Module 1

PRE-ASSESSMENT
Direction. Read the question carefully. Encircle the letter that best completes the statement.
   A 1.  A researcher is interested in the eating behavior of rats and selects a group of 25
rats to be tested in a research study. The group of 25 rats is a 
a.  sample c.  statistic
b.  population d. parameter
 A 2. The average score for an entire population would be an example of a _____.
a.  parameter c.  statistic
b.  variable d.  constant
  D 3.   Determining a person's reaction time would involve measurement on
a(n)__________ scale of measurement.
a.  Nominal c.  ordinal
b.  Interval d.  ratio
B 4.  In a study evaluating the effectiveness of a new medication designed to control high
blood pressure, one sample of individuals is given the medicine and a second
sample is given an inactive placebo. Blood pressure is measured for each
individual. For this study, what is the dependent variable?
a.  the medication c. the placebo
b.  blood pressure d. the individuals given the medication
D 5.  Which of the following is not a continuous variable?
a.  time to solve a problem c.  temperature
b.  Height d.  number of children in a family

Evaluation
Direction. Read the questions carefully. Write the letter of your answer on a whole sheet
of paper.
A. Multiple choice.
__A__1.  A researcher is interested in the eating behavior of rats and selects a group of 25
rats to be tested in a research study. The group of 25 rats is a 
a.  Sample c.  Population
b.  Statistic d.  Parameter
__C__2. A researcher is curious about the average IQ of registered voters in a certain
barangay. The entire group of registered voters in that barangay is an example of a 
a.  Sample c.  Population
b.  Statistic d.  Parameter
__B__3. The average score for an entire population would be an example of a
__________.
a.  Constant c.  statistic
b.  Parameter d.  variable
_C___4. Using letter grades (A, B, C, D, and E) to classify student performance on an
exam is an example of what level of measurement 
a.   Interval c.  ordinal
b.  Nominal d.  ratio
_D___5.   Determining a person's reaction time would involve measurement on
a(n)__________ scale of measurement.
 a.   Interval c.  ordinal
b.  Nominal d.  ratio
__B__6.  A researcher observed that preschool children playing in a red room showed
more aggression than children playing in a blue room. For this study, what is the
independent variable?
a.  amount of aggression c.  preschool children
b.  color of the room d.  the children's play
__C__7.  In a study evaluating the effectiveness of a new medication designed to control
high blood pressure, one sample of individuals is given the medicine and a second
sample is given an inactive placebo. Blood pressure is measured for each
individual. For this study, what is the dependent variable?
a.  the medication c.  blood pressure
b.  the placebo d.  the individuals given the medication
__D__8.  Which of the following is not a continuous variable?
a.  time to solve a problem c.  height
b.  temperature d.. number of children in a family
       __A__9.  A variable that has an infinite number of possible values between any two specific
measurements is called a(n) __________ variable.
a.  continuous c.  independent
b.  dependent d.  discrete
__D__10.  A variable that consists of indivisible categories with no other scores existing
between neighboring categories is called a(n) __________ variable.
a.  continuous c.  independent
b.  dependent d.  discrete

Collection, Organization and Presentation of Data (M2)

The collection of data is a process of collecting information from all the relevant
sources to find answers to the research problem, test the hypothesis and evaluate the
outcomes. Data can be collected from two sources.
Sources of data
1. Primary sources- are those which arise from the original investigation. These
are usually official or personal records, eyewitness accounts, photographs or
illustrations, physical remains, and mechanical records.

2. Secondary Sources- are accounts, descriptions, or reproductions of the original

by persons who need them. These are data that already exist. Ex. Government
reports, web info., abstracts, newspapers, encyclopedias, and periodicals.

Methods of collecting data

1. Interview or direct method- data are obtained from the respondents personally
or through a face-to-face interaction
 2. Questionnaire or indirect Method- is a determined and prearranged questions
given to respondents to obtain the data needed.
3. Observation Method- data are obtained by making observations or by watching
the respondents. This method can be done either by counting or measuring.
4. Experimental Methods- is used by the researcher who wants to know the cause
and effect of his study
5. Record Review or Registration Method- consists simply of perusal of existing
records or reports of an agency person.
Take note that, the method of collecting data mainly depends on the nature, purpose, and
the scope of inquiry on one hand and the availability of resources, and the time element on
the other hand. 

