·.

Introduction to Fiber Optic

Technology* ' ·
This chapter introduces a relatively new topic
to the field of communications-fiber optics.
The importance and. impact of this technol-
ogy will become apparent as the student stud-
ies this chapter. After reading this material,
the student will understand the history and
theory of using guided light as a communica-
tions medium, as well as the basic optical
fiber and its applications.
The topic of optoelectronics was dis-
cussed in previous chapters, but here we "'.ill
cover the specialized applications of opto-
electronic devices, along with splicing tech-
niques and testing procedures for fiber ca-
bles. We will also briefly discuss some system
applications and cost considerations when
designing systems.
Because of the rapid expansion of
fiber technology in today's· communications
field, we have chosen to devote an entire
chapter to this topic, insfead of treating it· as
a subtopic in another part of the book.
A lot of the material covered will be of
a practical instead of a theoretical nature, to
provide the student with an insight into the
"working" world of fiber optic communica-
tions.

OBJECTIVES
Upon completing the material in Chapter 18, the student will be able to:
Understand the basic operation of the.fiber as a communications link ..
Recognize the advantages of the optical fiber compare\! to copper wire.
Identify the visible and nonvis_ible light spectra and their uses in fiber technology.
Define the term incident ray as it relates to reflection and refraction.
Calculate the refractive index of a transparent material.
Analyze and compute fiber power losses.
Use terms related to the manufacture of fiber and describe the tuanufacturing process.
Draw and list the parts of a typical fiber cross section.
Recognize the difference between single-mode and multimode fibers.
Define and understand the terms graded index, step index, and modal dispersion.
*Many of the illustrations in Ch~i,te[ is were proVided courtesy of AMP Corporation.
701
702 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Calculate the bandwidth of a fiber and its associated devices.

List and describe the various components incorporated into the fiber link.
Name and discuss the different types of splices used for the repair or installation of
fibers.
Understand the term optical time domain reflectometer and its applications for testing
fiber cables and associated components.
Analyze an optical system loss and compute a system budget to meet minimum power
requirements.

HISTORY OF FIBER OPTICS

In 1870 John Tyndall, a natural philosopher living in England, demonstrated one of the
first guifled light systems to the Royal Society. His experiment involved using water as
a medium to prove that light rays bend. He filled a container with water and allowed
the water to escape through a horizontal orifice at the bottom. The water escaping from
the bottom formed a natural curve (parabolic) as it descended to a container located
some distance below the first (see Figure 18-1). During the movement of the water
from one coritainer to the other, Tyndall directed a beam of light into the orifice
through which the water was escaping. The light followed a zigzag path in the water
and then followed the curve to the container below. This experiment established some
of the fundamental rules we will study later in this chapter.
During the early 1950s researchers experimented with flexible glass rods to
examine the inside of the human body. By 1958 Charles Townes and Arthur Schawlow .
of Bell Laboratories had theorized the use of the iaser as an intense light source. In
1960 Theodore Maiman of Hughes Research Laboratory operated the first laser. In
1962 the first semiconductor laser was in its infancy.
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s major advances were made in the quality and
efficiency of optical fibers and semiconductor light sources. Today this emerging field

Glass ,oata;,e, ofwatec ~

\t1/ Ughtsou,ce

Guided light
' \ I ,

~ -Reflector

Focusing Jens ·

Glass
receptacle

FIGURE 18-1 The use of water to guide light-b~sed on John Tyndall's 1870 experiment.
 INTRODUCTION TO FIBER OPTIC TECHNOLOGY 703

of communications competes with its more. established wire conductor counterpart.

One notable achievement was an experiment carried out by the U.S. Air Force. In 1973
the Airborne Light Optical Fiber Technology (ALOFT) program replaced 302 cables
whkh weighed 40 kg by a fiber system which weighed only I. 7 kg ( I kg =
2.2046 lb).
By the late 1970s and early 1980s every major telephone communications com-
pany was rapidly installing new and more efficient fiber systems.

WHY OPTICAL FIBERS?

Because of rapidly increasing demands for telephone communications throughout the
world, multiconductor copper cables have becmn'e not only very expensive but also an
inefficient way to meet these infprmation requirements. The frequency limitations
inherent in the copper conductor system (approximately I MHz) make a conducting
medium for high-speed communications necessary. The optical fiber, with its low
weight and high-frequency characteristics (approximately 40 GHz)and its impervious-
ness to interference from electromagnetic radiation, has become the choice for all
heavy-demand long-line telephone communications systems.
The following examples illustrate and emphasize the reasons for using optical
fibers.
1. The light weight and noncorrosiveness of the fiber make it very practical for·
aircraft and automotive applications.
2. A single fiber can handle as many voice channels as a 1500-pair cable can.
3. The spacing of.repeaters from 35 to 80 km for fibers, as opposed to from I to
I Vz km for wire, is a great advantage.
4. Fiber is immune to interference from lightning, cross talk, and electromagnetic
radiation.

INTRODUCTION TO LIGHT
In everyday terms, light can be defined as the part of the visible spectrum that has a
wavelength range between 0.4 µ,m (micrometer) and 0.7 µ,m (refer to Figure 18-2 to
locate the color spectrµm). This definition must be broadened somewhat for use in the
optical (guided-light) communications field because of the variety of light sources used
to transmit this information (700 to 1600 nm). Devices used in optical communications
will be discussed at length later in this chapter.
Wavelengths of light are extremely short. Their distances are measured in units
called angstroms, after the Swedish physicist Anders J. Angstrom. A single angstrom
is I ten-billionth of a meter. In the fiber industry, the terms used more frequently to
measure wavelengths of light are the micrometer and the nanometer. Since. all light
waves travel at the same speed in air or in a vacuum, and since each.color has a
,different wavelength, it may be assumed that each color has a discrete frequency.
.704 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
High Frequency-Higher Bandwidth

0.7 µ.m 0.6 µ.m ., 0.4 µ.m

..
~.~ ~

I I
Frequencies Hz x101• I 1¥1 l 2.~4 I ·2.~0
Nanometers (nm) 1,700 1,600 1,5b0 1,400 1,300 1,200 1,100 1,000 900
3+0
I 3.75
I
800 700
5.00
I
600 500
I
400 300
I 1.6I 1.5·I 1.4I 1.3I 1.2I 1.1I 1.0I 0.9I 0.8I 0.7I 0.6I 0.5I 0.4I 0.3I
Micrometers(µ.m) 1.7

t+-------lightwave _ _ _ __
Fiber
tv;s;ble--1
light

spectrum

FIGURE 18-2 Light wave spectrum-visible and nonvisible.

