: 11-27.
(2) Relevant authorities should ensure that water qual-
[12] Grützmacher, G. Kumar1, P.J.S. Rustler1, M. Han-
ity criteria should be used as a guideline to define proper
nappe, S. Sauer, U. Geogenic groundwater contam-
management practices in irrigated agriculture. ination -definition, occurrence and relevance for
(3) Water resources should be monitored from time to drinking water production. Zbl. Geol. Paläont. Teil I,
time by relevant agencies to avoid total deterioration of Jg. Heft 1, 2013, 69-75.
water quality for irrigation. [13] Shekhar, S. An approximate projection of availability
of the fresh groundwater resources in the South West
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REVIEW
Methane and Hydrogen Storage in Metal Organic Frameworks: A
Mini Review
Oghenegare Emmanuel Eyankware1* Idaeresoari Harriet Ateke2
1. TegaFej Consulting Services, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria
2. Department of Petroleum and Gas Engineering, University of Port Harcourt, Rivers state, Nigeria
Article history The need for a net zero carbon emission future is imperative for
Received: 30 November2020 environmental sustainability hence, intensive carbon fuels would need to
be replaced with less carbon emitting energy sources such as natural gas
Accepted: 9 December 2020 till clean energy source such as hydrogen becomes commercialized. As
Published Online: 30 December 2020 a result, this mini review discusses the use of metal organic framework
(MOF) for adsorption of methane and hydrogen in specially designed tanks
Keywords: for improved performance so as to increase their applicability. Herein,
Methane adsorption (delivery) capacity of selected high performing MOFs for
methane and hydrogen storage were highlighted in reference to the targets
Hydrogen set by United States Department of Energy’s Advanced Research Projects
Metal organic framework Agency-Energy (ARPA-E) and Fuel Cells Technology Office. In this
Adsorption regard, specific design and chemistry of MOFs for improved methane and
hydrogen adsorption were highlighted accordingly. In addition, an overview
Storage
of computational and molecular studies of hypothetical MOFs was done
Computational - the various approaches used and their proficiency for construction of
specific of crystalline structures and topologies were herewith discussed.
1. Introduction oil for energy generation to drive their respective eco-
T
nomic activities. This challenge posed to environmental
he continuous global emission of greenhouse gas- sustainability in the form of extreme weather events such
es (GHGs) particularly carbon (IV) oxide (CO2 as drought, increasing sea levels and deforestation etc.
hereafter) into the atmosphere from utilization of that threaten human development and existence therefore
fossil fuels (coal and crude oil) for energy production has necessitates the need to investigate and deploy less carbon
been identified as the leading cause of global warming and emitting carbon energy sources such as natural gas or bet-
climate change [1]. This is further exacerbated by the inter still deploy clean energy sources such as hydrogen that
creasing atmospheric CO2 concentration from 280 ppm at would have limit CO2 emissions and facilitate achieve-
pre-industrial revolution era [2] to 411.28 ppm in October, ment of net zero carbon future via cleaner energy sources
2020 [3] as shown in Figure 1 due to increasingly number - natural gas combustion emits 49% and 25% less CO2
of the world’s developing economies that use readily than coal (anthracite) and crude oil (gasoline) respective-
available and cheap energy sources such as coal and crude ly (unit of measurement is pound CO2 per million Btu of
Oghenegare Emmanuel Eyankware,
TegaFej Consulting Services, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria;
Email: tegafej@gmail.com