Effective Data Collection: Techniques and tools

1. Textual Form - data collected are presented through the use of words or
sentences.  In other words, data are presented in paragraph form. 
2. Tabular Form - data are presented by using rows and columns through
tabulation.
              Tabulation is the process of arranging data systematically such that those belonging
to the same group are put together and the frequency for each group are made
apparent. The parts of a table below should be considered when making a table.
Parts of a table:
1. Table number
2. Title- indicates clearly and briefly what the data are all about, how are they
classified, where and when the data were obtained
3. Stub- described the data found in the row
4. Caption- or box heading, gives the designations of the columns
5. Body- is where the data lie
6. Source- is used only when data are not original. This is usually placed at
the bottom of the table
Tabular Form
Data found in the table may be organized in ff manner
1. Alphabetical form- data are arranged in order of letters of the alphabet
2. Chronological Form – data are arranged in order of occurrence
3. Ranked form- numerical data are arranged either in descending or ascending
order.
4. Frequency distribution- refers to the arrangement of data by categories plus
their corresponding frequencies. This can be either ungrouped or grouped
frequency distribution.
Organization and Presentation of Data
3 Graphical Form
Data are presented in a pictorial form using graphs, charts or pictures. When the
data are presented in graphical form, it makes the presentation attractive and eye-
catching to the readers.
1. Bar Graph- is a graph consisting of bars of rectangles. Each bar
represents a single magnitude and is labeled to show what it signifies. The
bar graph is usually used to compare magnitudes.
2. Line graph- is used when one wishes to show related facts.
Kinds of line graph
a.) Straight-line graph- represents regular changes taking over a
period of time
b.) Broken line graph- represents changes of an irregular nature
c.) Curved line graph- used to tell a gradual change in quantities.
3. Circle Graph or Pie chart- is used when the variable is nominal and when
one wishes to show the relationship of a part to the whole.
4. Histogram- a bar graph of a frequency distribution.
5. Frequency Polygon- a line graph of a frequency distribution
6. Ogive- is the line graph of a cumulative frequency distribution.
 Numerical Descriptive Measures M3
Measures of Central Tendency
1. Arithmetic Mean. The arithmetic mean, or simple mean, is the measure
which    most people have in mind when they use an average.  In other
words, mean is the statistical term for average and this is found by dividing
the sum of all the values of the items by the number of items. 
2.  Median. The median is the centrally located score in a series when the
scores are arranged in ascending or descending order, half of the total
number of scores lie above and half lie below the median. The median of a set
of ungrouped data is obtained by picking out the middle score when there are
an odd number of scores and by getting the average of the two middle scores
when there are an even number of scores.
3. Mode. The mode is the score with the highest frequency. It is the most
frequently occurring score and can be found by picking the score which is
repeated the most number of times.

Comparison of the Mean, Median, and Mode

The mean is the most commonly used measure of position. It is used with
interval or ratio data and when distributions are symmetrical. It is also used when all the
scores are to be considered and when further statistical computations are to be made.
The median, on the other hand, s used with ordinal data and when departing
from normal. This measure is not affected by the size of the extreme values.
The mode provides important information to manufacturers, designers,
storekeepers, businessmen. This is usually used with nominal data and when the
quickest value of the central position is desired.

Quartiles
Quartiles refer to the scores that divide the set of data into four equal parts. There is
three quartile, namely: 
a. First Quartile or Q which divides the set of data into a lower ¼ and an upper ¾: 
1

b. Second Quartile or Q which divides the set of data into two equal parts and
2

therefore, the same as the median; 

c. Third Quartile or Q which divides the set of data into lower ¾ and an upper ¼. 
3

 Measures of Variability or Dispersion

1. Range. The range is obtained by subtracting the highest and the lowest score in
a set of data. It is the easiest but the least reliable measure of dispersion since it
considers only the extreme scores.
2.    Interquartile Range. The interquartile range is the difference between the third
and the first quartiles. When this difference is divided by 2 the quotient is referred
to as semi interquartile range or quartile deviation. Although this measure of
dispersion scores is more meaningful than the range, it is seldom used since it
considers only the middle 50% of the set of data.
3.   Mean Deviation. The mean deviation is the average of the absolute values of
the deviations of the individual scores from the mean. The value of the mean deviation
indicates the “scatter” of the scores from the measure of central tendency. The greater
 the mean deviation, the greater the dispersion of scores, While the smaller the value,
the closer are the scores to the mean or median. However, since there is no precise
mathematical relationship between the mean deviation and the location of scores
within a set of data, it is less useful to researchers.
4.   Standard Deviation. The standard deviation is the positive square root of the
arithmetic mean of the squared deviations from the mean. This is considered the most
reliable measure of dispersion since it permits the precise interpretation of scores
within a group of data. A small value of standard deviation indicates that the scores are
very close to the mean.
        5.   Variance. Variance is the square of the standard deviation.