18-3.1 Reflection and Refraction

We are all familiar with light that is reflected from a flat, smooth surface such as a
mirror. These reflections (see Figure 18-3) are the result of an incident ray and the
· reflected ray. The angle of reflection is determined by the angle of incidence.
Reflections in many directions are called diffuse reflection and are the result of
light being reflected by an irregular surface (see Figure 18-4). The result of this process
can be easily illustrated by using the page you are now reading as an example. White
light, which includes all colors; is reflected by the rough surface of this page because
the roughness is random. The reflected light is random (that is, it reflects in all direc-
tions), and because the paper does not absorb much of the light, the light seems to
radiate equally from all parts of the page.

Incident ray Angle----'.~ Reflected ray

of incidence Angle of
reflection

FIGURE 18-3 ReOection.

 INTRODUCTION TO FIBER OPTIC TECHNOLOGY 705

Diffused light pattern

FIGURE 18-4 Diffused reflection.

Another property of light is refraction. This is caused by a change in the speed

of light -as it passes through different mediums such as air, water, glass, and other
transparent substances (see Figure 18-5). This phenomenon is commonly evident when
objects are viewed through a glass of water, for example (see Figure 18-6). The
refractive index can be stated as:
.c
n=- (18-1)
v

where c = velocity of light in space

v = velocity of light in specific material
Each transparent substance has its own refractive index number (see Table 18-1).

18-3.2 Dispersion, Diffraction, Absorption, and Scattering

Dispersion is the process of separating light into each of its component frequencies. It
is commonly recognizable when sunlight is dispersed into a rainbow of colors by a
prism (see Figure 18-7a). Diffraction is the bending of light as it passes through an

Incident
,ay
Normal
I
I

iI
I
I
Air
Glass ,,. ,_, ;;::;:· _
Air

Transient
my

FIGURE 18-5 Refraction.

706 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

FIGURE 18-6. Object suspended in a glass of water.

opening in an obstacle (see Figure 18-7b). Absorption takes place when light strikes a
I
surface (flat black) and is converted into heat through an exchange of energy with the
atoms of the surface; in this case there is little or no reflection. Scattering occurs when
light strikes a substance which in turn emits light of its own at the same wavelength as
the incident light (see Figure 18-8). If the substance etpits light of a wavelength longer
than that of the incident light, this is called luminescence. Examples of luminescence
are watch dials that glow in the dark becaus~ of the absorption of light during the day
and the emission of light (as the atoms return to their normal state) at night. The
amount of energy contained-in light is determined to some extent by wavelength or
. frequency. As an example, ultraviolet light has 100 times the energy level as red
visible light. The energy in a photon (a particle of light) can be calculated by Equation
(18-2).
E = hf (joules per photon) (18-2)
where h = 6.63 X 10- 34 (Planck's constant)
f = frequency (wavelength)

TABLE 18-1
MATERIAL INDEX, n
Vacuum 1.0 I
Air 1.0003 (I)
Water 1.33
Fused quartz 1.46
Glass 1.5
Diamond 2.0
Silicon 3.4
Gallium arsenide 3.6
 INTRODUCTION TO FIBER OPTIC TECHNOLOGY 707

Red
Orange

Yellow

Green
Blue
Violet

Slot

Diffracted
light rays
Incident
light ray

(h)

FIGURE 18-7 (a) Dispersion and (b) diffraction.

The angle of refraction of light traveli.ng from one medium to another depends
on.the index of the two media (see Table 18-1). As shown in Figure 18-9, the vertical
line, which is referred to as the normal, is an imaginary line perpendicular to the
junction between the two media. The angle of incidence is the angle between the
incident ray and the normal. The angle ofrefraction is the angle between the refracted
ray and the normal.
Light passing from a lower refractive index (as shown in Figure 18-10) to a
higher one is bent toward the normal, and vice versa. If the angle of incidence moves
away from the normal tc;, a point 90° from it, it is called the critical angle. At this
point, light has gone from the. refractive mode to the reflective mode .
. Independent of the index of the two media, a small portion of light will always
be reflected when light passes from_one index to another, this is called Fresnel reflec-
tion (p) and can be calculated by using Equation (18-3).

light ray

Imperfection

FIGURE 18-8 Light scattering.

I
708 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

C
0
~ >
>
~ > "'•e ~

n,
/
n,
Total internal Critical ray Refraction
reflection Sin Ge= n,Jn, n1 Sin 8 = n2 sin </,
80 = 61
Air (n2 )

. FIGURE 18-9 Refraction and reOection.

-(n-1)
p- - -
n+ 1
2
(18-3)

where p = the boundary between air and some other material.

The importance of this equation becomes apparent when we relate this information to
Equation ( 18-4).

,, 10. log 10(1-pl

dB.= (18-4)
We can establish fiber losses in decibels by un.derstanding these two relationships (the
average loss in a fiber splice is 0.15 dB).
When light passes through fiber, another situation, which is governed by
Snell's law, arises. This law states the relationship between the incident and refracted
rays as Equation (18-5).
(18-5)

Critical Angle of. ~ Angle of

angle Normal-. incidence reflection
Angle of
incidence

n, n,
n, n,

Angle of Light does not enter When the angle of

refraction second material incidence is more than
the critical, light is
Light is bent away reflected
from normal n 1 is greater than _n2

FIGURE 18-10 ReOection.

