UNIVERSE
Age of the Universe: 13.8 billion years old
Age of the Solar System: 4.6 million years old
Structure & Composition
• Baryonic Matter - 4.6%; “ordinary” matter consisting
of protons, electrons, and neutrons:atoms, planets,
stars, galaxies, nebulae, and other bodies
• Cold Dark Matter - 24% matter that has gravity but
does not emit light
• Dark Energy- 71.4%; a source of antigravity
Most Abundant Elements
• Hydrogen
• Helium
• Lithium
Stars
• the building block of galaxies born out of clouds of
gas and dust in galaxies
• Instabilities eventually results into gravitational
collapse, rotation, heating up and transformation to
a protostar.
Protostar - the core of a future star as thermonuclear
reactions set in.
Nucleosynthesis
• nuclear burning
• thermonuclear reaction
Organization of Matter
• Galaxy - is a cluster of billions of stars
• Superclusters - formed by clusters of galaxies
• Empty Space - in between the clusters
• Homogeneous and Isotropic - large scale
Size
• The diameter of the universe is possibly infinite but
should be at least 91 billion light-years
• 1 light-year = 9.4607 × 1012 km
• Its density is 4.5 x 10-31 g/cm3
REDSHIFT
• 1929, Edwin Hubble
• spectral lines of starlight made to pass through a
prism are shifted toward the
• red part of the electromagnetic spectrum, (band of
lower frequency)
• star or galaxy must be moving away from us.
Cosmic Microwave Background
• 1964 by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson
• It can be observed as a strikingly uniform faint glow
in the microwave band coming from all directions-
blackbody radiation with an average temperature of
about 2.7 degrees above absolute zero.
Origin of the Universe
Non-scientific Thought
• Ancient Egyptians - world arose from an infinite sea at
the first rising of the sun.
• The Kuba people of Central Africa tell the story of a
creator god Mbombo (or Bumba) who, alone in a dark
and water-covered Earth, felt an intense stomach pain
and then vomited the stars, sun, and moon.
• In India, Purusha, the primal man whose head, feet,
eyes, and mind became the sky, earth, sun, and moon
respectively.
• The monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and
Islam claim that a supreme being created the universe
Steady State Model
• 1948 by Bondi and Gould and by Hoyle.
• It maintains that new matter is created as the
universe expands thereby maintaining its density.
MILKY WAY GALAXY
• Milky Way galaxy - a huge disc and spiral-shaped
aggregation of about at least 100 billion stars and
other bodies.
• Its spiral arms rotate around a globular cluster or
bulge of many, many stars, at the center of which
lies a supermassive blackhole;
• This galaxy is about 100 million light years across (1
light year = 9.4607 × 1012)
• The solar system revolves around the galactic center
once in about 240 million years;
• The Milky Way is part of the so-called Local Group of
galaxies, which in turn is part of the Virgo
supercluster of galaxies;
• Based on the assumption that they are remnants of
the materials from which they were formed,
radioactive dating of meteorites, suggests that the
Earth and solar system are 4.6 billion years old.
LARGE SCALE FEATURES
• mass of the Solar System is concentrated at the
center (Sun)
• angular momentum is held by the outer planets
• Orbits of the planets are elliptical and are on the
same plane.
• periods of revolution of the planets increase with
increasing distance from the Sun; the innermost
planet moves fastest, the outermost, the slowest;
SMALL SCALE FEATURES
• Most of the planets rotate prograde (proceeding
from west to east)
• Inner Terrestrial Planets
• are made of materials with high melting
points such as silicates, iron and nickel.
• they rotate slower,
• have thin or no atmosphere,
• higher densities, and
• lower contents of volatiles - hydrogen,
helium, and noble gases.
• Outer Four Planets -
• Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are
called "gas giants" because of the
dominance of gases and their larger size.
• they rotate faster
• have thick atmosphere
• lower densities
• fluid interiors rich in hydrogen, helium and
ices (water, ammonia, methane).
•
HYPOTHESIS ON THE ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM • Due to collisions, fragments of dust and solid matter
1. Encounter Hypotheses begin sticking to each other to form larger and larger
• a rougue star passed close to the Sun about 5 billion bodies from meter to kilometer in size.
years ago. • High-speed collisions with large objects destroys
• Material is tidally stripped from the Sun and the much of the mantle of Mercury, puts Venus in
rogue star. retrograde rotation.
• This material fragments fromed smaller lumps which
became the planets
• worlds.