Shape. It is the pattern of the distribution of data throughout the entire range of all the
values.
SKEWNESS – measures the lack of symmetry in the data.
1.  Symmetrical =  occurs when low and high values balance each other out, mean =
median, and Skewness = 0
         2.  Left-Skewed  = occurs when the mean is less than the median and Skewness < 0.
3. Right-Skewed = occurs when the mean is greater than the median and
Skewness > 0.

 Pearson Coefficient of Skewness is a measure to determine the skewness of a

distribution.  The formula is 

  When SK  =   0,  symmetrical distribution

                    >   0, positively skewed distribution
                    <   0, negatively skewed distribution

Activating the Data Analysis Data ToolPak

If you have never used the Data Analysis ToolPak, it is probably inactive on your
Excel program. You can check to see if you have it by first clicking on the data tab.
Next, look for the analysis group on the far-right side of your screen. If data analysis
option does not exist use the following steps to activate this add-in.
1. Click on the File tab, followed by clicking on options. Next, click on “Add-Ins.”
2. Next, click on the “Go” button to the manage add-ins section.
3. Lastly, check the “Analysis Pak” box and click “OK.”

You should now be ready to use the Data Analysis ToolPak from the data tab in the
analysis group.
The following are the steps in computing for the descriptive measures  of a set of data
using the analysis tool pak in excel (By Stephen L. Nelson, E. C. Nelson)
1. Click the Data tab’s Data Analysis command button and then highlight the
Descriptive Statistics entry and then click OK. (see figure below).
        

2. Excel now displays the Descriptive Statistics dialog box as shown in the next
figure.  In the Input section of the Descriptive Statistics dialog box, identify the
data that you want to describe.   

3. To identify the data that you want to describe statistically: Click the Input Range
text box and then enter the worksheet range reference for the data. 
To make it easier to see or select the worksheet range, click the worksheet button
at the right end of the Input Range text box. When Excel hides the Descriptive
Statistics dialog box, select the range that you want by dragging the mouse. Then
click the worksheet button again to redisplay the Descriptive Statistics dialog box.
 4. To identify whether the data is arranged in columns or rows: Select either the
Columns or the Rows radio button. To indicate whether the first row holds labels
that describe the data: Select the Labels in First Row check box. 
5. In the Output Options area of the Descriptive Statistics dialog box, describe where
and how Excel should produce the statistics. To indicate where the descriptive
statistics that Excel calculates should be placed: Choose from the three radio
buttons here — Output Range, New Worksheet Ply, and New Workbook.
Typically, you place the statistics onto a new worksheet in the existing workbook.
To do this, simply select the New Worksheet Ply radio button.
6. To identify what statistical measures you want calculated: Use the Output Options
check boxes. Select the Summary Statistics check box to tell Excel to calculate
statistical measures such as mean, mode, and standard deviation. 
7. Select the Confidence Level for Mean check box to specify that you want a
confidence level calculated for the sample mean.  
Note: If you calculate a confidence level for the sample mean, you need to enter the
confidence level percentage into the text box provided. Use the Kth Largest and
Kth Smallest check boxes to indicate you want to find the largest or smallest value
in the data set.
8.     After you describe where the data is and how the statistics should be
calculated, click OK and the summary of descriptive measures will appear.

Statistic Description

Mean Shows the arithmetic mean of the sample data.

Standard Error Shows the standard error of the data set (a measure of the difference
between the predicted value and the actual value).

Median Shows the middle value in the data set (the value that separates the largest
half of the values from the smallest half of the values).

Mode Shows the most common value in the data set.

Standard Deviation Shows the sample standard deviation measure for the data set.

Sample Variance Shows the sample variance for the data set (the squared standard deviation).

Kurtosis Shows the kurtosis of the distribution.

Skewness Shows the skewness of the data set’s distribution.

Range Shows the difference between the largest and smallest values in the data set.

Minimum Shows the smallest value in the data set.

Maximum Shows the largest value in the data set.

Sum Adds all the values in the data set together to calculate the sum.