 INTRODUCTION TO FIBER OPTIC TECHNOLOGY 709

This law shows that the angles depend on the refractive indices of the two materials.
The qitica/ angle of incidence 8c 1, where 82 = 90', is:

· 8c = arcsin (::) (18-6)

Light striking the boundary of n 1 and n 2 at an angle greater than 76.7' will be reflected
···Jiack to its source at that same angle (see Figure 18-11). · ·

THE OPTICAL-FIBER AND FIBER CABLES .

The manufacture and construction of the basic fiber are somewhat complicated: In
simple terms, a highly refined quartz tube that will eventually be filled wilh a combina-
tion of gases (silicon, tetrachloride, germanium tetrachloride, phosphorus oxychloride)
is selected to start the process. This tube, about 4 ft long and about 1 in. in diameter, is
placed in a lathe and the gases are injected into the hollow tube. The tube is rotated
over a flame and subjected to temperatures of about 1600'F. The burning of the gases
produces a deposit on the inside of the tube. This preform (quartz tube with gas
'
deposit) is then heated to about 2100°F, melting and collapsing the tube to about
\ 13 mm. TJ:>e preformed quartz is now ready to be placed in the vertical drawing tower
(see Figure 18-12).
The quartz rod, having undergone the modified chemical vapor deposition
(MCVD) process, is now placed vertically in a drawing tower where it is further heated
(2200'F) and drawn downward by means of a computer-controlled melting and draw-
ing process which produces a fine, high-quality fiber thread approximately 125 µ,min
diameter and about 6.25 km in length. The optically pure center, called the core (as
small as 8 µ,m in diameter) is surrounded by less optically pure quartz called the

n,
n,

n,

FIGURE 18-11 Snell's law.

/
710 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

MVD
gas input connections

(a)

Preform
melting

~
oven

Preform Chemical
centering- V" cleal'ler and fiber coating
.
stage input corinections

Computer-controlled
fiber drawing capst.ans
Thread

/r(
drawing
cooling - Fiber
section - / take-up re~I

,, I
'
\ J ' I

- -
(b)

FIGURE 18-12 (a) Preform manufa~turing lathe; (b) optical fiber drawing tower.

cladding. The cladding is approximately 117 µm of boundary material formed during

MCVD process.
All data concerning the fiber is then· measured (bandwidth, refractive index,
cladding thickness,timed retlectometer response, and so on) and recorded. This data is
stored with the spool of fiber as a permanent record. The fiber is coated during the
drawing process with polyethylene or epoxy for protection, and in some instances color
coding is applied, ac.cording to the users' needs.
A typical cross section of a single-strand fiber is shown in Figure 18-13. The
optical fiber basically consisis of two concentric layers, the light-carrying core
(50 µm) and the cladding. The cladding acts as a refractive index medium (light
bending) and allows the light to be transmitted through the core and to the other end
with very little distortion or attenuation. Figure 18-14 illustrates this action: light is
 INTRODUCTION TO FIBER OPTIC TECHNOLOGY 711

[E0,~~ 140 100

~laddlog

FIGURE 18-13 Fiber cross section.

introduced into the fiber, and the cladding refracts or reflects the light in a zigzag
pattern throughout the entire length of the core. This process is possible because the
angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are equai. Light introduced at such a
sharp angle will strike the cladding (at a less than critical angle) and will be lost in the
cladding material (see Section 18-3.2, where Snell's law is discussed). The finished
fiber construction is shown in Figure 18-13 and consists of the following:

1. The core n 1
2. The cladding n2
3. The polymer jacket (applied by the fiber manufacturer to-protect the core and
cladding)

The fiber is now ready for the next processes, which will incorporate it into a
. single-fiber cable or a multifiber cable (see Figure 18-15). The basic single-fiber cable
.consists of the following:

1. Core-quartz
2. Cladding-silica
3 •. Jacket-:-acrylic
4. · Buffer jacket
5. Strength member
6. Outer jacket

FIGURE 1s·.14 Light travel in fiber core.

712 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

- Strength
Members

Core (quartz)

FIGURE 18'15 Single-fiber cable.

Depending on their application, multifiber cables are manufactured in many

forms, from round cables of loose tight bundles, to specialized cables for use under-
water, to flat overcarpet or undercarpet applications for business offices (see Fig-
ure 18-16).

18-4.1 Fiber Characteristics and Classification

The characteristics of light transmission through a glass fiber depend on. many factors,
for example:
1. The composition of the fiber
2. The amount and tyl'!' of light introduced into the fiber
3. The diameter and length of the fiber

Strength Members

Optical Fiber

FIGURE 18-16 Undercarpet or office fiber cable assembly.