energy produced) while combustion of hydrogen does not In order to use these less carbon emitting fuels for prac-
produce CO2 as a by-product (cleanest energy source). tical and industrial applications, they have to be stored in
carriage systems, preferably high pressure storage vessels;
this becomes even more important as these energy sourc-
es exist in gaseous phase at atmospheric conditions (low
pressures and ambient temperatures) with high entropy
and system disorderliness; unfortunately, herein lays the
drawbacks of using these energy sources for commercial
applications. The difficulty in storing these gases and the
limited amount that can be stored in carriage systems
for a certain period of time limits their applicability. For
example, it is reported that 5 - 13 kg of hydrogen needs
to be stored for an automobile to drive a distance of 300
miles[8]; same applies to natural gas storage in carriage
systems which conclusively highlights that carriage sys-
tems need to be refilled often, limiting their applicability.
Figure 1. Trends in Atmospheric CO2 concentration - [4] In addition, high pressure gas storage systems that are
red line shows values for monthly averages while black costly would be needed to store these gases on vehicles
line represent mean monthly values after correcting for and process systems for commercial and industrial appli-
monthly seasonal cycle, reproduced from [3] cations.
Therefore, prevailing technologies for storing these
In other words, natural gas can be considered as a
bridging fuel that can facilitate transformation of the gases operate at high pressures - methane is currently
world’s energy mix to one that is clean energy dominated being stored at high pressures of 250 bar [for compressed
by hydrogen. Due to the fact that natural gas is made up of natural gas (CNG), will be discussed in later section]
over 90% composed of methane (CH4) [5], its combustion while hydrogen is stored at high pressures of 700 bar,
releases less carbon as well via Equation 1; this highlights highlighting the need to design special storage tanks, high
its propensity to replace “dirty” fossil fuels in this phase cost of storage [10] and possible safety concerns that arise
of global energy transition. Corroborating this, Müller et due to these factors highlighted. Considering these pre-
al. highlighted in their work that NG offers advantages vailing drawbacks, there is need to design advanced tech-
such as low fuel costs due to a higher energy content nologies such as compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied
when compared to gasoline, reduced carbon emission natural gas (LNG), natural gas hydrates (NGH) and ad-
as earlier highlighted and lower release of air pollutants sorbed natural gas (ANG) for NG storage and compressed
(reduces NOx emissions) [6] and a high Research Octane gaseous storage, liquid storage and solid-state storage for
Number (RON=107) as compared to other fossil fuels [7]. hydrogen storage that would store gases at low pressures
On the other hand, hydrogen which is the cleanest ener- at ambient conditions while exhibiting high storage capac-
gy source whose combustion products is only heat and ity that is critical to increase the propensity of deploying
water as shown in Equation 2 is a reliable energy source natural gas and hydrogen for commercial and industrial
that can totally eliminate the emission of GHGs into the applications.
atmosphere and fast track achievement of net zero carbon This has necessitated intense research into these high-
emission future for environmental sustainability. In this lighted advanced technologies and storage mechanism that
regard, hydrogen has also been reported to be an efficient can store these gases at low pressures and ambient tem-
source for energy production; Suh et al. reported that hy- peratures where applicable. As a result, this review seeks
drogen’s energy content is three times (123 MJ/kg) more to evaluate the most promising of these advanced storage
than that of gasoline (47.2 MJ/kg) [8] although the situation technologies for methane and hydrogen storage with fo-
is reversed in volumetric capacity as hydrogen possesses cus on ANG due to its promising properties. Herein, an
8.4 MJ/L while gasoline possesses 32 MJ/L [9]. Considering advanced and porous adsorbent, metal organic framework
these merits, hydrogen becomes a go-to energy source that was would be discussed with focus on highlighting its
would facilitate energy transition to carbon free future. outstanding properties for methane storage would be dis-
CH4 + 2O2→CO2 + 2H2O + Energy (890 KJ/g) (1) cussed in view of highlighting advances that have been
H2 +1/2 O2 →H2O + Energy (286 KJ/g) (2) recorded in recent years.

2. Methane and Hydrogen Storage

In this section, different existing technologies and stor-
age mechanisms used for methane and hydrogen storage
would be highlighted. Particular attention would be paid
to their characteristics that make them suitable or not suit-
able for commercial and industrial applications. Finally,
the most suitable of these technologies would be high-
lighted for further discussion. Figure 2. C3-MR liquefaction process, reproduced from [11]
Despite the suitability of LNG for long distance transpor-
2.1 Mechanisms for Methane Storage tation of methane, the cryogenic conditions at which it must
be stored necessitating the use of special membrane tanks
Currently, there are established and popular technologies
limits its usage in conventional process systems. In addition,
for storage of methane - these include LNG and CNG.
the high cost of installation of baseload LNG liquefaction
Also, there are other mechanisms of methane storage such plants in correspondence to their energy intensive processes
as NGH and ANG that are active areas which seeks to results to high cost of operations [12] which consequently
ameliorate the drawbacks of the popular storage technolo- hinders the rapid commercial and industrial applicability of
gies for process and energy methane storage. These differ- LNG. Hence, it becomes difficult to use LNG in high carbon
ent mechanisms will be discussed as follows; emitting sectors such transportation and other conventional
process systems obtainable in petrochemical industries.
Different methods have been proposed and used for
natural gas storage. Chen et al. itemized them [7] as; 2.1.2 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)
(1) Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)
Currently being used as an energy source in vehicles (de-
(2) Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)
ployed in Benin City, Nigeria), CNG has shown promising
(3) Natural Gas Hydrates (NGH) properties such as eco-friendliness, low cost of storage as
(4) Adsorbed Natural Gas (ANG) compared to LNG, wide range of applicability and com-
patibility for spark and compression ignition engines [13]
2.1.1 Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) to prompt its commercial deployment. Its suitability as a
means of storing methane is evident in the fact its volume
LNG is a form of natural gas that exists at cryogenic
is <1% of the volume of methane at standard atmospher-
conditions of -161oC and ~ 1 bar - it is 600 times denser
ic conditions due to its high pressure storage conditions
than natural gas in its gaseous phase hence; it outperforms (typical conditions of storing CNG ranges from 200 - 248
natural gas in terms of efficiency of storage and transpor- bar). Due to the merits of CNG for commercial usage,
tation across long distances in the absence of pipeline net- well developed processes have been patented for CNG
works. Also, its volumetric energy density is higher than production; one of such processes is shown in Figure 3.
CNG at 22.2 MJ/L (-161oC and 0.9 bar) as against 9.06
MJ/L (250 bar). Due to its efficacy for long distance trans-
portation, different processes and cascades that facilitate
an LNG value chain have been developed and patented
for natural gas liquefaction; a popular liquefaction process
known as mixed propane refrigerant liquefaction process
is shown in Figure 2. As highlighted in the liquefaction
process below, a typical process involves basic processes
such as pre-treatment of natural gas, acid gas removal,
dehydration, removal of impurities such as mercury and Figure 3. Process Diagram of a typical CNG plant, repro-
duced from [14]; FGU - Flue Gas Unit, GSU - Gas Sweet-
other trace elements and liquefaction process using dif-
ening Unit, DHU - Dehydration Unit; HRU - Heavies
ferent process loops with cryogenics for purposes of heat Removal Unit, HSU - Heavies Separation Unit, LQU;
exchange. Liquefaction Unit; NRU - Nitrogen Rejection Unit