Count Counts the number of values in a data set.

Largest(X) Shows the largest X value in the data set.

 Smallest(X) Shows the smallest X value in the data set.

Confidence Level(X) Shows the confidence level at a given percentage for the data set values.
Percentage

Basic Probability Concepts (M4)

Probability is the numeric value representing the chance, likelihood, or

possibility a particular event will occur. 
    Properties of Probability
1.  0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1     
  This property tells that the value of the probability is a number from 0
to 1 only.  It can be expressed as a fraction, decimal or percent.  
Furthermore, P (impossible to happen) = 0                                      
while               P (sure to happen) = 1
1. ∑ P(E) = 1
               This property tells us that the sum of all the probabilities in an event is
always equal to 1 in terms of proportion or 100% in terms of percent
     Experiment - any well-defined action leading to a single, well-defined result
Outcome - is the result in a single trial in a probability experiment
Sample Space - is the set of all possible outcomes of a probability experiment
Event – refers to each possible outcome of a variable
Simple Event - is described by a single characteristic such as tossing a coin, 
rolling a die
Joint Event - has two or more characteristics such as getting two heads on the toss
of two coins
      Complement of event A (A’) - includes all events that are not part of A.

Example1:  Probability experiment: Roll a die 

Outcome: {3} 

Sample space: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} 

Event: {Die is even}={2, 4, 6}.

Example 2: A probability experiment consists of tossing a coin and then 

rolling a six-sided die. Describe the sample space. 
Solution: There are two possible outcomes when tossing a coin: a head (H) or a tail 
(T). For each of these, there are six possible outcomes when rolling a die: 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, or 6. Hence the sample space has 12 outcomes: {H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, T1,
T2, T3, T4, T5, T6}.
 Approaches to Probability
1.  Relative Frequency (Posterior or Empirical) Approach
- uses past data that have been empirically observed.
    No. of times the event has occurred in the past
P(E)  =    ---------------------------------------------------------------
          Total number of possible outcomes
Example 1:  During the last calendar year there were 50 births at a Local hospital. 
Thirty-two of the little new arrivals were baby girls.  What is the probability that the
next birth ( or any randomly  selected birth) is a female?
Solution:
No. of females born last year
P(E)  =  --------------------------------------
                Total number of births
P(female)  =  32/50 or 16/25
2.  Subjective Approach  -  
          - requires the assignment of the probability of some event on the basis of
the best available evidence 
3. Classical or a Priori Approach 
-  an approach wherein the probability of success is based on prior
knowledge of the process involved.
                 No. of ways the event can occur      
   P(E)  =  -----------------------------------------------
Total number of possible outcomes

Example 1: Given Event A: rolling a 3 

Event B: rolling a 7 
Event C: rolling a number less than 5 
Required:  Find the probability of each event when you roll a six-sided die.
Solution: Sample space: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} 
Event A = {3} 
 Event B  = { } (7 is not in the sample space)         
Event C = {1, 2, 3, 4}.

Rule  5.  Multiplication Rule

For any two events A and B from the same field of events there holds the formula 
P(AB) = P(A) P(B|A) = P(B) P(A|B).
If these events are independent then 
P(AB) = P(A) P(B).

Example1:  There are 5 boxes of lamps: 

 3 boxes with the content A1: 9 good lamps and 1 defective lamp, 
2 boxes with content A2: 4 good lamps and 2 defective lamps. 
At random select one box and from this box draw one lamp. Find the probability that
the drawn lamp is defective. 
Solution Denote by B the event that the drawn lamp is defective and by the same A1,
A2 the events that the box with content A1, A2, respectively, is selected. Since the
defective lamp may be drawn from a box of either content A1 or content A2 we have
B = A1B + A2B. By the formula of total probability P(B) = P(A1)P(B|A1)+P(A2)P(B|
A2). 
Since P(A1) = 3/5, P(A2) = 2/5, P(B|A1) = 1/10,
P(B|A2) = 2/6 = 1/3 we have
P(B) = 3/5 * 1/10 + 2/5 *1/3 = 29/150 = 0.19.
Thus, the probability that the drawn lamp is defective is 0.19. 
Example 2. Given 5 boxes of lamps: 
3 boxes with the content A1: 9 good lamps and 1 defective lamp, 
2 boxes with content A2: 4 good lamps and 2 defective lamps. 
From one of the boxes, chosen at random, a lamp is withdrawn. It turns out to be
defective (event B). What is the probability, after the experiment has been performed
(the posterior probability), that the lamp was taken from a box of content A1? 
Solution We have calculated P(A1) = 3/5, P(A2) = 2/5, P(B|A1) = 1/10, P(B|A2) = 2/6 =
1/3, P(B) = 29/150. 
Hence, the formula of Bayes gives 
P(A )P(B|A )
P(A|B) =  −−−−−−−−−−−−
         P(B) 
P(A|B)  =   3/5*1/10 
29 /150 
     =  9/29
     =  0.31
Thus, the probability that the lamp was taken from a box of content A1, given the
experiment has been performed, is equal 0.31. 