• This hypothesis has the advantage of explaining why
the planets all revolve in the same direction.
• It also provides an xplanation for why the inner
worlds are denser than the outer

•
2. Nebular Hypotheses – proposed in 1700s by Emanuel
Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre-Simon Laplace.
• There is rotating gaseous cloud that cools and
contracts in the middle to form the sun and the rest
into a disc that become the planets.
• It failed to account for the distribution of angular
momentum in the solar system.
•

3.Protoplanet Hypotheses
• About 4.6 billion years ago, in the Orion arm of the
Milky Way galaxy, a slowly-rotating gas and dust
cloud dominated by hydrogen and helium starts to
contract due to gravity
• As most of the mass move to the center to
eventually become a proto-Sun, the remaining
materials form a disc that will eventually become the
planets and momentum is transferred outwards.
SOIL
• is an essential component of Earth that has enabled
to exist on the planet and continues to support it
PEDOSPHERE - the foundation of terrestrial life on this planet.
• it is the living skin of the earth which is a result of the
dynamic intereaction among the other subsystems
it came from the Greek word pedon which means soil and
sfaira means sphere
COMPONENTS OF SOIL
FIVE FACTORS THAT AFFECT SOIL FORMATION
1. PARENT MATERIAL - chemistry and type
- RESIDUAL SOIL are soils formed on site through the
weathering of the underlying rock
2. CLIMATE - temperature, rainfall and moisture
- types of organisms, biological activity and rates of chemical
reactions
3. TOPOGRAPHY - gradient of the slope affects water flow
and erosion
4. BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
5. TIME - it takes 200 to 400 years to develop 1cm of soil
- the rate is faster in tropical climate and much longer in dry
and cold climates
SOIL TEXTURE
 is the relative proportions of the particle sizes in the
soil
 it is naturally composed of a mixture of sand, silt and
clayan daffected by porosity and water retention
 CLAY - < 0.002mm
 SILT - 0.002mm - 0.005mm
 SAND - 0.005mm - 2.00mm
 GRAVEL - particles larger than coarsed grain sand
 ROCK - > 75.00mm
 LOAM - the ideal soil for agriculture because it
provides good aeration and drainage properties of
large particles with nutrient- retention and water-
holding abilities of clay particles
SOIL PROFILE
 the sequence of soil horizons from the surface down
to the underlying bedrock
DIFFERENT SOIL HORIZONS
1. SURFACE HORIZON (A) - composed of mineral
matter mixed with some dark organic humus
2. SUBSOIL (B) - is the accummulated clay and other
nutrients from the layer above
3. SUBSTRATUM (C) - composed of partially altered
parent material
 ORGANIC HORIZON (O) - on the surface, composed
of loose or partly decayed organic matter
 E HORIZON - loss of mineral (eluviation) and leaching
 HARD BEDROCK (R) is not soil
 REGOLITH - layer of loose, heterogenous and
superficial covering the bedrock

IMPORTANCE OF SOIL
1. Arable Land(Agriculture) -
- “arabilis”able to be plowed
- 41.7% gricultural land in the Phil.
2. Regulating water and filtering potential pollutant.
3. Nutrient cycling
4. Foundation and support
5. Mineral deposits
HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT DEGRADES THE
SOIL QUALITY
1. Soil erosion
2. Soil compaction
3. Desertification
4. Intensive agriculture
5. Urbanization
CONSERVATION OF SOIL RESOURCES
1. Increasing soil organic matter
2. keeping the soil covered and vegetated
3. avoiding excessive tillage
4. managing pests and nutrient efficiently
5. promoting crop rotation
6. reducing erosion and preventing soil compaction
Wastes are generated on a regular basis. Many human
activities involve the production of wastes. They could come
from different sources such as mining sites, households,
commercial establishments, and institutes.
Different Types of Wastes
1. Solid Wastes
Solid wastes are considered as the most common and most
abundant type of wastes. They may be in the form of food
refuse, paper, plastics, wood, ashes, rubber, and metals. They
are generated from different human activities.
Examples
 Disposal of excess food causes the generation of
food refuse. Surprisingly, it constitutes a large
percentage of solid wastes even if there is a global
problem on hunger.
 Paper wastes come from businesses and homes as
well. As a person uses more paper, more wastes are
generated.
 A newspaper can be useful for a day but is usually
disposed of when out of date.