 INTRODUCTION TO FIBER OPTIC TECHNOLOGY 713

The composition of the fiber determines the refractive index. By a process

called doping, other materials are introduced into the material that alter its index
number. This process produces a single fiber with a core index n 1 and a surface index
(cladding) n 2 (typically n 1 ·= J.48 and n 2 = 1.46).
Another characteristic of the fiber, which depends on its size, is its mod, of
operation. The term "mode" as used here refers to mathematical and physical descrip-
tions of the propagation of energy through a medium. The number of modes supported
by a single fiber can be as low as I or as high as 100,000; that is, a fiber can provide a
path for one light ray or for hundreds of thousands of light rays. From this characteris-
tic come the terms single mode and multimode. These fibers are illustrated in Figure
18-17. For long-haul communications only single-mode fiber cables are used, and
therefore they will be the main topic ·of discussion in this chapter ..
Another term which should be mentioned here is the refractive index profile. It
describes the relationship between the multiple indices which exist in the core and the
cladding of the particular fiber. This relationship can be expressed in simple terms by
the statement "Light changes speed when it passes from one medium to another."
There are two major indices in this relationship:.
1. Step index
2. Graded index
The step index describes an abrupt index change (see Table 18-1) from the core to the
cladding, for example, a core with a uniform index (1.48) and a cladding with a
uniform index (1.46). With graded-index fiber, the highest index is at the center
(1.48). This number decreases gradually until it reaches the index number of the
cladding (1.46), that is, near the surface.
From these·terms come three classifications of fibers:
1. Multimode step-index fiber
2. Multimode graded-index fiber
3. Single-mode step-index fiber
The multimode ·step-index fiber has a core diameter of from 100 to 970 µ,m.
With this large core diameter, there are many paths through which light can travel
(multimode). Therefore, t_he light ray tr~veling the straight path through the center
reaches the end before tile other rays, which follow a zigzag path. The difference in the
length of time it takes the various light rays to exit the fiber is called modal dispersion.
This is a form of a signal distortion which limits the bandwidth of the fiber.
· The multimode graded-index fiber is an improvement on the multimode step-
index fiber. Because light rays travel faster through the lower index of refraction, the·
light at the fiber core travels more slowly than the light nearer the surface. Therefore,
both light rays arrive at the exit point at almost the same time, thus reducing modal
dispersion (an example of these losses can be seen in Figure 18- I7). A typical graded-
index fiber has core diameters ranging from 50 to 85 µ,m and a cladding diameter of
125 µ,m.
As previously mentioned, single-mode step-index fibers are the most widely
used in today's wide-band communication arena. With this fiber a light ray can travel
on only one path; therefore modal dispersion is zero. The core diameters of this fiber
range from 5 µ,m to 10 µ,m (standard cladding diameter is 125 µ,m). The extra clad-
714 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Refractive
Input Output High-Order Dispersion Index

'
Pulse Pulse Profile
Mode

'\
' ---- -
.~
"'/
-
---- ' --
/
,,

Multi mode Step Index

/
\
\ J
Low-Order
Mod,
"'

Slrigl~e Step Index

~
Dispersion -
. .

1 I\_ - - - - -
' --0 /
/ /

Mulllmocle Graded Index

/
'
' u' "'

(a)

_Jl_ PULSE 1N PULSE OUT

(bl

FIGURE 18-17 (a) Mode and refractive index profile comparison; (b) fiber propagation
and mod~_ dispersion.

ding thickness tends to set an overall fiber size standard and makes the fiber less fragile
(refer to Figure 18-18 for composition). Some specifications for a single-mode fiber
are:
l. The bandwidth is from 50 to· 100 GHz/km.
2. The digital communications rate is in excess of 2000 Mbyte/s.
3. More than 100,000 voice channels are available.
4. Light wavelengths approach core diameter; therefore, higher frequency capabili-
1

ties are achieved.

5, The mode field diameter (MFD; spot size) is larger than the core diameter.
 INTRODUCTION TO FIBER OPTIC TECHNOLOGY 715

Fiber
Outside Diameter
µm

:i_m___ 0
•Lf_

·•-~+-
~. ~~,10µ_m_ _ _~ -
--V 138"

"With lacquer remoVed, the fiber OD is 125 .u,m.

A- fiber core B - cladding C- plastic coating

FIGURE 18-18 Typical fiber core and cladding diameters.

Numerical aperture (NA) relates to the light-gathering capabilities of a fiber.

Only light that strikes the fiber at an angle greater than the critical angle ( Oc) will be
propagated. The NA relates to the indices of both the core and the cladding; that is,

NA= Vn/- n/ (18-7)

From Equation (18-7) we can develop another relationship which also describes
the maximum light propagation angle; it is commonly called the cone of acceptance
(see Figure 18-19).

0 = arcsin (NA)
NA= sin 0 (18-8)

In general, fibers with high bandwidths have lo.w NA and thus fewer modes and
less modal dispersion. NAs range from 0.50 for plastic to 0.21 for graded-index fibers.

Input Output

>k ><II>< >I<

low NA

Acceptance
cone
)kxxx$%xxxik
High NA

FIGURE 18-19 Cone of acceptance.

716 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

18-4.2 Fiber Losses

Energy losses and signal degradation in fiber can be attributed to a variety of causes,
some of which have been mentioned previously: To add to this list:

1. Light scattering (Rayleigh scattering) is caused by imperfections in the fiber. It

affects each wavelength differently and can be stated as: 1.4A. This scattering re-
sults in the following losses:

2.5 dB at 820 nm
0.24 dB at 1300 nm
0.012 dB at 1550 nm

2. Absorption of light energy due to the heating of ion impurities results in a dim-
ming of light at the end of the fiber.
3. Microbend loss, due to small surface irregularities in the cladding, causes light to
be reflected at angles where there is no further reflection.
4. Macrobend is a bend in the entire cable which causes certain modes not to be
reflected and therefore causes loss to the cladding (see Figure 18-20).
5. Attenuation is the loss of optical energy as it travels through the fiber. This loss is
measured in decibels per kilometer. The attenuation losses vary from 300 dB/km
for inexpensive fiber to as low as 0.21 dB/km for high-quality single-mode fibers.
Attenuation values also vary from one wavelength to another. In certain wave-
lengths, almost no attenuation occurs; these wavelengths are called windows.

. Proper use of fibers as light traqsmitters requires an in-depth _understanding of

the fiber material being used. A reference chart (see Figure 18-2) supplied by the fiber
manufacturer is a necessity. To ensure the most efficient use of a fiber, the light source
must emit light in the low-loss regions of the fiber chosen.

£.. Microbend

FIGURE 18-20 Power loss due to microbend and macrobend.

 INTRODUCTION TO FIBER OPTIC TECHNOLOGY 717

FIBER OPTIC COMPONENTS AND SYSTEMS-. -- -

The fiber optics system can be divided into subgroups, the source, the link, and the
detectors. We will now explore the makeup and role of each of these groups.