Basic Probability Distributions M5

Random Variable
A random variable is a possible numerical value associated with events of an
experiment.  For convenience, let us use X to represent a random variable and x to
denote values of the random variable.  There are two types of a random variable:
1. Discrete Random Variable occurs when its set of possible outcomes is
countable. 
Example1: Roll a die twice
 Let X  =  number of times 4 occurs (hence X can be 0, 1, or 2 times)
              Example2: Observe 100 babies to be born in a clinic
                              Let X  =  number of boys which have been born (it can be from 0 to 100)
 1. Continuous Random Variable occurs when a random variable produces
outcomes that come from a measurement.
Example 1:  Select one student from a university and measure his/her height and
record this height by x. Then x is  a random variable, 
Example2:  The weight of babies at birth also is a random variable. It can assume values in
the interval, for example, from 800 grams to 6000 grams.

Probability Distribution for a Discrete Random Variable

Probability distribution for a discrete random variable X is a mutually exclusive
listing of possible numerical outcomes for that variable and a probability of
occurrence associated with each outcome. It can be a table, graph, or formula
that gives the probability of observing each value of x. We shall denote the
probability of x by the symbol p(x). 
Example 1

  
  Example 2. The investment firm of Loosit and Lye employs 20 investment
analysts.  Every morning each analyst is assigned up to five stocks to evaluate. 
The assignments made this morning were

Outcome (X )j Frequency of (X )
j

Number of stocks Number of Analysts

1 4
2 2
3 3
4 5
5 6
20
Develop a probability distribution for the random variable of the number of stocks
assigned to the analyst this morning.
Solution:
 Outcome (X )j Frequency of (X ) j P(X = x j)

Number of stocks Number of Analysts

1 4 4/20 = 0.20
2 2 2/20 = 0.10
3 3 3/20 = 0.15
4 5 5/20 = 0.25
5 6 6/20 = 0.30
20

Table 3
Probability Distribution of the Number
 of Stocks Assigned
X P(x)
1 0.20
2 0.10
3 0.15
4 0.25
5 0.30

A.  The Expected Value or Mean

The expected value of a discrete variable is the weighted mean of all possible
outcomes, in which the weights are the probabilities of those outcomes.  The
formula is as follows:

A.  Variance and Standard Deviation

 The variance is the mean of the squared deviations from the mean and may be
computed using the formula below:

  Additional example::  
Using the data in example 2 in probability distribution, determine the expected value
and variance of this data and interpret the results.
   Solution:
               µ =  Ʃ[X P(X )]
j j

                  =  1(0.20) + 2(0.10) + 3(0.15) +4(0.25) + 5(0.30)

                  =  3.35 stocks
           σ   =  Ʃ[X - µ] P(Xj)]
2
j
2

                   =  (1 - 3.35) (.20) + (2 - 3.35) (0.10) + (3 - 3.35) (0.15) + 

2 2 2

(4 - 3.35) (0.25) + (5 - 3.35) (0.30)

2 2

                   =   2.23
Interpretation: 
       The brokers are assigned an average of 3.35 stocks to evaluate  and analyze. 
The variance of 2.23 carries the usual interpretation. 
Covariance measures the strength of the linear relationship between two discrete
random variables X and Y.
A positive value of covariance indicates a positive relationship while a negative value
indicates a negative or inverse relationship.  The formula is shown below:
Example:

Solution:
 Discrete Probability Distributions M6

Binomial distribution  
Binomial probability distribution is considered as one of the most useful
mathematical models applied in solving business problems.  This is usually used
when the discrete random variable being studied is the number of successes in a
sample of n trials. The following are the four important properties of a binomial
distribution:
  
        Poisson Distribution
       The Poisson is a discrete probability distribution named after a French mathematician
Siméon-Denis Poisson (1781 - 1840). This is usually used when one wants to measure
the probability of the number of events occurring within fixed space or time interval.The
occurrence of individual outcomes are assumed to be independent of each other. Some
of the random variables that make use of Poisson distribution are number of road
accidents per year at different locations in a country, number of children in different
families, number of persons visiting a given website across different days, and number
of cars stolen in the city each month. 