Commercial application of CNG in process systems is Although NGH have been identified to be an abundant
faced with the challenge of storage at high pressures via natural energy source (amount of NGH present in Arctic
multi stage compression cycles which requires designs permafrost and under the oceans collectively represent
of high pressure storage cylinders that are expensive and about 53% of all fossil fuels present on earth [16], issues of
costly. Also, there are safety concerns especially when exploration of this energy resource remains a challenge
CNG is used on board vehicles. In all, CNG is faced with even though pilot tests for exploration has been carried
drawbacks which limit its applicability at commercial and out in Japan and China. Lack of well developed technol-
industrial levels. In addition, CNG possesses low energy ogy and the high cost of deploring it undermine its com-
density of 8.8 MJ/L at 200 bar and 20oC which is 75% mercial and industrial applicability.
less than the energy density of gasoline [15] that it seeks to
displace in vehicular applications.
2.1.4 Adsorbed Natural Gas (ANG)
This mechanism of natural gas storage entails packing ad-
2.1.3 Natural Gas Hydrates (NGH)
sorbents in storage vessels in order to increase their stor-
Natural Gas Hydrates (NGH) are ice-like compounds age capacities for installation onboard vehicles a shown in
made up of lattice of water with potential positions for Figure 5. ANG possess characteristics such as high energy
guest molecules (in this case methane) at which tempera- density and environmental friendliness which makes them
tures and pressures at normal conditions occur in gaseous capable to displace LNG, CNG and NGH for applicabili-
phase; in NGH, guest molecules possess ability to fit into ty. For instance, it is reported that use of ANG in vehicles
the interstices of the water-ice lattice [16]. Amongst the dif- emits less CO, NOx and hydrocarbon in the order of 99%,
ferent types of gas hydrates structures as structure I (sI), 30% and 96% respectively [19]. In addition, storage of nat-
structure II (sII), and structure H (sH) that exist based on ural gas in non-cylindrical tanks at pressures of 35 - 40
the cage structure of the lattice, NGH are regarded as sI bar affords flexibility in designing placement and configu-
as the methane easily fits into the lattice structure. Hence, ration of the tank while ameliorating cost of compressing
NGH can be considered to be stable at high pressures and or liquefying natural gas for transportation and storage.
low temperatures therefore they are prevalent in deepwa- Hence, ANG shows potential to be applied in the near fu-
ter of water bodies such as oceans. Also, NGH are high ture in systems such as gas holders used in peaking shav-
energy density compounds which highlights the high ing LNG plants, drying chambers that are gas fired, solid
hydrocarbon content obtainable from these clathrates. It sorption heat pumps that are also gas fired.
is reported that if 1 m3 of NGH is dissociation, it would
release about 160 m3 of natural gas [17] - the high reserve
content of these deposits has facilitated in depth research
into commercializing these huge reserves as a sources
of primary energy. A typical lattice structure of NGH is
shown in Figure 4.
Figure 5. Application of ANG in vehicles, reproduced
from [15]
The use of adsorbents for storage of adsorbates (in this
case methane) is an active area of research. Using adsorp-
tion, an process wherein adsorbents adhere adsorbates
to their solid surfaces at low pressures and ambient tem-
peratures where applicable via van der Waals or chemical
bonds as the case maybe [20] as shown in Figure 5 presents
a process and energy efficient option for storage of natural
gas. This is due to the fact that adsorbents used for gas
storage possess characteristics such as high adsorption
capacity, low pressure and ambient storage of gases, ther-
mal, chemical and mechanical stability, regenerability and
Figure 4. Diagrammatic representation of sI NGH; H - low of production that make them suitable for commer-
hydrogen atom, O - oxygen atom, C - carbon atom, filled cialization. For instance, it is reported that the isosteric
and unfilled double lines - chemical bonds, reproduced by [18] heat of adsorption ranges from 10 - 100 KJ/mol depending