18-5.1 The Source

The source usually consists of a light-emitting element which is triggered or actuated
by an electronic or electrical signal, for example, PIN photodiodes, light-emitting
· diodes (LEDs), avalanche photodiodes, and semiconductor lasers. These devices were
discussed in Chapter 12 and therefore will not be covered in detail here, except for this
point: When a source to match a fiber link is selected, particular attention must be paid
to the wavelength specifications, the bandwidth, and the power output of the source
so that efficient coupling and ·maximum power transfer can be achieved (see
Figure 18-21).

Glass lens
window

Reflecting
parabolic
surface
Chip

NA=SinO

Glass
window

Fiber

Lens
300·µ.m
diameter

I+-- Junction
· 63.5·µ.m diameter (typical)

FIGURE 18-21 The light source.

718 ELECTRONrc·coMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

18-5.2 Noise
As. discussed in Chapter 2, noise also has an effect on optoelectronic systems, just as
it. does on electronic systems. As a quick refresher, ·some of the temi.~ we learned were:

1. Shot noise (noise created by uneven streams of electron flow)

2. Thermal noise (noise generated in resistive elements)

The term dark current noise should be added to the above. It is thermal noise
generated by minute current flow in' diodes. Later in this chapter, we will see how this
noise factor is used.

18-5.3 Response Time

As with noise, response time should be considered a limiting factor when an optical
source is chosen. Response (rise) time is defined as 'the time between the IO and 90
percent points. It is the time a device takes to convert electronic energy to light energy
or vice versa (5 to IO ns). .
Response time affects the overall bandwidth of the device and can be approxi-
mated by Equation (18-9).

BW = 0.35 (18-9)
t,
where BW = bandwidth
tr = response time
As with other devices, the RC time constants affect the bandwidth of the device and
can be calculated as shown in Equation (18-10).

BW= .. (18-10)
211R1,Cd
where RL = load resistance
Ct1 = diode capacitance

To determine the R,. for this diode (so as not to lower the bandwidth), we must
calculate the.highest v~lue p.ossible, for example:
I
+~
 INTRODUCTION TO FIBER OPTIC TECHNOLOGY 719

R -~~~~~~~~~~~-
1
L - (175 X 106 Hz)(628)2 X 10-iz f
RL = 455 0
In practice, a value approximately 25 percent of this calculated value will be used. In
general, the main characteristic difference between a source and a detector is the
spectral width (source has narrow width) and output power (source has greater output
power).

18-5.4 The Optical Link

The optical link (the fiber and its physical characteristics were discussed at length at the
beginning of this chapter) is the connection between the source and the detector. This
part of the system usually consists of more than just the fiber cable. Some other devices
in the system are (see Figure 18-22):
1. Fused tapered couplers
2. Beam-splitting couplers
3. Reflective star couplers.
4. Optical multiplexers
5. Optical demultiplexers
6. Dichroic filters

(a)

Collimating lens Focusing lens

Fiber-optic
cable
Beam splitter
(b)

FIGURE 18-22 Passive optical connectors. (Continues on page 720.)

720 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Port Port

I I\ \

,'~ I/\,
/ / \
I
\
,\.
, , , /' r •,'\,-/ I
''~'ii \\/II
\, \/ ', / \ ;'/ Y. 1:
\,,/ \,,1,' ,.,. . · \,,/ \,,/
,, ,,. ~ I\ f
,,,
Reflective Star
, coup/er

(c)

Partially reflective mirror

Graded index rod

(GRIN)

2- /L.===l-_. --t::==::i>-"--
Multiplexing
(d)

Partially reflective mirror

Graded index rod

·-~---
(GRIN)

, L__ __.__ __ _ ,
....._-t::==~ _,,
Demultiplexing
(,)

Reflected
light
(f1)
tI •I •I •I
I I I
I I I I
~''~---
Dlchroic
,--------------,---1--t-- mirror

Incident ,--------------1--~--
light ,_ ____________ , __ Transient light
___________ _
--------+."----------.
(f, + f2) ,_ Vil

Dichroic filter
(f)

FIGURE 18-22 Passive optical connectors. (Continued.)

Fused couplers are constructed of a group of fibers fused by heat to form a

single large. fiber at the junction. Light introduced into any one of the fibers will appear
at the ends of all the others.
Beam-splitting couplers are composed of a series of lenses and a (beam-split-
.ting) partly reflective surface. The diffused light reflected and refracted by the reflect-
ing surface would be useless without the collimating and focusing lenses.
 INTRODUCTION TO FIBER OPTIC TECHNOLOGY 721

A reflective star coupler, as shown in Figure 18-22, is a multiport reflective

devise used to network computers and so forth.
So. far the devices discussed have lieen used for dividing a light signal source
into multiple outputs. Each time a signal is divided, its output power .is diminished and
coupling losses occur (approximately 0.5 dB per coupling). Therefore, if there is one
input and two outputs, the power is split between outputs (3 dB per output port). Add
to this the connector loss, and the sum of losses becomes a somewhat limiting factor
(3.5 dB per output) often determined by the sensitivity of the detector.

18-5,5 Light Wave

Light wave receivers or detectors are the final device in our basic optical communica-
tions system. These detectors are usually low-power, low-noise PIN diodes coupled to
a FET amplifier.
The main consideration in the choice of detyctors should be responsivity. This
term descriqes the·ratio of the diode's output current to the input optical power and can
be expressed as shown in Equation (18-13).
R =µ,A.;. µ,W (18-13)
where R = responsivity (A/W)
µ,W = incident light
µ,A = diode current

The noise characteristics and response time (BW) should be considered but can be·
approached the same way as the light source (discussed earlier).
Many other optical devices perform various specific functions and are too nu-
merous to be mentioned here. The last one we will discuss is the wavelength-division
multiplexer (WDM). As shown in block form in Figure 18-22 the WDM uses a passive
optical filtering system to solve the problem of multiplexing and demultiplexing.,
WDM is similar in concept and action to frequency-division multiplexing (FDM),
discussed at length in Chapter· 15.
This task is accomplished in the optical environment by using a combination of
diffraction grating (as shown in Figure 18-20) and dichroic filtering. The action of.
reflection and refraction off and through the series-parallel surfaces combines the fre-
quencies n 1, 11 2 , and n3 to become n 1 + n2 + n3 . The reverse is accomplished by using
a dichroic (a coating suostance which separates different wavelengths) coating on a
special type of splice on the fibers themselves. This action is similar in function to that
of a prism. ·
722 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