 When a person consumes pre-packaged products,
solid wastes are generated. The excess packaging of
products, such as food, electronics, and furniture,
contribute to the great amount of paper and plastic
wastes.
 Constructions of different structures also contribute
to other types of solid wastes such as wood, cement,
rubbers, metals, and ashes.
2. Liquid Wastes
Liquid wastes usually come in the forms of wastewater, fats,
oil and grease, household fluids, and mechanical oil. They
are regularly generated because of constant human activities.
More waste water is generated as people use excess water in
activities such as household and industrial cleaning, watering
of plants, and feeding animals.
Examples
 Cooking using oils and lard contribute to liquid waste
production.
 Bleaches, liquid detergents, and insecticides that are
disposed of in drains are also liquid wastes.
 Disposed mechanical oils from car repair shops and
car manufacturing sites also contribute to liquid
wastes.
3. Gaseous Wastes
Carbon oxides, nitrogen oxides, methane, sulfur oxides,
and aerosols are the most common type of gaseous wastes.
They are usually produced through combustion of different
materials. Many of the materials we use are produced in
facilities that emit these gaseous wastes.
Examples
 A person’s use of materials such as plastics and
metals indirectly contribute to the increase of
gaseous wastes in the atmosphere.
 Improper garbage disposal of households, industries,
and commercial institutions promotes methane
production.
 Use of hairsprays and aerosols at home add to the
gaseous wastes in the atmosphere.
 Garbage incineration produces harmful carbon
oxides.
 Automobile usage is one of the major sources of
carbon monoxide wastes.
 Using electricity has a part in generating gaseous
wastes due to the fossil fuels used in the production
of power.
Waste Reduction
Reduction of wastes is the most effective means of managing
waste generation around the world. It results to fewer wastes
and decreases the chance of causing harm to the
environment and the health of the people.
The three R’s namely, reduce, reuse, and recycle, are some of
the ways of reducing wastes. The best way is to reduce the
amount of waste by not using unnecessary materials. Reusing
and recycling materials such as papers, plastics, and glasses
can also minimize the amount of waste that will be disposed.
Reduction of Waste at Home
The waste reduction must begin at home. When a member of
a household is properly educated on waste reduction, one
can apply what was learned in different times and situations.
 Buy items that have less packaging. It is better to buy
items in bulk because retailed items have more
packaging.
 Plan home meals. Having an estimate of the amount
of needed food results in fewer food scraps.
 Lessen paper wastes at home. Use both sides of
paper when writing or printing. Reuse paper as
wrappers or paper bags.
 Invest in high-quality and durable products. It is
cheaper and less wasteful to use high-quality
products in the long run than constantly buying
cheap and unreliable products.
 Invest in reusable diapers, grocery bags, and food
containers. Using reusable items minimize the
wastes from their disposable counterparts.
 Minimize car usage. Family members may be
dropped off by one car instead of using multiple cars.
Less gaseous wastes will be generated when doing
carpools.
Reduction of Wastes in School
Schools can aid in the reduction of wastes by being exemplary
educators and provide support in practicing waste reduction.
 Use reusable utensils in the school canteen instead
of disposable ones.
 Bury the biological wastes from the school canteen
in a compost instead of sending them to landfills.
 Donate or sell unwanted books from the library.
 Use recycled materials for school projects and props
for school events.
 Use digital media, if possible, instead of paper
media.
 Use both sides of paper for notices and school
documents.
 Intensify the information campaign in school
regarding the reduction of wastes.
Reduction of Wastes in the Community
The waste reduction must become a culture of the
community. This practice would aid in the management of
wastes in the community. If efforts are sufficient, the amount
of wastes generated would be minimal.
 Follow the ordinances about waste reduction and
management.
 Segregate the generated wastes. Bury biodegradable
wastes in compost. Send the recyclable materials to
the community’s recovery facility.
 Use public transportation systems more often than
private vehicles. Mass transportation will lessen
carbon emissions from automobiles.
 Avoid incineration of wastes to prevent generation
of poisonous gaseous wastes.
 Help in disseminating information about waste
reduction and management.
Why should wastes be reduced?
Reduction of wastes prevents depletion of natural resources
and destruction of the environment. For example, when less
paper is needed and used, a fewer number of trees have to
be cut and deforestation is prevented.
Waste reduction also lessens the negative effects of wastes
on human health. For instance, flood, which increases the
transmission of water-borne diseases such as typhoid fever
and leptospirosis, can be prevented when solid wastes that
clog waterways are minimized.