on the type of adsorption (physical or chemical adsorp- (2) Liquid storage of Hydrogen
tion) [20] highlighting the low energy needed to regenerate (3) Solid-state storage of Hydrogen
the adsorbents and low cost of operation. In this regard,
different adsorbents such as activated carbon [21], poly- 2.2.1 Compressed Gaseous Storage of Hydrogen
mers[22] and metal organic framework (MOF) [7] have been Compressed storage of hydrogen entails physical storage
studied for adsorption of methane in literature. Amongst of hydrogen gas at high pressures of 350 - 750 bar that
these adsorbents, MOF have been have been revealed to produces energy content of 4.4 MJ/L - value less than that
show exceptional properties for methane storage due to its obtainable in gasoline (31.6 MJ/L). Due to some attractive
high methane adsorption capacity (arguably regarded as properties of compressed gaseous storage of hydrogen
the high methane storage adsorbent) due to very high sur- such as low energy for storage, low cost of operation (not
face area, selectivity and controlled pore sizes [23]. Hence, as high other types of CNG storage), high speed of release
MOF would be the adsorbent of interest that would be of hydrogen gas at room temperatures and ability to main-
reviewed for methane storage in this review. tain full service even at very low temperatures make this
option of hydrogen to be most deployed. In this regard,
three applications of hydrogen exist; they are bulk cargo
transportation, stationary type and vehicle mounted appli-
cation. However, use of hydrogen in vehicles is the most
deployed [24]- this vehicles, the cylinders used to store
hydrogen are made of fiber filament winding composites
Figure 6. Schematic of adsorption process for gas phases lined with an inner metal bladder. One of such devel-
Considering the different storage mechanisms for meth- oped storage tanks is the typical vehicle mounted type IV
ane discussed hitherto, ANG has stood out as the only op- compressed gaseous hydrogen vessel shown in Figure 7.
tion that can be applied at conditions close to atmospheric A tank such as this has the capacity to store hydrogen at
conditions (low pressures and temperatures close to ambient pressures of 350 - 700bar hence it can attain gravimetric
conditions) in less expensive systems of storage and trans- storage capacity of 5 wt%.
portation making ANG more attractive for commercializa-
tion. However, for LNG, process conditions are cryogenic
(temp. of -161oC and 100 bar); CNG is stored at very high
pressures of 200-300bar as a supercritical fluid at room
temperature and NGH involves difficult-to-attain conditions
for its formation and slow formation rate. Consequently,
challenges faced by LNG, CNG and NGH have therefore
propelled ANG as the viable storage medium for NG.
2.2 Mechanism of Hydrogen Storage

Figure 7. Type IV typical vehicle mounted hydrogen stor-
Production of fuel cell vehicles by companies such as
age vessel, reproduced from [24]
Hyundai, Roewe, Riversimple, Toyota and Honda that use
hydrogen stored at high pressures of ~ 700bar as source Although compressed gaseous storage of hydrogen is
of energy is gradually standard in the automobile indus- one of the most viable option s for storage of hydrogen,
try. In addition, other mechanisms of storing hydrogen the issue of high cost of storage due to costly multistage
in process systems (particularly on board vehicles) have compression cycles and safety concerns which arises
been investigated all in a bid to discover the most process due to high pressure storage limits its rapid commercial
and energy efficient storage mechanism for hydrogen and deployment. In addition, compressed gaseous storage of
US Department of Energy (DOE) target for on board hy- hydrogen is volumetrically and gravimetrically [25].
drogen highlighted in Table 1; this is due to the fact that
2.2.2 Liquid Storage of Hydrogen
storage mechanism currently being investigated cannot
compete with gasoline at low pressures and temperatures. This mechanism of storing hydrogen involves compres-
These several storage mechanisms are highlighted below; sion which then followed by liquefaction at cryogenic
also, they would be discussed in detail in this section. condition during which temperature of the gas is reduced
(1) Compressed Gaseous storage of hydrogen to -252oC at vacuum conditions [24]. Herein, low tempera-