18-5.6 The System ,

The complete system is a combination of all the components and processes so far
discussed in this chapter and previous chapters. The incredible information-handling
capabilities of' the single-mode fiber make it highly suitable to the field of digital
communications (discussed at length in Chapter 14), where it has become the primary
carrier of this type of information, not only in the broadband communications arena but
· also the digital computer field.
In simplderms, the system consists of the optical interface devices, the optical
link, and the electronic transmitters and receivers. We can think of the transmitters and
receivers as either broadband voice communications devices or digital computers (refer
to Figure 18-23). To accomplish the interface portion of the system, the fiber industry
has manufactured devices which can be retrofitted to most (computer or communica-
tions) existing equipment. A complete listing of this equipment and its specifications is
available to the design engineer from the AMP Corporation, the Tektronix Corpora-
tion, or any other major manufacturer of fiber optic interface devices or test equipment.
A list of optical components used_to interconnect a digital voice or data system
might include:

1. Transceivers-for either simplex or duplex operation

2. Receivers-for digital data or voice communications
3. Transmitters-for digital data or voice communications
4. Channel multiplexers-WDM
5. Optical switching modules-FDDI
6. Single-mode fiber cable-low-loss voice communications
7. Multimode fiber cable-local area networks (LANs), and so forth

Add to this list the multitude of couplers, connectors, junction boxes, test
equipment, and fiber-splicing devices available, and the system becomes a simple
process of matching requirements and the available hardware.
Some design considerations include the following.

1. The length of fiber cabling-attenuation, and so forth

2. The source wavelength-type of fiber to be selected
3. Interconnect losses-power budgeting
4. Data rate-bandwidth of fiber and optoelectronic interface equipment
5. Type of fiber-high-density, single-mode lOO Mbyte/s

INSTALLATION, TESTING, AND REPAIR

This section will be devoted to the installation, testing, and repair of fiber cables and
fiber support equipment.
Because of their light weight and flexibility, fiber cables are in most cases
easier to install than their copper counterparts. There are some concerns, however, that
must be faced by the individuals involved in designing the installations, for example,
minimum bend radius and maximum tensile strength. The specifications for minimum
 INTRODUCTION TO FIBER OPTICTECHNOLOG°r'. 723

bend and tensile strength are provided by manufacturers in their specifications and
should be adhered to strictly. .
First, some terms used in the fiber industry should be defined. A splice is a
device qr a process used to permanently connect fibers. A connector is a device used to
allow cables to be joined and disjoined.
The basic and common requirements for splices and connectors are low loss
(attenuation) and accurate alignment. A splice can be used to extend cable length or
repair a break. A connector is used to connect the fiber cable to equipment, a junction
box, and so forth.

18-6.1 Splices
There ·are two )Jasic types of splices-fu'sion and mechanical. The fusim:i splice re-
quires expensive equipment and controlled conditions. Because qf adverse conditions,
field service repair splicing is more suited for the mechanical splicing process (see

1.544 6.312 1.544

Mb/s Mb/s Mb/s

j j 2 Optical
Fibers I
I
0 D
I I
G G
I I
T T
A A
L L
MX MX

D D
I I
G. G
I
T T
A A
L L
MX MX

FIGURE 18-23a A typical system block. (Continues on next page.)

724 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

AMP OPTIMATE FSD

System for FDDI ·
OEM Perspective

Dual Bypass
Switch

2:5mm Bayonet
· Adapter FSD Transceiver
Adapter

Transceiver
0

1---f-- §~
: i
I :L __ _
Bypass Switch·
. ,.
L ------- J

r'IGURE 18-23~· Data interconnect system.

 INTRODUCTION TO FIBER OP1IC TECHNOLOGY 725

Premise Perspective

Low Profile
Enclosure

FIGURE l8-23c Physical layout.

726 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Figure 18-24). The fusion splice requires expensive equipment (thousands of dollars)
and is not suited for use under field conditions, for example, in trenches, manholes, or
cables suspended from poles. The small P,ower loss of the fusion splice (0.01 dB or
less) and its overall reliability make it the choice for new indoor installations. The steps
involved in making this splice are as follows:
I. • By mechanical or chemical methods, clean all coatings from fiber (except for the
cladding).

Fiber

Glass
y

Outer
cylindrical
sleeve

V-groove
Tapered
entrance hole

, • ___.....,.. Strain Relief Tube

~ .. ;--
~-:,~?) '

FIGURE 18-24 Self-aligning elastomer splices.

 i

INTRODUCTION TO -FIBER OPTIC TECHN<DLOGY 727

2. Scratch the fiber with a diamond scribe to induce a clean square break (this process
is called cleaving). · ·
3. Place the fibers to be spliced into the alignment assembly; inspect_ them with "
microscope for accurate alignment; fuse the fibers with an. electric arc; and
reinspect the fibers with a microscope ..
4. Reins]all protective coatings according to the manufacturer's specifications.
5. Test the splice optically for attenuation losses.
The mechanical splice is more suited for field service repair where conditions
are unfavorable for using expensive bulky equipment. It is accomplished as follows:
I. Disassemble the mechanical connector assembly.
2. Insert the fiber, coated with indexing gel, into the holder alignment assembly.
3. Reassemble and test for attenuation (see Figure 18-24).
This type of splice will introduce an attenuation loss of 0.1 dB or less, which is
reasonable.
The process of preparing an optical fiber connector is almost as simple as that
used for the mechanical splice, but it requires more elaborate equipment for polishing
the fiber end and curing the epoxy protective coating. The steps are as follows:
I. Cleave the fiber with the cutting tool recommended by the manufacturer (see
Figure 18-25).
2. Polish the end of the fiber in the connector assembly.
3. Place the fiber in the connector assembly (see Figure 18-25).
4. Reassemble with epoxy protective coating if necessary and place in the curing
oven for the recommended time period (see Figure 18-26).
Because of the variety of situations encountered in the installation of fiber-linked
communications and data handling systems, there are many different types of connec- -
tors and associated assemblies (see Exhibits 18-1 and 18-2 at the end of this chapter).