Hypergeometric Distribution
Hypergeometric distribution is attributed to Leonhard Euler, a famous
Mathematician born in Basel, Switzerland.
 If a sample is selected without replacement from a known population and contains a
relatively large proportion of the population, such that the probability of a success is
measurably altered from one selection to the next, the hypergeometric distribution
should be used. (Webster,1995)

The figure below compares the three types of discrete probability,  It shows how
discrete probability distribution differ from Poisson probability distribution and from
hypergeometric probability distribution.
Black, K. (2016). Business Statistics for Contemporary Decision Making. John Wiley & Sons.
 Below is the formula used to solve problems involving binomial distribution.  Take note
that the use of this formula is applicable to problems that satisfy the following
assumptions: 1 there must be only two possible outcomes (success or failure), 2 the
st nd

probability of success remains constant, and 3 the probability of success in one trial is
rd

totally independent of any other trial. 

Binomial Distribution Formula:

             
 where:   n  =  number of trials/observations
p  =  probability of success
1 - p  =  probability of failure
x   =  number of successes in the sample (x = 0, 1, 2, …, n)
        
In addition to the probability, sometimes we are ask to compute for the mean and
standard deviation.  Below are the formulas in binomial probability distribution:
Mean number of successes: 

Standard Deviation:

Illustrative Examples:
1.  Suppose that 80% of adults with allergies report symptomatic relief with a
specific medication. If the medication is given to 10 new patients with allergies,
A)  what is the probability that it is effective in exactly seven? B)  What is the
probability that none report relief?  C)  What is the mean and standard
deviation?
 
Solution:
First, let us check if the three assumptions are satisfied:
1. Outcome:  Relief from symptoms (yes or no), and here we will call a reported
relief from symptoms a 'success.'
2. The probability of success for each person is 0.8.
3. The final assumption is that the trials are independent, and it is reasonable to
assume that this is true.
Identifying the given data, n = 10; p = 0.80; 1 -p = 0.20;   x  =  7
Hence the probability of 7 successes is:

 
                                         =  0.2013

Interpretation: There is a 20.13% probability that exactly 7 of 10 patients will report

relief from symptoms when the probability that any one reports relief is 80%.

A. what is the probability that none report relief? We can again use the binomial
distribution model with n=10, x=0 and p=0.80.

                                          = 0.00

Interpretation: There is practically no chance that none of the 10 will report relief

from symptoms when the probability of reporting relief for any individual patient is
80%.

C)  What is the mean and standard deviation?

     Mean number of successes: 
                                                          
Standard Deviation: 
                               

Note: Binomial probabilities can also be computed in an Excel spreadsheet using the

=BINOMDIST function. Place the cursor into an empty cell and enter the following
formula:

=BINOMDIST(x,n,p,FALSE)

1.  The likelihood that a patient with a heart attack dies of the attack is
0.04 (i.e., 4 of 100 die of the attack). Suppose we have 5 patients who
suffer a heart attack, a) what is the probability that all will survive? b) 
what is the probability that no more than 1 person dies of the heart attack?
c)  what is the probability that 2 or more of 5 die from the attack? d)  what
is the mean and standard deviation? 

Solution:
a.  n =  5        
p  =  0.04 since the success here is the fatal attack
x  =  0  none are fatal
                                            =  .8154
Interpretation: There is an 81.54% probability that all patients will survive the
attack when the probability that any one dies is 4%. 

a.   P(no more than 1 success) = P(0 or 1 successes)   

                                                                                                       =  P(0 successes) +

P(1 success)
              We have already computed  P(0 successes), we now compute 

 
                                          =  0.1697
P(no more than 1 'success') = P(0 successes) + P(1 success)
                    = 0.8154 + 0.1697 = 0.9851.

The probability that no more than 1 of 5 die from the attack is 98.51%.

a.  P(2 or more successes) =  1  -  P(0 or 1 successes) 

                                =  1  -  0.9851
=   0.0149. 

There is a 1.49% probability that 2 or more of 5 will die from the attack.