ture liquid is stored in a thermally insulated container (that ric storage capacities become attainable at low pressures
can store 0.070 kg/L of hydrogen, even more than CNG in adsorbents such as carbon nanotubes, activated carbon,
tanks which store 0.030 kg/L [26] for storage and transpor- graphene containing materials and MOFs etc. Hence,
tation. As a result of the conditions at which liquid hy- use of adsorbents in cryo-adsorption tanks for improved
drogen stored, it possesses high energy density (mass and hydrogen storage at pressures of 350 bar and cryogenic
volume density) and content (8.4 MJ/L). However, liquid temperatures has become a reality in some prototype fuel
storage of hydrogen is faced with technical challenges cell vehicles produced by BMW. Also, adsorption storage
that limit its commercial deployment. Firstly, it is energy of hydrogen is a fully reversible and rapid process that is
intensive as a result of energy needed for liquefaction pro- hinged on van der Waals force (although other forces such
cess (it is reported that liquefaction is equal to 30% of the
as orbital interactions and electrostatic attraction may
total hydrogen energy in practical applications). Secondly,
influence the process of adsorption [31] hence its heat of
thermal insulation of hydrogen storage vessels is difficult
adsorption is low translating to ease of management of the
to attain to meet specific requirements such design of
process as regards energy consumption for regeneration.
special materials to be used for insulation and design of
In addition, adsorbents investigated for hydrogen storage
the storage vessel. Furthermore, the compulsory venting
have been reported to exhibit properties such as ease of
process in FCVs referred to as Dormancy [27] poses serious
challenge to its practical applications. functionalization for improved adsorption capacity, me-
chanical, thermal and chemical stability and good regen-
2.2.3 Solid-state Storage erability. Therefore, storage of hydrogen on adsorbents,
particularly MOFs (which exhibit exceptional storage
Solid-state storage involves using metal hydrides, com-
capacity for hydrogen at low pressures and temperatures
plex hydride metals (borohydride) and other materials of
closer to ambient than liquid storage) become attractive as
high surface for hydrogen storage. This mechanism of
a compound that can meet DOE’s target for adsorbed stor-
storage follows two routes; (i) absorption of hydrogen
atoms on metal hydrides via chemical bonds and (ii) ad- age of hydrogen. Hence, review of MOFs for hydrogen
sorption of hydrogen atoms on the high surface area of storage would be focus also be the focus of this review as
materials (adsorbents). For metal hydrides, dihydrogen metal hydrides face challenges such as high cost of high
bonds formed when metal hydride (M - H) accept protons purity metals used in the production of hydrides and the
from protic hydrogen moiety (H - X) to form metal com- non-reversibility of hydrogen uptake by these compounds.
plexes (M-H···H-X) [28] as shown in Figure 8 are responsi-
ble for hydrogen storage in their framework. The viability 3. Metal Organic Framework (MOF)
with which hydrogen is stored in metal hydrides makes Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are an exciting and
the process intrinsically safe with volumetric capacity emerging class of porous materials constructed from met-
higher than that of compressed gaseous and liquid storage
al-containing nodes [also known as secondary building
of hydrogen [29]. Also, metal hydrides possess ability to
units (SBUs)] and organic linkers (ligands) reacted in a
reversibly store and release (at room temperatures) hydro-
solution [32] - basic pathway of synthesis is shown in Fig-
gen at high storage capacity (5 - 7 wt%) [30]; such storage
ure 9. After synthesis, removal of the solvent produces
capacity is obtainable at temperatures of 2500oC or higher.
a porous network that is crystalline whose topology is
controlled by the symmetry and coordination of building
constituents of the framework. Also, MOFs usually boast
a structure with permanent porosity and open crystalline
networks due to the presence of strong bonds that exist
between SBUs and organic linkers. In addition, these
SBUs and ligands can be altered to control pore sizes and
surface area of the framework which would influence the
availability of active sites for guest molecules adsorption
Figure 8. Diagrammatic representation of hydrogen stor- - in this vein, MOFs with properties such as high surface
age in metal hydrides, modified from [26] area (up to 10000 m2/g), high porosity (up to 90%) and
For adsorbents, physisorption is responsible for facili- tunable pore sizes for gas storage and separation have
tating storage of hydrogen. In this regard, target gravimet- been reported [33].