18-6.2 Fiber Optic Testing

This section, devoted to fiber optic testing, focuses primarily on the processes and
equipment used during and after the installation of fiber optic cables and their associ-
ated equipment. The testing is performed by the engineer or technician to guarantee
acceptable performance standards.
Splices must be tested for optical clarity. They must not exceed certain loss
values. Tests must be made on each splice as it is completed; a failure requires resplic-
ing. One way to test a splice is to use an optical power meter.
The optical power meter is similar to the voltohmmeter in application but mea-
sures the optical resistance (losses measured in dBm or dBM) of a cable before and
after installation ano provides a comparative analysis of the splices.
The range of the meter is adjustable. Sensors from 400 to 1800 nm and attenua-
tion levels from -80 dBm (10 pW) to +33 dBm (2 W) with resolutions from 0.01 dB
to 0.1 dB are available. One of the problems.encountered with the optical power meter
is mode control. To achieve usable and accur'ate results, equilibrium mode distribution
728 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Har,d Tools Polishing Machine.

EconOmy Tool

OPTIMATE tool

Alignment

.... ~
Outer
sleeves
jacket

Buffer'
Fiber
tubing
(2aizesf Metal version,,.
!Straight eyelet . , . .. . ..
·~stepped.
"".'.onl, Strengt~
members
(irpresentl Primary

------ · alignment
----
---- ---- perrule PSMA-N ·~,st
-- -- -- --- body
assembly
0-Ring
Groove
cap

---- ---- -----

PSMA-1
body
- .:- assembly

FIGURE 18-25 Required components and equipment for connector assembly.

 INTRODUCTION TO FIBER OPTIC TECHNOLOGY 729

Epoxy Curing Oven

1
78.7

FIGURE 18-26 . Epoxy curing 9ven for fiber connectors.

(EMD) must be attained in accordance with the Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
standards (70170 launch); that is, 70 percent of the core diameter and 70 percent of the
fiber NA should be filled with light.
Because of the problems encountered with the power meter, another testing
device which achieves higher reliability is used. This is the optical time-domain rejlec-
tometer, or OTDR (see Figure 18-27). The OTDR uses the reflective light backscat-
tered (Rayleigh scattering) from the fiber. The reflective light is compared to a normal
 ' I

730 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

FIGURE 18-27 Optical time-domain reflectometer.

decaying light pulse from a light source focused through a beam splitter (see Figure
18-22) to produce a visual display on a CRT (see Figure 18-28) to determine splice and
connector losses. As the light pulse is reflected back to the beam splitter, the time for
complete pulse decay (5 ns/m) is displayed as a diagonal line starting at the top left and
proceeding down to the lower right of the screen. Any changes in the backscattering
process (splices;·broken fiber, connector attenuation) appear as abrupt changes in the
display. This evaluation method can analyze the following conditions:

1. Loss per unit length (measure byfore and after installation to determine stress
bends, and so forth)
2. Splice and connector quality
3, Stress bends, bad splices, or faulty connectors
With the information gained from the OTDR, the engineer can det~rmine
whether the system budget requirements have been achieved; that is, does the. power
 INTRODUCTION TO FIBER OPTIC TECHNOLOGY 731

Slope of curve, !J.. dB/!J.. length,

is fiber's loss in dB/km

End·of·fiber
I reflection
produced by material
imperfections
Distance into fiber

FIGURE 18-28 CRT display OTDR.

input minus the power losses equal the engineering requirements? (This topic is dis-
cussed in Section 18-6.3.) Power losses in fibers can be measured and calculated in
two ways by the optical power meter. The first method is to measure the light attenua-
tion of the uncut fiber, make the .cut, install the connector, and remeasure using Equa-
tion (18-13).
P2 -Pi
Loss (18-13)
l
where P 1 is the fifst measurement
P2 is the second measurement
L is the difference between the two cable lengths
·The second method is to use a standard length of fiber as a reference and
compare it to the cable being installed, using the power meter measurements in a
manner similar to that described above. ·

18-6.3 Power Budgeting

As mentioned earlier, the term power budget is the relationship between the power
losses in fiber links and associated equipment and the available input power to the
system. The available power budget for a set of equipment is usually given by the
manufacturer. In some cases, the transmitted power and receiver sensitivity are speci-
fied instead. In this case the power budget is determined by subtracting the receiver
sensitivity from. the transmit power.
'
.Available poweri= P,(dBm) - P,(dBm) (18-14)
---
'732 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Remember that both transmit power and receive sensitivity are usually less than I mW;
thus both numbers are likely to be negative. For example, assume:
P, = 0.1 mW= -10 dBm
P, = 0.002 mW= -2 dBm
Budget = (-10) - (-27) = + 17 dB (not dBm)
Power budget calcuiations can be performed in two ways-worst-case or statis-
tically. With the worst-case approach, the values for launch power, receiver sensiti_v-
ity, connector and fiber loss, and so forth, are the ones the manufacturer will never
exceed. The statistical altema_tive uses mean or typical values to predict what will
normally be seen in service. Standard deviation data is then used to predict the worst-
case performance. The worst-case approach is described here.
Another term in the power budget is the margin for degradation of the optical
components throughout their service life. The LED is the main factor, since there are
common mechanisms which cause its light output to decrease o.ve~ time. Because the
light output falls gradually, the point at which it is "too low" is rather arbitrary.
Typical values run from I to 3 dB. Consult the manufacturer of the equipment for the
appropriate value to use. The aging margin may be built into the manufacturer's speci-
fication for launch power. ·
Launch power is determined by measuring the power coupled into a short piece
of fiber. It is imp.ortant to determine the size of fiber that was used to rate the transmit
power of a particular piece of equipment. In many cases the optical fiber receptacle on
a piece of equipment houses the light source. When the cable is cpnnected to the LED,
more power will be launched into large core fibers than into small ones. Table 18-2
indicates how this ·varies for common short-wavelength LEDs like the ones used in
AMP data links. This does not apply to equipment which uses an internal fiber pigtail.

18-6.4 Passive Components

Passive components are not perfect. Therefore, some of the optical energy traveling
from transmitter to receiver is lost. A decrease in power levels also ·occurs in splitting
devices, such as star couplers, as the energy arriving on one fiber is divided among
several output fibers. Loss occurring in connectors and switches is proportional and is
expressed in decibels. Typical values for connectors run from a few tenths of a decibel
for a high-precision connector to several decibels for lower-cost varieties. Switch loss
also ranges from less than I decibel to several decibels.
· The theoretical splitting loss and the excess loss of a star coupler are usually
combined to yield a maximum insertion loss. This is accommodated in the power

TABLE 18-2 Typical Launch Power for Various Fiber Sizes for Surface-Emitting
LEDs
FIBER SIZE/N.A. TYPICAL LAUNCH POWER (dBm, PEAK)
100/140/0.3 -12
85/125/0.275 -14
62.5/125/0.275 c-16
50/125/0.2 -20
738 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

MULTIPLE-CHOICE
QUESTIONS
Each of the following multiple-choice questions consists of an incomplete statement
followed by four choices (a, b, c, and d). Circle the letter preceding the line that
correctly completes each sentence.
1. What is the frequency limit of copper wire? 7. The term critical angle describes
a. approximately 0.5 MHz a. the point at which light is refracted
b. approximately 1.0 MHz b. the point at which light becomes invisi-
c. approximately 40 GHz ble
d. None of the above c. the point at which light has gone from
2. Approximately what is the frequency limit the refractive mode to the reflective
of the optical fiber? mode
a. 20 GHz d. the point at which light has crossed the
b. I MHz boundary layers from one index to an-
c. 100 MHz Approx 40 GHz other
d. 40 MHz 8. The cladding which surrounds the fiber core
3. A single fiber can handle as many voice a. is used to reduce optical 'interference
channels as b. is us,ed to protect the fiber
a. a pair of copper conductors c. acts to help guide the light in the core
b. a 1500-pair •cable d. ensures that the refractive index remains
c. a 500-pair cable constant
d. a 1000-pair cable 9. The refractive index number is
4. An incident ray can be defined as a. a number which compares the transpar-
a. a light ray reflected from a flat surface ency of a material with that of air
b. a light ray directed toward a surface b. a number assigned by the manufacturer
c. a diffused light ray to the fiber in question
d. a light ray that happens periodically c. a number which determines the core di-
5. The term_dispersion describes the process of ameter
a. separating light into its component fre- d. a term for describing core elasticity
quencies 10. The terms single mode and multimode are
b. reflecting.light from a smooth surface best described as
c. the process by which light is absorbed by a. the number of fibers placed into a fiber-
an uneven rough surface optic cable
d. light scattering b. the number of voice channels ~ach fiber
6. Which of the following terms best describes can support
the reason tI,,ai light is refracted at different c. the number of wavelengths each fiber
angles? can support
a. Photon energy changes with wavelength d. the index number
b. Light ij refracted as a function of surface 11. The higher the index number- .
- smoothness a. the higher the speed of light
c. The angle is determined partly by a and b b. the lower the speed of light
d. The angle is determined by the index of c. has no effect on the speed of light
the materials d. the shorter the wavelength propagation
--------·-
 INTRODUCTION TO FIBER OPTIC TECHNOLOGY 739

12. The three major groups in the optical system 17. The mechanical splice is best suited for

- are
a. the components, the data rate, and re-
sponse time
a. quicker installation under ideal condi-
tions
b. minimum attenuation losses
b. the source, the link, and the receiver c. field service conditions
c. the transmitter, the cable, and the re- d. situations in which cost of equipment is
ceiver not a factor
d. the source, the link, and the detector 18. EMD is best described by which statement?
13. As light is coupled in a multiport reflective a. 70 percent of the core diameter and 70%
device, the power is reduced by of the fiber NA should be filled with
a. 1.5 dB c. 0.5 dB / light
b. 0.1 dB d. 0.001 dB b. 70 percent of the fiber·diameter and 70%
14. · When connector losses, splice losses, and of the cone of acceptance should' be
coupler losses are added, what is the final filled with light .
limiting factor? - c. 70 percenl'.()f input light should. be mea-
a. Source power sured at the output
b. Fiber attenuation d. 70 percent of the unwanted wavelengths
c. Connector and splice losses should be attenuated by the fiber
d. Detector sensitivity 19. Which of the following cables will have the
15. The term responsivity as it applies to a light highest launch power capability?
detector is best described as a. 50/125/0.2
a. the time required for the signal to go b. 85/125/0.275
from 10 to 90 percent of maximum am- c. 62.5/125/0.275
plitude d. 100/140/0.3
b. the ratio of the diode output current to 20. The term power budgeting refers to
optical input power a. the cost of cable, connectors, equip-
c. the ratio of the input power to output ment, and installation
power. b. the loss of power due to defective com-
d. the ·ratio of output current to input cur- ponents
rent c. the total power available minus the at-
16. Loss comparisons .between fusion splices tenuation losses ·
and mechanical splices· are d. the comparative costs of fiber and cop-
a. 1:10 c. 20:1 per installations
b. 10:1 d. 1:20 I

REVIEW PROBLEMS
1. Assuming the worst-case scenario, what is the ratio of repeater requirements for fiber
cable compared to copper cable?
2. Determine the system bandwidth that has a source reaction time of 6.25 ns.