[40]
, Zn4O-based MOFs [41]3, 6-8, 32-34, copper carboxylates
frameworks [36], MIL-series [42] and Zr-based frameworks
(reported to be stable in the presence of water even though
they do not exhibit storage capacity as high as benchmark
MOFs in methane storage) [7] while for hydrogen storage,
high performing MOFs are those that possess (1) Open
Figure 9. Structure and composition of Metal Organic
metal sites (OMSs) with low coordination number (2) ex-
Framework [32]
tra framework cations (3) ultra surface area and (4) high
Furthermore, the ease with which SBUs and organic void fraction in the framework.
inkers are altered, selected and functionalized has led to
the synthesis of various types and structures of MOFs Adsorption-based Storage of Methane and Hydro-
for gas storage. In this regard, structure and properties gen in Tanks - MOFs Shows Capacity to Attain
of MOFs can then be easily designed and systematical-
For methane and hydrogen to compete with conventional
ly tuned by the judicious choice of building blocks [32],
energy sources such as gasoline for deployment especially
a feat that is rather difficult to achieve in other porous
in on board vehicle applications via adsorption-based tank
compounds such as zeolites, activated carbon, polymers
storage, certain targets set by US Department of Energy’s
etc. Hence, MOF have been shown to outperform other
(DOE) Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (AR-
traditional porous materials in terms of tunability, ease of
PA-E) [43] and Fuel Cells Technology Office [44] have to be
functionalization and synthesis for process applications
met. For methane, a gravimetric target has been set at 0.5
such as gas (methane and hydrogen) storage and separa-
g(methane) g-1(sorbent) or 700 cm3(methane) g-1(sorbent) at 25oC and 65
tion. Lozano-Castelló et al. corroborated this by stating
bar translating to a volumetric capacity of 263 cm3 (STP)
that while traditional zeolites exhibit methane uptake
cm-3 when the density of methane (ρ = 0.188 g/cm3 at 250
below 100 cm3 (STP) cm-3 [34] (on a general note, most po-
bar) is used as a reference. However, when considering a
rous carbon materials exhibit low methane uptake capac-
packing loss of 25% due to pelletization of MOF powder,
ity which according to Menon and Komarneni are in the
the initial uptake capacity for methane based on the set
ranges of 50 - 160 cm3/cm3 [35]), MOFs such as HKUST-1
exhibit methane uptake of 267 cm3/cm3 at 298K and 35 target will have to be 330 cm3 (STP) cm-3 [4]. For hydro-
bar [36]. gen, the targets are 0.045/0.055 kgH2/kg for 2020/2025 on
Due to the promising adsorption capacity of MOFs for gravimetric capacity and 1.0/1.3 kgH2/L for 2020/2025for
gas storage, they have been actively investigated by dif- volumetric capacity respectively at temperature range of
ferent researchers for methane and hydrogen adsorption -40/60oC as highlighted in Table 1.
[4,7,8,37,38]
so as to evaluate their use in specially designed
Table 1. Technical targets for adsorption based hydrogen
tanks for improved gas storage abilities at low pressures
storage in light duty vehicles, adopted from [44]
and temperatures closer to ambient than those obtainable
in liquefied storage option. The key to this outstanding S/N Storage Parameter 2020 2025 Ultimate
performance of MOF is the flexible chemistry of the Gravimetric capacity (usable specific
frameworks; these structures can be modified pre - and 1
energy from H2) (kg H2/kg) 0.045 0.055 0.065
Volumetric capacity (usable specific 1.0 1.3 1.7
post - synthetically for improved methane and hydrogen energy from H2) (kg H2/L)
performance; several methods such as open metal dense -40/60 -40/60 -40/60
2 Temperature of operation (oC)
sites (OMSs), post synthetic modification [functional (sun) (sun) (sun)
groups such as amino groups, pendant aldehyde and Tank minimum and maximum
3 -40/85 -40/85 -40/85
delivery temperature of H2 (oC)
azides are incorporated into the MOF structure], post Minimum and maximum delivery
4 5/12 5/12 5/12
synthetic metalation [39] and post synthetic metal ion and pressure from storage system (bar)
ligand exchange have been reported as pathways through 5
Time for system to be filled
3-5 3-5 3-5
(minutes)
which adsorption capacity and overall performance of
Target loss for boil off (maximum
MOFs for gas storage can be improved. 6 reduction after 30 days from initial 10 10 10
In this vein, some MOFs structures have been reported 95% of usable capacity) (%)
to be good candidates for methane storage while others In order to meet these targets, use of outstanding adsor-
show promising potential for hydrogen storage depending bents such as MOFs is imperative. For methane adsorp-
on structure design and chemistry [4]. For methane storage, tion -based tank storage, MOF remain the only adsorbent
such MOFs include M2(dicarboxylate)2dabco frameworks that has shown adsorption capacity closest to DOE’s tar-

get; methane adsorption capacity of 267 cm3/cm3 at 25oC pore sizes facilitated by BTB moieties that are partially
and 65 bar has been reported against 330 cm3/cm3 at same uncoordinated 1,3,5-Tris(4-carboxyphenyl)benzene and
conditions by MOF HKUST-1 [36]. The same applies for absence of OMSs which consequently produces primary
hydrogen storage - MOFs have shown deliverable adsorp- adsorption active sites are pressure of 5 bar - thereby in-
tion capacity of 1 - 2 wt% at target process conditions, creasing the deliverable capacity. In addition, it is reported
one of the closest values to DOE’s target. Nonetheless, it that modification of pristine MOF with functional groups
is important to state that hydrogen storage at atmospheric such as methyl-, ethyl- and t-butyl-groups increased meth-
pressure (~ 1bar) and cryogenic temperature is impractical ane uptake of MOFs [49].
due to the very low adsorption capacity recorded at such
conditions (MOF PCN-12 is considered a benchmark that Table 2. MOFs for Methane storage and delivery at 25oC
records one of the highest total hydrogen uptake of 23.2 g/ Volumetric Volumetric
Gravimetric Gravimetric
L or 3.05 wt% at such conditions [45]); this can be attribut- uptake (cm3/ delivery
uptake (g/g) delivery (g/g)
cm3) (cm3/cm3)
ed to van der Waals forces (that facilitate hydrogen-frame- MOF Ref
work interaction) that become weaker at temperatures 65 bar 35 bar
65 - 5 35 - 5
65 bar 35 bar
65 -5 35 - 5
bar bar bar bar
close to ambient and low pressures.
HKUST-1 267 211 190 150 0.216 - 0.154 - [36]
4. Methane and Hydrogen Adsorption Capac-
ity of MOFs MOF-519 259 200 210 151 0.194 - 0.157 - [48]
The adsorption (herein regarded as delivery capacity) of Al-soc-MOF-1 197 127 176 106 0.415 - 0.371 - [50]
MOF is a very important factor that influences it use for PCN-14 230 195 157 125 - - - - [36]
commercial applications [7]. The delivery capacity is the
amount of gas stored in the adsorbent between the upper UTSA-88a 248 204 185 141 - - - - [51]
working pressure and the lower working pressure at con-
Ni-MOF-74 251 228 129 115 - - - - [36]
stant/varying temperatures. For methane storage in natural
gas vehicles, the engine working pressure (5 bar) is con- MAF-38 263 226 187 150 - - - - [52]
sidered as the lower working pressure [46] while the upper
NU-800 232 174 197 139 - - - - [49]
working pressure is considered to be 65 or 35 bar as it can
be actualized by using a single or two stage compressor, For hydrogen storage, selected MOFs have shown
which is cost effective as the case maybe. Also, the up- promising adsorption capacity (which in the true sense is
per working pressure is usually kept at higher pressures the delivery capacity - difference in adsorption capacity
because this translates to the storage of a higher amount between hydrogen uptake at ~100 bar and -196oC and hy-
of methane at a particular temperature. For high pressure drogen release to 5 bar and -113oC) in line with Chahine
cryogenic hydrogen storage, its delivery pressure is set at rule (increase in surface area of adsorbent results in 1 wt%
100 bar in line with on DOE’s target. excess adsorption of hydrogen) till surface area increases
For methane, certain MOFs as highlighted in Table 2 to ~3000 m2/g [53] as shown in Figure 10. Also, highlighted
have shown great promise for storage at pressures of 65 in Table 3, this trend posits that gravimetric adsorption
bar and 35 bar and delivery pressure at 5 bar respective- capacity of MOF is proportional to void fraction, pore
ly. In these MOFs, it is evident through computational size and gravimetric surface area. Gómez-Gualdrón et al.
studies that designing structures with ultrahigh surface highlights this in their study in which they reported that
areas (ranging from 2500 - 3000 m2/g), void fraction of the experimental hydrogen storage capacity of MOF she-
around 0.8 and optimal pore diameter of 4 - 8 Å [47] results MOF-x recorded at cryo-adsorption conditions is depen-
in improved volumetric and gravimetric methane uptake. dent on the pore volumes of the structure [54]. Also, heat
However , it is also shown that when high surface area is of enthalpy plays a major role in the hydrogen adsorption
combined mesopores, low gravimetric uptake is reported capacity of MOFs - optimum heat of adsorption is stated
while in the presence of high surface area and micropores, to range from -15 to -20 KJ/mol for reasonable hydrogen
higher gravimetric uptake is recorded [4]. For volumetric storage to be achieved especially at ambient conditions
uptake capacity, presence of open metal sites and pore [55]
. Furthermore, it has been reported that introduction of
sizes of smaller diameter strongly determine uptake ca- OMSs into the framework and their respective alignment
pabilities. This is evident for MOF-519 [48] wherein a high strongly influences hydrogen-framework interactions
[45]
volumetric capacity is recorded in the presence of limited . Finally, the presence of small pore sizes that are well

suited for hydrogen molecules and also prompt improved 137953 hypothetical MOFs for methane adsorption [47]. In
overlapping potential have been reported to increase this vein, particular attention has been paid to designing of
framework hydrogen uptake of MOFs [56]. MOFs of specific topologies that can provide active sites
for guest molecules; herein careful selection of organic
linkers and SBUs that are fitted to pre-determined topolo-
gies via an automated algorithm.
For construction of hypothetical MOFs, different ap-
proaches are utilized. While some researchers use a down-
top approach by building the crystal structure from build-
ing blocks and SBUs till the structure is formed, others
approach construction from a top-down method in which
selected building blocks are connected to a pre-deter-
mined topological blueprint. For the down-top approach
whose pathway is shown in Figure 11, crystallographic
data of known synthesized MOFs is used to select build-
ing blocks that are combined based on local geometry and
chemical composition that must be the same. The process
of building continues stepwise until an atomic overlap
Figure 10. Measurement of adsorption capacity different occurs during a different building block is used and the
adsorbents particularly MOF in line with Chahine rule,
process continues [47]. In this process, a periodic boundary
reproduced from [57]
formed by connecting two building blocks is sometimes
imposed instead of adding a new building block. Also,
Table 3. Deliverable hydrogen adsorption capacity in minimization of force fields or quantum mechanical ener-
MOF at cryo-adsorption conditions [-196oC and ~100bar gy is carried in this approach - down-top approach is gov-
although (variable)] and desorption conditions (-113oC erned by geometric rules that synthesis of existing MOFs
and 5 bar)
from various building blocks. Thereafter, validation of the
hypothetical MOF is carried out; herein certain aspects of
Volumetric Gravimetric Void
MOF SA (m2/g)
capacity (g/L) capacity (wt %) Fraction
Ref. the crystal structure such as its minimum energy, fitness
of hypothetical structure to those synthesized experimen-
she-MOF-1 4300 43.4 12.5 - [54] tally and sensitivity of physical properties of hypothetical
NU-1103 6246 43.2 12.6 - [54]
structures to experimental ones are evaluated - physical
properties usually considered are topology of framework,
MOF-5 3512 51.9 7.8 0.81 [58] limiting diameter of pore sizes, diameter of largest cavity,
IRMOF-20 4073 51 9.1 0.84 [58]
accessible pore volume, accessible surface area, equilibri-
um gas loading capacity and Henry’s law constant. Hence,
NU-125 - 49 8.5 - [53] a comparison of the hypothetical structures with those that
are energetically relaxed through minimization of force
SNU-70 4944 47.9 10.6 0.86 [58]
fields is carried out; same is done for experimentally syn-
UMCM-9 5039 47.4 11.3 0.86 [58] thesized MOFs. Also, predicted gas adsorption capacities
of hypothetical structures are compared with those that
5. Computational and Molecular Simulation are experimental synthesized. Significantly, it has been
Studies of Methane and Hydrogen Storage reported that the predicted adsorption capacity of most
hypothetical MOFs are close to their experimentally syn-
In order to abate high cost of carrying out experimental thesized counterparts as shown in Figure 12 - the values
works as regards synthesis of MOFs for methane and hy- of hydrogen adsorption isotherms (measured in mmol/g)
drogen storage, computational design and molecular stud- of simulated and experimental NU-125 at temperatures of
ies of hypothetical MOFs have been increasingly carried -196oC, -113oC and 23oC show excellent agreement.
out to determine their structure-property for gas storage; The use of down-top approach for MOF structure con-
a study by Gómez-Gualdrón [54] reported construction of struction faces the challenge of producing MOFs with
13512 MOFs which were evaluated for cryo-adsorption limited topologies. This is reported by Sikora et al. in their
of hydrogen while Wilmer et al. reported construction of work in which they revealed that out of 137000 hypotheti-

cal MOFs constructed (90% of MOFs produced), only six

topologies of primitive pcu topology were produced [59].
Also, some expected topologies were not realized hence,
the top-down approach becomes attractive as it been re-
ported to ameliorate this drawback. This computational
method involves matching of symmetry and connectivity
of the nodes of pre-selected topology of the structures and
their respective building blocks. In other works, top-down
approach entails selection of the appropriate template
and topology to which selected building blocks would be
added in stepwise manner. This is followed by scaling of
unit cells of the topology based on the targeted building
Figure 12. Simulated (triangles) and measured (circles)
block that is to be added. Here after, organic and inor- adsorption isotherms of NU-125, reproduced from [53]
ganic nodes and organic linkers are added; the structure
obtained would then be optimized using classical force 6. Conclusion
field optimization. Finally, the physical properties of the
The importance of clean energy sources such as methane
hypothetical MOF are evaluated. The ability of top-down and hydrogen for environmental sustainability and actual-
approach to produce hypothetical MOFs have been re- ization of a net zero carbon emission future has been high-
ported by Gómez-Gualdrón et al. [54]; in their work, they lighted. Hence in this mini review, different mechanisms
reported that out of 13512 MOFs constructed, 41 different for storing methane and hydrogen in commercial applica-
tions especially on board vehicle storage to increase their
topologies were recorded.
storage capacities for improved performance so as to chal-
lenge conventional energy sources for deployment were
discussed. Herein, suitability of adsorption-based storage
of methane and hydrogen in specially designed tanks was
highlighted. In this regard, MOFs were revealed as the
most promising adsorbent that can achieve the ambitious
targets set by US DOE’s Advanced Research Projects
Agency-Energy (ARPA-E) and Fuel Cells Technology
Office. Hence, selected high performing MOFs for meth-
ane and hydrogen storage were highlighted and trends of
research that facilitate their occurrence were discussed. In
addition, computation and molecular studies of hypotheti-
cal MOFs were discussed - trends of research in this field
were discussed and methodologies to construct MOFs of
designated topologies and physical properties were re-
vealed.
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26 The Environmental Impact of Plastic Waste

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v2i2.1633 1

low hydraulic conductivity [18,26].

2.3 Longitudinal Conductance

The longitudinal conductance (S) is the geo-electric pa-

2 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v2i2.1633

Table 1. Result of Interpretation of VES Curves from the Study area

1. 150 2.92 - Top soil

Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v2i2.1633 3

1. 163 3.84 Top soil

4 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v2i2.1633

1. 243 0.51 - Top soil

Figure 3. Geo electric Section of Ves 03, 05, 11 and 17 (3 layers)

Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v2i2.1633 5

Figure 4. Geo electric Section of Ves 22, 23 25 and 26

Figure 8. A four layer type curve

Figure 5. A three layer type curve

Figure 6. Geo electric Section of Ves 1, 2, 4, 6, 7 and 8

Figure 7. Geo electric Section of Ves 9, 10, 13, 14, 18 and

6 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v2i2.1633

11 0.0673 0.1372 438.20 93.44

Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v2i2.1633 7

1 1. - Top soil 0.02 (S<0.1), (Poor)

6 1. - Top soil 0.19 (0.1 ≤S < 0.2) (Weak)

8 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v2i2.1633

23 1. - Top soil 0.005 (S<0.1), (Poor)

26 1. - Top soil 0.01 (S<0.1), (Poor)

and aquifer transmissivity. The transmissivity values ob-

Table 5. Vadoze zone Transmissivity in relation to Trans-

Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v2i2.1633 9

9 171 1.57 268.47 High 4. Conclusion

10 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v2i2.1633

Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v2i2.1633 11